Biodiversity and Conservation 12: 1 715 1739 , 2003. 2003 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.

Perceptions, use and availability of woody plants among the Gourounsi in Burkina Faso
METUS KRISTENSEN* and HENRIK BALSLEV
Department of Systematic Botany, University of Aarhus, Nordlandsvej 68, DK-8240 Risskov, Denmark; * Author for correspondence (e-mail: metus@ biology.au.dk; fax: 145 -89 -424747) Received 17 September 2001; accepted in revised form 2 September 2002

Key words: Burkina Faso, Conservation, Gourounsi, Indigenous knowledge, Quantitative ethnobotany, Species accumulation curves, Sustainable use systems, Use-values Abstract. The present study was conducted in ve villages around the Nazinga Game Ranch, Burkina Faso. Fifty informants of the Gourounsi ethnic group were used. Eighty-one useful woody species were identied, out of a total of 110 woody species in the area. Woody plant use was quantied as: edible fruits (28 species), vegetable sauce (22 species), rewood (33 species), construction (29 species) and medicine (64 species and 167 remedies). Further, species accumulation curves were used to estimate that more than 650 remedies for medicine are used in the area. The communitys knowledge of plants was analysed in relation to age, gender, village of residence and amount of intercultural visits. The knowledge pattern was remarkably uniform, with only two variations: (1) men generally identied more edible fruit trees than women, and (2) one village reported more rewood species than the other four villages. The informants had a variety of opinions concerning the availability of useful plants, but the majority found the availability to be ne and 47% of the informants searched for useable products in the savanna on a daily basis. No correlation was found between an informants impression of useful products availability and his / her frequency of visits into the savanna. The results show that the Gourounsi people live in intimate relation with the savanna surrounding their villages. They are aware of the environment and are willing to learn and adopt new conservation practices.

Introduction The West African savanna has been shaped by people and animals for thousands of years and is an ecosystem of immense cultural and economic importance (White 1983; Skarpe 1992). Woody savanna plants provide edible fruits, raw material for vegetable sauces that accompany the porridge, which is the primary meal in West Africa, medicine, rewood and construction material for houses, grain storage containers and shade shelters. The savanna also supports large game animals that local people hunt for meat. During the last decades the human population in the West African savanna region has increased, from 172 million in 1990 to 222 million in 2000 (Faostat 2001). The human population growth increases the exploitation of the natural resources. Savannas are being converted into farmland and as a result plants and animals on the remaining savannas are being over-exploited (Smith et al. 1996; Attwell and Cotterill 2000; Lykke 2000b). Moreover, severe droughts in the arid and semi-arid zone of West Africa have reduced the availability of grass and trees (Scoones 1995) and forced the people to move further south to the more moist

1716 savanna regions. As a consequence, continued focus on ecologically sustainable use and conservation of the savanna and its species is becoming increasingly important. In 1979 the Nazinga Game Ranch was created as the rst of its kind in West Africa. It was established to improve the ecological situation for the wildlife in the area and to allow controlled hunting beneting local people. Today the game ranch is a reservoir of savanna plants and animals. Outside the game ranch lie villages inhabited by the Gourounsi people. A mosaic of cultivated elds and savanna surrounds the villages and local Gourounsi try to use and conserve the savanna vegetation at the same time. These people possess knowledge accumulated during generations about traditional use of plants and resource management practices. This kind of knowledge has become increasingly recognised, and biodiversity conservation projects have often been more successful when local knowledge was incorporated (Meffe and Carroll 1994). Incorporating local knowledge in management leads to co-ownership of conservation projects and the local people may provide certain inspiration for sustainable use systems that the management planner, who is often an outsider, had not thought of. On the other hand, the local peoples perceptions of management strategies may be different from those of a professional management planner and a survey of their ideas can show if some ecological principles need to be passed on. The sample size and sampling effort needed to cover traditional knowledge in a community must be considered when conducting an ethnobotanical study. The ecological concept of the species accumulation curve (Colwell 1997; Chazdon et al. 1998) can be used to show the relationship between the number of informants interviewed and the number of plant species mentioned. The curve shows how much new information each new informant contributes and it reaches an asymptote when no new information is added. If the species accumulation curve does not reach an asymptote within the available number of informants, the total number of useful species can be estimated using a non-parametric species richness estimator. In addition, the procedure for selecting informants must be considered carefully as several studies document that local knowledge is unevenly distributed in the community among people of, e.g., different age, gender, education level and income (Phillips and Gentry 1993; Cotton 1996; Caniago and Siebert 1998; Hanazaki et al. 2000; Luoga et al. 2000; Byg and Balslev 2001). All these groups of informants must be included to appropriately cover the whole spectrum of useful plants. The fashion and extent to which local communities use the surrounding vegetation differ among ethnic groups. The Gourounsi, for example, refuse to use a number of different savanna trees as rewood (M. Kristensen and A.M. Lykke, submitted), even though the same species are known to be used as rewood by other 1998; Lykke 2000a). ethnic groups (Grundy et al. 1993; Sambou and Ba 1995; Kere Therefore, the savanna can have woody plants that seem useful in the eyes of a conservation management planner, but these plants may be without value for the Gourounsi searching for rewood. Furthermore, it appears that the perceptions of how extinction threatened particular local tree species vary among local people and also the Gourounsi seem to disagree on the conceivable consequences of the possible extinction of savanna species. The local peoples point of view may be

