Kuttler LinearAlgebra Slides Matrices MatrixArithmetic Handout

A FIRST COURSE
IN LINEAR ALGEBRA
An Open Text by Ken Kuttler
Matrix Arithmetic
Lecture Notes by Karen Seyarth
Adapted by
LYRYX SERVICE COURSE SOLUTION
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Matrix Arithmetic Page 1/78
Matrices
Matrix Arithmetic Matrices Page 2/78
Matrices - Basic Denitions and Notation
Denitions
Let m and n be positive integers.
An mn matrix is a rectangular array of numbers having m rows and
n columns. Such a matrix is said to have size m n.
A square matrix is an m m matrix.
The (i , j )-entry of a matrix is the entry in row i and column j . For a
matrix A, the (i , j )-entry of A can also be written A
ij
.
General notation for an m n matrix, A:
A =
_
_
A
11
A
12
A
13
. . . A
1n
A
21
A
22
A
23
. . . A
2n
A
31
A
32
A
33
. . . A
3n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
A
m1
A
m2
A
m3
. . . A
mn
_
_
= [A
ij
]
Matrices - Properties and Operations
1
Equality: two matrices are equal if and only if they have the same
size and the corresponding entries are equal.
2
Zero Matrix: an m n matrix with all entries equal to zero.
3
Addition: matrices must have the same size; add corresponding
entries.
4
Scalar Multiplication: multiply each entry of the matrix by the
scalar.
5
Negative of a Matrix: for an m n matrix A, its negative is
denoted A and A = (1)A.
6
Subtraction: for m n matrices A and B, A B = A + (1)B.
Properties of Matrix Addition
Theorem
Let A, B and C be matrices of the same size. Then, the following
properties hold.
A + B = B + A
(A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
There exists a zero matrix 0 such that A + 0 = A
There exists a matrix A such that A + (A) = 0
Properties of Scalar Multiplication
Theorem
Let A, B be matrices of the same size, and k, p be scalars. Then, the
following properties hold.
k (A + B) = kA + kB
(k + p) A = kA + pA
k (pA) = (kp) A
1A = A
Matrix Multiplication
Matrix Arithmetic Matrix Multiplication Page 7/78
Vectors
A row matrix (or row) is a 1 n matrix, and a column matrix (or column)
is an m 1 matrix.
Matrices of size m 1 or 1 n are often referred to as vectors.
Specically, an m 1 matrix is a column vector. For example
_
_
1
1
0
3
_
_
A 1 n matrix is a row vector. For example
_
6 5 1

Vector Form of a Linear System
Denition
Suppose we have a system of equations given by
a
11
x
1
+ + a
1n
x
n
= b
1
.
.
.
a
m1
x
1
+ + a
mn
x
n
= b
m
We can express this system in vector form as follows:
x
1
_
_
a
11
a
21

a
m1
_
_
+ x
2
_
_
a
12
a
22
.
.
.
a
m2
_
_
+ + x
n
_
_
a
1n
a
2n
.
.
.
a
mn
_
_
=
_
_
b
1
b
2
.
.
.
b
m
_
_
Vector Form of a Linear System
Example
Write the following linear system in vector form.
2x
1
+ 4x
2
3x
3
= 6
x
2
+ 5x
3
= 0
x
1
+ x
2
+ 4x
3
= 1
Solution:
x
1
_
_
2
0
1
_
_
+ x
2
_
_
4
1
1
_
_
+ x
3
_
_
3
5
4
_
_
=
_
_
6
0
1
_
_
Vector Times a Matrix
Denition
Let A = [A
ij
] be an m n matrix and let X be an n 1 matrix with
A = [A
1
A
n
] , X =
_
_
X
1
.
.
.
X
n
_
_
Then AX is the m 1 column vector given by
X
1
A
1
+ X
2
A
2
+ + X
n
A
n
=
n
j =1
X
j
A
j
Vector Times a Matrix
Example
Compute the product AX for
A =
_
1 4
5 0
_
, X =
_
2
3
_
Solution:
AX = 2
_
1
5
_
+ 3
_
4
0
_
=
_
2
10
_
+
_
12
0
_
=
_
14
10
_
Matrix Form of a Linear System
Denition
Suppose we have a system of equations given by
a
11
x
1
+ + a
1n
x
n
= b
1
.
.
.
a
m1
x
1
+ + a
mn
x
n
= b
m
Then we can express this system in matrix form as follows.
_
_
a
11
a
12
a
1n
a
21
a
22
a
2n
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
m1
a
m2
a
mn
_
_
_
_
x
1
x
2
.
.
.
x
n
_
_
=
_
_
b
1
b
2
.
.
.
b
m
_
_
This means that a system of equations can be written as the matrix
equation
AX = B.
Matrix Form of a Linear System
Example
Write the following linear system in matrix form.
2x
1
+ 4x
2
3x
3
= 6
x
2
+ 5x
3
= 0
x
1
+ x
2
+ 4x
3
= 1
Solution:
_
_
2 4 3
0 1 5
1 1 4
_
_
_
_
x
1
x
2
x
3
_
_
=
_
_
6
0
1
_
_
The Form AX=B
Theorem
Every system of linear equations can be written as AX = B.
The system has a solution if and only if B is a linear combination of
the columns of A.
The vector X =
_
x
1
x
2
. . . x
n
T
gives the solution to the
system AX = B if and only if x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
are a solution to the
vector equation
x
1
A
1
+ x
2
A
2
+ x
n
A
n
= B,
where A
i
are the columns of A.
The Form AX=B
Example
Let
A =
_
_
1 0 2 1
2 1 0 1
3 1 3 1
_
_
Can B =
_
_
1
1
1
_
_
be expressed as a linear combination of the columns of
A? If so, nd a linear combination that does so.
Solution: Solve the system AX = B for X =
_
x
1
x
2
x
3
x
4
T
.
Example (continued)
To do this, put the augmented matrix
_
A B
in reduced row-echelon
form.
_
_
1 0 2 1 1
2 1 0 1 1
3 1 3 1 1
_
_

_
_
1 0 0 1
1
7
0 1 0 1
5
7
0 0 1 1
3
7
_
_
Since there are innitely many solutions, simply choose a value for x
4
.
Taking x
4
= 0 gives us
_
_
1
1
1
_
_
=
1
7
_
_
1
2
3
_
_
5
7
_
_
0
1
1
_
_
+
3
7
_
_
2
0
3
_
_
This linear combination can be written as
B =
1
7
A
1
5
7
A
2
+
3
7
A
3
+ 0A
4
Matrix Multiplication
Denition
Let A be an m n matrix and let B be an n p matrix of the form
B = [B
1
B
p
]
where B
1
, ..., B
p
are the n 1 columns of B. Then AB is dened as
follows:
AB = A[B
1
B
p
] = [AB
1
AB
p
]
Note that AB has size m p.
Example
Find the product AB for the matrices
A =
_
1 0 3
2 1 1
_
and B =
_
_
1 1 2
0 2 4
1 0 0
_
_
Solution: AB has columns
AB
1
=
_
1 0 3
2 1 1
_
_
_
1
0
1
_
_
, AB
2
=
_
1 0 3
2 1 1
_
_
_
1
2
0
_
_
,
and AB
3
=
_
1 0 3
2 1 1
_
_
_
2
4
0
_
_
Thus, AB =
_
4 1 2
1 4 0
_
.
Multiplication by the Zero Matrix
Example
Compute the product A0 for the matrix
A =
_
1 2
3 4
_
and the 2 2 zero matrix given by
0 =
_
0 0
0 0
_
Solution: In this product, we compute
_
1 2
3 4
_ _
0 0
0 0
_
=
_
0 0
0 0
_
Hence, A0 = 0.
The Entry of a Product
Denition
Let A be an mn matrix and B an n p matrix. Then the (i , j )-entry of
AB is given by
A
i 1
B
1j
+ A
i 2
B
2j
+ + A
in
B
nj
=
n
k=1
A
ik
B
kj
= AB
ij
Example (revisited)
Use the above denition to compute the (1, 2)-entry of the product
_
1 0 3
2 1 1
_
_
_
1 1 2
0 2 4
1 0 0
_
_
Solution: AB
12
= (1)(1) + (0)(2) + (3)(0) = 1
Properties of Matrix Multiplication
Matrix Arithmetic Properties of Matrix Multiplication Page 22/78
Compatibility for Matrix Multiplication
Denition
Let A and B be matrices, such that A is an m n matrix.
In order for the product AB to exist, the number of rows in B must
be equal to the number of columns in A.
AB is dened if and only if B is an n p matrix for some p.
When dened, AB is an m p matrix.
If the product is dened, then A and B are said to be compatible for
(matrix) multiplication.
Example (revisited)
As we saw earlier,
23
_
1 0 3
2 1 1
_
33
_
_
1 1 2
0 2 4
1 0 0
_
_
=
23
_
4 1 2
1 4 0
_
Note that the product
33
_
_
1 1 2
0 2 4
1 0 0
_
_
23
_
1 0 3
2 1 1
_
does not exist.
Example
Let
A =
_
_
1 2
3 0
1 4
_
_
and B =
_
1 1 2 0
3 2 1 3
_
Does AB exist? If so, compute it.
Does BA exist? If so, compute it.
AB =
_
_
7 5 4 6
3 3 6 0
11 7 2 12
_
_
BA does not exist
Example
Let
G =
_
1
1
_
and H =
_
1 0
Does GH exist? If so, compute it.