1717 inuenced by their own level of use of the savanna. Lifestyles are changing due to development and new products are more desirable than traditional products of the savanna. For instance, those who can afford it use plastic bowls instead of baskets made of grass, and stock cubs reduce or replace the use of local spices collected on the savanna (Lamine et al. 1995; Mertz et al. 2001). It is important, though, to conserve traditional knowledge for coming generations, and in the future, when more land comes under cultivation, the value of the Nazinga Game Ranch as a reservoir of culturally and nutritionally important plants and animals will probably become increasingly apparent. The aim of this study, conducted among the Gourounsi people in south-central Burkina Faso, was to identify local plant names and to quantify woody plant use in the categories: edible fruits, vegetable sauce, rewood, construction and medicine. The number of informants required to cover the spectrum of useful plants was evaluated and the distribution of plant-related knowledge in the community in relation to age, gender, village of residence and amount of intercultural visits was analysed. Species rejected for use as rewood as well as the reason for the rejection were documented. Finally the relation between the frequency with which an informant collected plants and their impressions of availability of plant resources was studied.

Study area Ecological setting The study was conducted along the northwestern edge of the Nazinga Game Ranch in the province of Sissili in south-central Burkina Faso (Figure 1). Altitudes range from 270 to 380 m above sea level. Average annual rainfall is 1028 mm with a 4-month rainy season between mid-May and mid-September. The average annual temperature is 27.1 8C, with a maximum average monthly temperature of 31.7 8C in April and a minimum average monthly temperature of 25.3 8C in August. The study area lies within the Sudanian phytogeographic region (Guinko 1984), and noncultivated areas support savanna, which still covers around 60% of the province of Sissili (Howorth 1999). The savanna has a continuous herb layer and a discontinuous layer of trees and shrubs dominated by Vitellaria paradoxa C.F. Gaertn., Terminalia avicennioides Guill. and Perr. and Piliostigma thonningii (Schumach.) Milne-Redh. The Nazinga Game Ranch covers 940 km 2 . It supports 400 elephants, 300 buffaloes, more than 4000 antelopes and 3000 warthogs. Most of the savanna within the game ranch is purposely burned in the beginning of the dry season to avoid more destructive and uncontrollable res later in the season. According to local people, res have been increasingly frequent, strong and widespread during this century and they suggest a reduction in frequency as a way to improve the management of the area. The villages around the game ranch interact with the game ranch by selling their

1718

Figure 1. Position of study area. The border of Nazinga Game Ranch is indicated ( jjjj ) and the ve villages visited during interviews are marked with ellipses. Roads, permanent and seasonal rivers are marked. A climatic diagram from Navrongo, 65 km from the study area, is shown (Walter et al. 1975).

handicrafts and food on the game ranch, by angling in the ponds and by getting game meat from the ranch. Also, a buffer zone outside the ranch border constitutes the villagers hunting zone. Gourounsi contract workers and their families inhabit a camp inside the game ranch. Their work consists primarily of maintaining roads, paths, borders and barrages inside the game ranch, anti-poacher actions, abattoir work and guiding and serving tourists during their stay. When questioning the people living northwest of the game ranch it was found that 94% of them consider the game ranch as a plus. It creates jobs, helps to conserve the savanna and the wild animals and it nancially supports schools, grain mills, store houses etc. The local people appreciate and give high priority to the conservation of the savanna and it appears that the benets obtained from the game ranch outweigh its negative consequences, such as destruction of crops by game animals and