Does HG exist? If so, compute it.
GH =
_
1 0
1 0
_
HG =
_
1
In this example, GH and HG both exist, but they are not equal. They
arent even the same size!
Example
Let
P =
_
1 0
2 1
_
and Q =
_
1 1
0 3
_
Does PQ exist? If so, compute it.
Does QP exist? If so, compute it.
PQ =
_
1 1
2 1
_
QP =
_
1 1
6 3
_
In this example, PQ and QP both exist and are the same size, but
PQ = QP.
Fact
The four previous examples illustrate an important property of matrix
multiplication.
In general, matrix multiplication is not commutative, i.e., the
order of the matrices in the product is important.
In other words, in general AB = BA.
Example
Let
U =
_
2 0
0 2
_
and V =
_
1 2
3 4
_
Does UV exist? If so, compute it.
Does VU exist? If so, compute it.
UV =
_
2 4
6 8
_
VU =
_
2 4
6 8
_
In this particular example, the matrices commute, i.e., UV = VU.
Properties of Matrix Multiplication
Theorem
The following hold for matrices A, B, and C and for scalars r and s,
A(rB + sC) = r (AB) + s (AC)
(B + C) A = BA + CA
A(BC) = (AB) C
Notice that this applies for Matrix-Vector multiplication as well, since we
can consider a vector as an n 1 or 1 m matrix.
Elementary Proofs
Example
Let A and B be mn matrices, and let C be an n p matrix. Prove that
if A and B commute with C, then A + B commutes with C.
Proof.
We are given that AC = CA and BC = CB. Consider (A + B)C.
(A + B)C = AC + BC
= CA + CB
= C(A + B)
Since (A + B)C = C(A + B), A + B commutes with C.
The Transpose of a Matrix
Matrix Arithmetic Transpose of a Matrix Page 32/78
Matrix Transposition
Denition
If A is an m n matrix, then its transpose, denoted A
T
, is the n m
matrix given by
A
T
= [A
ij
]
T
= [A
ji
]
Theorem (Properties of the Transpose of a Matrix)
Let A be an m n matrix and let B be a n p matrix. Then
(AB)
T
= B
T
A
T
If r and s are scalars,
(rA + sB)
T
= rA
T
+ sB
T
Symmetric Matrices
Denition
Let A = [A
ij
] be an m n matrix. The entries A
11
, A
22
, A
33
, . . . are called
the main diagonal of A.
Denition
The matrix A is called symmetric if and only if A
T
= A. Note that this
immediately implies that A is a square matrix.
Examples
_
2 3
3 17
_
,
_
_
1 0 5
0 2 11
5 11 3
_
_
,
_
_
0 2 5 1
2 1 3 0
5 3 2 7
1 0 7 4
_
_
are symmetric matrices, and each is symmetric about its main diagonal.
Example
Show that if A and B are symmetric matrices, then A
T
+2B is symmetric.
Proof.
(A
T
+ 2B)
T
= (A
T
)
T
+ (2B)
T
= A + 2B
T
= A
T
+ 2B, since A
T
= A and B
T
= B.
Since (A
T
+ 2B)
T
= A
T
+ 2B, A
T
+ 2B is symmetric.
Skew Symmetric Matrices
Denition
An n n matrix A is said to be skew symmetric if A
T
= A.
Example
Let
A =
_
_
0 9 4
9 0 3
4 3 0
_
_
Show that A is skew symmetric.
Solution: A
T
is given by
_
_
0 9 4
9 0 3
4 3 0
_
_
Notice that A
T
= A so A is skew symmetric.
The Identity Matrix and the Inverse of a Matrix
Matrix Arithmetic The Identity and Inverses Page 37/78
The Identity Matrix
Denition
The n n identity matrix, denoted I
n
is the matrix having ones on its main
diagonal and zeros elsewhere, and is dened for all n 2.
Denition
Let n 2. For each j , 1 j n, we denote by E
j
the j
th
column of I
n
.
Theorem
Suppose A is an m n matrix and I
n
is the n n identity matrix. Then
AI
n
= A. If I
m
is the m m identity matrix, it also follows that I
m
A = A.
The Inverse of a Matrix
Denition
Let A be an n n matrix. Then B is an inverse of A if and only if
AB = I
n
and BA = I
n
.
Note that since A and I
n
are both n n, B must also be an n n matrix.
Example
Let A =
_
1 2
3 4
_
and B =
_
2 1
3
2

1
2
_
. Then
AB =
_
1 0
0 1
_
and
BA =
_
1 0
0 1
_
so B is an inverse of A.
Not every square matrix has an inverse.
Example
A =
_
0 1
0 1
_
has no inverse.
Why?
Uniqueness of Inverse
Theorem
Suppose A is an n n matrix such that an inverse A
1
exists. Then there
is only one such inverse matrix. That is, given any matrix B such that
AB = BA = I , B = A
1
.
Example (revisited)
For A =
_
1 2
3 4
_
and B =
_
2 1
3
2

1
2
_
, we saw that
AB =
_
1 0
0 1
_
and
BA =
_
1 0
0 1
_
We said that B is an inverse of A. Now we can call B the inverse of A.
Invertible Matrix
Denitions
Let A be a square matrix, i.e., an n n matrix.
The inverse of A, if it exists, is denoted A
1
, and
AA
1
= I = A
1
A.
If A has an inverse, then we say that A is invertible.
Finding the Inverse
Matrix Arithmetic Finding the Inverse Page 43/78
Finding the Inverse
Problem
Suppose that A is any n n matrix.
How do we know whether or not A
1
exists?
If A
1
exists, how do we nd it?
Answer: The Matrix Inverse Algorithm!
The Matrix Inverse Algorithm
Example
Let
A =
_
2 7
5 18
_
Find the inverse of A, if it exists.
Solution: Begin with a matrix obtained from A by augmenting A with the
2 2 identity matrix. We write this as
_
A I
=
_
2 7 1 0
5 18 0 1
_
Then perform elementary row operations on this matrix until the left half
of the matrix is transformed into I
2
.
Example (continued)
_
2 7 1 0
5 18 0 1
_
_
1
7
2
1
2
0
5 18 0 1
_
_
_
1
7
2
1
2
0
0
1
2

5
2
1
_
_
_
1
7
2
1
2
0
0 1 5 2
_
_
1 0 18 7
0 1 5 2
_
Example (continued)
We have successfully transformed the left-hand side of
_
A I
into I
using elementary row operations, and thus
_
A I
_
I A
1