1719 restriction of cultivation areas, collection areas and shing areas. The approach of the Gourounsi people is promising for nature conservation. Cultural setting The area is inhabited by the Gourounsi people, from the Kassena and Nouna subgroups (Duperray 1984). The Gourounsi represent 5.3% of the population of Burkina Faso (Atlas Jeune Afrique 1993) and the studied villages have an average population size of 294 adults (INSD 1996). The Gourounsi are bush farmers, i.e. they farm in the presence of a large number of trees and root systems. Fields are farmed for an average duration of 45 years with follows traditionally being 2030 years long. Today more and more people travel to Ivory Coast and Ghana during the dry season as migrant workers. This trend forces the women to become more involved in agricultural activities and as a consequence, traditional social norms are changing as women are farming the elds rather than solely preparing the meals after the crops have been harvested. The major subsistence crops are sorghum (Sorghum bicolor), maize (Zea mays), pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum), groundnuts (Arachis hypogaea) and yams (Dioscorea spp.). Cotton (Gossypium barbadense) is grown as a cash crop. During the last 15 years people from the Mossi and Fulani ethnic groups have begun to migrate from the north into the studied area in search of new land suitable for cultivation and grazing. The newcomers teach the Gourounsi to rear livestock. The Gourounsi were traditionally animists and resistant to missionaries who tried to convert them to Islam or Christianity (Howorth 1999). But during the last years they have been subject to massive impulses from the newcoming Mossis and little by little they have begun to take in other religions. Now the majority have changed religion merely by name, as Islam is seen as synonymously with civilised, but animist practices and beliefs still survive.

Methods Ethnobotanical data were collected in the following villages northwest of the Nazinga Game Ranch: Sia, Natiedougou, Kontioro, Koumbili and at the camp inside the game ranch (Figure 1). Fifty informants were interviewed, ve men and ve women in each village. The selection of informants was done in collaboration with the village leader. Care was taken to interview a representative combination of informants with respect to age and geographical position of the household within the different villages. The informants were all over 18 years old, as it was not the aim of the study to test differences in information quantity between children and adults, but only between different groups of adults. Only Gourounsi people were included, so as to exclude immigrants of Mossi and Fulani origin. Using open-ended questions, the informants were asked to describe their use of woody plants (trees, shrubs and climbers) according to ve use categories: edible fruits, vegetable sauce, rewood, construction and medicine. Furthermore, each

1720 informant was asked (a) which woody species he / she did not use as rewood and why, (b) his / her frequency of plant collection and (c) his / her impression of availability of plant resources and whether this has changed over time. The following personal information was recorded for each informant: gender, age and how often he / she had travelled beyond the studied area. Plants quoted in interviews were collected and voucher specimens are deposited at the herbaria at University of Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso and at University of Aarhus (AAU), Denmark. Nomenclature follows Lebrun and Stock (19911997). Species accumulation curves were drawn of the cumulative number of species mentioned as being used, in each of the ve use categories, versus number of informants interviewed. All curves were based on 500 randomisations of informant order. For the medicine category a graph of the cumulative number of remedies mentioned was also plotted (Figure 2). It was investigated which of the following eight species richness estimators performed best: Chao 1, Chao 2, abundance-based coverage estimator (ACE), incidence-based coverage estimator (ICE), Jackknife 1, Jackknife 2, Bootstrap and MichaelisMenten means (MMMeans) (see Chazdon et al. (1998) for a further description of these). The computer program Estimates (Colwell 1997) was used to compute the species-richness estimators and the following criteria were used to nd the best estimator: rapid increase to Smax and remain constant. Chao 2 was chosen as the best estimator and the Smax s were read off the curves (Figure 2). The use categories edible fruits, vegetable sauce and construction contained between 26 and 40 useful species, whereas 79 species were used for medicine out of about 110 woody species in total in the area (Hien 2001; M. Kristensen, in preparation). In no case did the species accumulation curves reach Smax with 50 informants, so more informants should be included to cover the complete spectrum of useful plants. However, Figure 2 shows that between 61 and 81% of the total number of useful species in the use categories: edible fruits, vegetable sauce, construction and medicine were given by including 30 informants. This was taken to be a reasonable compromise between effort and information gained. Local knowledge of species used for rewood and remedies used for medicine was very specialised and individual and Figure 2 shows that including 50 informants in the investigation was not enough to estimate Smax for these use categories. But the estimation revealed that more than 650 remedies for medicine were used in the area, indicating that many species have several curative effects. The present results for these two categories are thus preliminary and on average each new informant added 1.2 new species for rewood and 3.1 new remedies for medicine. The explanatory variable visits to other areas was divided into three groups: (0) never been away from home village, (1) been up to 30 km away from home, (2) been in the capital, Ouagadougou, or other countries. The age of informant variable varied from 19 to 105 years. This is the age given by informants themselves, which is not necessarily concordant with their biological age. We estimate their biological age to be ca. 10 years lower than claimed. The variable was divided into three groups of equal size: (1) age ,36, (2) 36 # age ,56, (3) age $56 years.

1721

Figure 2. Species accumulation curves (thick curves) and Chao 2 estimates (thin curves), divided up in the ve use categories. In the medicine category the cumulative number of species is shown as well as the cumulative number of remedies. Each point along the curves represents the mean of 500 randomisations of sample pooling order. The estimated maximum number of species (Smax ) used in each category is noted. The number of species cited by the rst 30 informants is marked.