Therefore A
1
exists, and
A
1
=
_
18 7
5 2
_
You can verify this by calculating AA
1
and A
1
A.
Theorem
Suppose A is an n n matrix. To nd A
1
if it exists, form the
augmented n 2n matrix
[A|I ]
If possible do row operations until you obtain an n 2n matrix of the form
[I |B]
When this has been done, B = A
1
. In this case, we say that A is
invertible. If it is impossible to row reduce to a matrix of the form [I |B] ,
then A has no inverse.
Example
Find, if possible, the inverse of
_
_
1 0 1
2 1 3
1 1 2
_
_
.
Using the matrix inversion algorithm
_
_
1 0 1 1 0 0
2 1 3 0 1 0
1 1 2 0 0 1
_
_
_
_
1 0 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 2 1 0
0 1 1 1 0 1
_
_
_
_
1 0 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 2 1 0
0 0 0 1 1 1
_
_
From this, we see that A has no inverse.
Systems of Linear Equations and Inverses
Suppose that a system of n linear equations in n variables is written in
matrix form as AX = B, and suppose that A is invertible.
Example
The system of linear equations
2x 7y = 3
5x 18y = 8
can be written in matrix form as AX = B:
_
2 7
5 18
_ _
x
y
_
=
_
3
8
_
Note that in this example, A is invertible.
How do we know this?
Systems of Linear Equations and Inverses
Since A is invertible, A
1
exists and has the property that
AA
1
= I = A
1
A, and thus
AX = B
A
1
(AX) = A
1
B
(A
1
A)X = A
1
B
IX = A
1
B
X = A
1
B,
i.e., AX = B has the unique solution given by X = A
1
B. This gives us
another way to solve linear systems!
Properties of the Inverse
Matrix Arithmetic Properties of the Inverse Page 52/78
The Inverse of the Transpose and a Product
Theorem
Let A and B be invertible matrices. Then,
1
(A
T
)
1
= (A
1
)
T
2
If A and B are n n, then (AB)
1
= B
1
A
1
Note that if A
1
, A
2
, . . . , A
k
are invertible n n matrices, the product
A
1
A
2
A
k
is also invertible, and (A
1
A
2
A
k
)
1
= A
1
k
A
1
k1
A
1
2
A
1
1
.
The Inverse of the Transpose and a Product
Proof:
1
Suppose A is an invertible matrix. Then
A
T
(A
1
)
T
= (A
1
A)
T
= I
T
= I ,
and
(A
1
)
T
A
T
= (AA
1
)
T
= I
T
= I .
This means that (A
T
)
1
= (A
1
)
T
.
2
Suppose A and B are invertible n n matrices. Then
(AB)(B
1
A
1
) = A(BB
1
)A
1
= AIA
1
= AA
1
= I ,
and
(B
1
A
1
)(AB) = B
1
(A
1
A)B = B
1
IB = B
1
B = I .
This means that (AB)
1
= B
1
A
1
.
Properties of Inverses
Theorem
Suppose A is an n n matrix.
1
I is invertible, and I
1
= I .
2
If A is invertible, so is A
1
, and (A
1
)
1
= A.
3
If A is invertible, so is A
k
, and (A
k
)
1
= (A
1
)
k
.
4
If A is invertible and p R is nonzero, then pA is invertible, and
(pA)
1
=
1
p
A
1
.
Example
Find A if (3I A
T
)
1
= 2
_
1 1
2 3
_
.
3I A
T
=
_
2
_
1 1
2 3
__
1
=
1
2
_
1 1
2 3
_
1
=
1
2
_
3 1
2 1
_
=
_
3
2

1
2
1
1
2
_
Example (continued)
3I A
T
=
_
3
2

1
2
1
1
2
_
A
T
=
_
3
2

1
2
1
1
2
_
3I
A
T
=
_
3
2

1
2
1
1
2
_
_
3 0
0 3
_
A
T
=
_

3
2

1
2
1
5
2
_
A =
_
3
2
1
1
2
5
2
_
Theorem
Let A be an n n matrix; X and B are n 1 vectors. The following
conditions are equivalent.
1
A is invertible.
2
AX = 0 has only the trivial solution, X = 0.
3
A can be transformed to I
n
by elementary row operations.
4
The system AX = B has at least one solution X for any choice of B.
5
There exists an n n matrix C with the property that AC = I
n
.
Elementary Matrices
Matrix Arithmetic Elementary Matrices Page 59/78
Elementary Matrices
Denition
An elementary matrix is a matrix obtained from an identity matrix by
performing a single elementary row operation.
The type of an elementary matrix is given by the type of row operation
used to obtain the elementary matrix. Recall the types of row operations.
Elementary Row Operations:
Type I: Interchange two rows.
Type II: Multiply a row by a nonzero number.
Type III: Add a (nonzero) multiple of one row to a dierent row.
Elementary Matrices
Example
E =
_
_
1 0 0 0
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
_
_
, F =
_
_
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 2 0
0 0 0 1
_
_
, G =
_
_
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
3 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
_
_
,
are examples of elementary matrices of types I, II and III, respectively.
Let A =
_
_
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
_
_
; compute EA, FA, and GA.
Elementary Matrices
Example (continued)
EA =
_
_
1 0 0 0
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
_
_
_
_
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
_
_
=
_
_
1 1
4 4
3 3
2 2
_
_
FA =
_
_
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 2 0
0 0 0 1
_
_
_
_
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
_
_
=
_
_
1 1
2 2
6 6
4 4
_
_
GA =
_
_
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
3 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
_
_
_
_
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
_
_
=
_
_
1 1
2 2
0 0
4 4
_
_
Multiplication by an Elementary Matrix
Theorem
To perform any of the three row operations on a matrix A it suces to
take the product EA, where E is the elementary matrix obtained by using
the desired row operation on the identity matrix.
Example
Let A =
_
4 1
1 3
_
and C =
_
1 3
2 5
_
. Find elementary matrices E and
F so that C = FEA.
Note. The statement of the problem tells you that C can be obtained
from A by a sequence of two elementary row operations, represented by
elementary matrices E and F.
A =
_
4 1
1 3
_

E
_
1 3
4 1
_

F
_
1 3
2 5
_
= C
E =
_
0 1
1 0
_
and F =
_
1 0
2 1
_
Therefore
_
1 3
2 5
_
=
_
1 0
2 1
_ _
0 1
1 0
_ _
4 1
1 3
_
.
You can check your work by doing the matrix multiplication.
Inverses of Elementary Matrices
Example
Without using the matrix inversion algorithm, what is the inverse of the
elementary matrix
G =
_
_
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
3 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
_
_
?
Hint. What row operation can be applied to G to transform it to I
4
?
The row operation G I
4
is to add three times row one to row three,
and thus
G
1
=
_
_
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
3 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
_
_
Check by computing G
1
G.
Inverses of Elementary Matrices
Example (continued)
Similarly,
E
1
=
_
_
1 0 0 0
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
_
_
1
=
_
_
1 0 0 0
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
_
_
and
F
1
=
_
_
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 2 0
0 0 0 1
_
_
1
=
_
_
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0
1
2
0
0 0 0 1
_
_
The Form B = UA
Suppose A is an m n matrix and that B can be obtained from A by a
sequence of k elementary row operations. Then there exist elementary
matrices E
1
, E
2
, . . . E
k
such that
B = E
k
(E
k1
( (E
2
(E
1
A)) ))
Since matrix multiplication is associative, we have
B = (E
k
E
k1
E
2
E
1
)A
or, more concisely, B = UA where U = E
k
E
k1
E
2
E
1
.
To nd U so that B = UA, we could nd E
1
, E
2
, . . . , E
k
and multiply these
together (in the correct order), but there is an easier method for nding U.
Denition
Let A be an m n matrix. We write
A B
if B can be obtained from A by a sequence of elementary row operations.
Theorem
Suppose A is an m n matrix and that A B. Then, construct the
matrix
_
A I
m
and row reduce to the form

_
B U
.
It follows that B = UA where U is m m. Further, U = E
k
E
k1
E
2
E
1
,
where E
1
, E
2
, . . . , E
k
are elementary matrices which represent, in order, the
elementary row operations used to carry A to B.
Example
Let A =
_
3 0 1
2 1 0
_
, and let R be the reduced row-echelon form of A.
Find a matrix U so that R = UA.
Solution.
_
3 0 1 1 0
2 1 0 0 1
_
_
1 1 1 1 1
2 1 0 0 1
_
_
1 1 1 1 1
0 3 2 2 3
_
_
1 1 1 1 1
0 1
2
3
2
3
1
_
_
1 0
1
3
1
3
0
0 1
2
3
2
3
1
_
Starting with
_
A I
, weve obtained
_
R U
.
Therefore R = UA, where
U =
_
1
3
0
2
3
1
_
.
Express a Matrix as a Product of Elementary Matrices
Example
Let A =
_
_
1 2 4
3 6 13
0 1 2
_
_
. Do row operations to put A in reduced
row-echelon form, and write down the corresponding elementary matrices.
_
_
1 2 4
3 6 13
0 1 2
_
_

E
1
_
_
1 2 4
0 0 1
0 1 2
_
_

E
2
_
_
1 2 4
0 1 2
0 0 1
_
_

E
3
_
_
1 2 4
0 1 2
0 0 1
_
_

E
4
_
_
1 0 0
0 1 2
0 0 1
_
_

E
5
_
_
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
_
_
Notice that the reduced row-echelon form of A equals I
3
. Now nd the
matrices E
1
, E
2
, E
3
, E
4
and E
5
.
Example
E
1
=
_
_
1 0 0
3 1 0
0 0 1
_
_
, E
2
=
_
_
1 0 0
0 0 1
0 1 0
_
_
, E
3
=
_
_
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
_
_
E
4
=
_
_
1 2 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
_
_
, E
5
=
_
_
1 0 0
0 1 2
0 0 1
_
_
It follows that
(E
5
(E
4
(E
3
(E
2
(E
1
A))))) = I
(E
5
E
4
E
3
E
2
E
1
)A = I
and therefore
A
1
= E
5
E
4
E
3
E
2
E
1
.
Example (continued)
Since A
1
= E
5
E
4
E
3
E
2
E
1
,
A
1
= E
5
E
4
E
3
E
2
E
1
(A
1
)
1
= (E
5
E
4
E
3
E
2
E
1
)
1
A = E
1
1
E
1
2
E
1
3
E
1
4
E
1
5
.
This example illustrates the following result.
Theorem
Let A be an n n matrix. Then, A
1
exists if and only if A can be written
as the product of elementary matrices.
Express a Matrix as a Product of Elementary Matrices
Example
Express A =
_
4 1
3 2
_
as a product of elementary matrices.
_
4 1
3 2
_

E
1
_
1 3
3 2
_

E
2
_
1 3
0 11
_

E
3
_
1 3
0 1
_

E
4
_
1 0
0 1
_
and
E
1
=
_
1 1
0 1
_
, E
2
=
_
1 0
3 1
_
, E
3
=
_
1 0
0
1
11
_
, E
4
=
_
1 3
0 1
_
.
Since E
4
E
3
E
2
E
1
A = I , A
1
= E
4
E
3
E
2
E
1
, and hence
A = E
1
1
E
1
2
E
1
3
E
1
4
.
Example (continued)
Therefore,
A =
_
1 1
0 1
_
1
_
1 0
3 1
_
1
_
1 0
0
1
11
_
1
_
1 3
0 1
_
1
,
i.e.,
A =
_
1 1
0 1
_ _
1 0
3 1
_ _
1 0
0 11
_ _
1 3
0 1
_
.
Check your work by computing the product.
More on Matrix Inverses
Matrix Arithmetic More on Matrix Inverses Page 75/78
The Inverse of a Square Matrix
Theorem
Only square matrices can be invertible.
Theorem
Suppose A and B are n n matrices such that AB = I . Then it follows
that BA = I . Further, both A and B are invertible, with B = A
1
and
A = B
1
.
Warning
In the second Theorem, it is essential that the matrices be square.
Example
Let
A =
_
1 1 0
1 4 1
_
and B =
_
_
1 0
0 0
1 1
_
_
.
Compute AB and compute BA.
Solution:
AB =
_
1 0
0 1
_
= I
2
However,
BA =
_
_
1 1 0
0 0 0
0 5 1
_
_
= I
3
The Reduced Row-Echelon Form of an Invertible Matrix
Theorem
For any matrix A the following are equivalent.
A is invertible
The reduced row-echelon form of A is an identity matrix

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Matrix Arithmetic Matrix Multiplication Page 8/78

Does GH exist? If so, compute it.

and row reduce to the form

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