The ethnobotanical knowledge of each informant was expressed in terms of a relative use value RUVi , divided into the ve use categories. RUVi measures how many plant uses one informant knows relative to the average knowledge among all informants (Phillips and Gentry 1993). A four-way factorial ANOVA, model II was used to test whether there were differences in RUVi on the basis of the categorical

1722 variables gender, age group, visits to other areas and village (SAS Institute Inc. 1994). The RUVi values were transformed to achieve values of skewness and kurtosis ,u1.0u, and thereby approximate a normal distribution. Edible fruits, vegetable sauce and construction were transformed as: log(RUVi (use category) 3 100 1 1); rewood and medicine as: (RUVi (use category) 3 100 1 0.5)0.5 . All rst-order interactions were included in the analyses (interactions of higher order do not make sense in the present case), but none of them were signicant. Therefore the nal models contain main effects only. When a signicant difference was found between the relative use values a multiple comparison by the students t test was used to pinpoint which categories differed (SAS Institute Inc. 1994).

Results and discussion Woody plant use In the present Gourounsi community 1264 reports of uses covering 81 species of woody plants were gathered. Appendix 1 lists the woody plant species used in the categories: edible fruits, vegetable sauce, rewood and construction. The ve most preferred fruit species were Vitellaria paradoxa, Detarium microcarpum, Parkia biglobosa, Saba senegalensis and Gardenia sp. These wild fruits are important for the health of the people, as they contribute to a varied diet and increase vitamin intake (Guinko and Pasgo 1992). Most of the fruits become available at the time when cultivators start their annual farming cycle and food stocks are low. At this time the gathered wild fruits are critical for sustaining household food supply. The ve most preferred species for vegetable sauce were Strychnos spinosa, Adansonia digitata, Balanites aegyptiaca, Parkia biglobosa and Vitex doniana. A. digitata, P. biglobosa and V. doniana are highly esteemed in other similar areas, but B. aegyptiaca is only considered as famine food elsewhere in Burkina Faso and leaves of S. spinosa are rarely used among other ethnic groups (Humphry et al. 1993; Lamine et al. 1995; Mertz et al. 2001). Different plant parts are used for making vegetable sauce. Leaves are used in 43% of the cases, fruits 29%, seeds 23% and owers 6%. Leaves are known to have high nutritional value (Marshall 2001) and vegetable sauces made of wild plant parts are very important for the nutrition of the rural population (Smith et al. 1996). Meat is eaten only rarely among the Gourounsi, whereas vegetable sauce is consumed almost daily accompanying a thick porridge. The sauce ingredients are available at different times of the year and many of them can be stored until food stocks are low. Another plus of the wild plant species is that they are more drought resistant than domesticated species (Humphry et al. 1993). The ve most preferred rewood species were Vitellaria paradoxa, Detarium microcarpum, Pterocarpus erinaceus, Anogeissus leiocarpa and Hymenocardia acida / Gardenia sp. They overlap with the ve most preferred construction species: Vitellaria paradoxa, Anogeissus leiocarpa, Pericopsis laxiora, Burkea africana

1723
Table 1. Species mentioned as becoming rare by 50 Gourounsi people in south-central Burkina Faso. Species Ceiba pentandra Adansonia digitata Ficus sycomorus Acacia macrostachya Bombax costatum Acacia dudgeoni Daniellia oliveri Detarium microcarpum Ficus glumosa Ficus platyphylla Ficus sur Khaya senegalensis Pteleopsis suberosa Sclerocarya birrea Sterculia setigera Tamarindus indica No. of reports of becoming rare 4 3 3 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

and Pterocarpus erinaceus, which all have hard wood and are very resistant to termite attacks. Firewood is the only energy supply among the Gourounsi and large amounts are used. Since the same species are used for construction, one would expect that their populations in the area decline, such as in Senegal (Lykke 2000a). However, Detarium microcarpum is the only important rewood species the informants thought was becoming rare (Table 1). So species preferred for rewood and construction are not identical to species with declining populations. This could indicate that the Gourounsi use with care and indeed, during the present investigation only collection of dead wood for rewood was observed, all large poles were not cut in one area and rewood was not sold on the markets. But the explanation could also be that the most abundant species are considered the most important and useful species, as seen in other studies (Phillips and Gentry 1993; Begossi 1996). More than 90% of the population in Burkina Faso are totally dependent on traditional medicine and have no means to buy western medicine or go to a hospital (Guinko 1984). The present study identies 64 woody plant species used for medicine among the Gourounsi people in south-central Burkina Faso (Appendix 2). In total 167 remedies are mentioned. The three plant families containing most remedies are Caesalpiniaceae, Combretaceae and Rubiaceae ; and the species Terminalia laxiora, Parkia biglobosa, Crossopteryx febrifuga and Sarcocephalus latifolius all have more than nine reports of use. The plant parts most frequently used are leaves (35.8%), roots (33.8%) and bark (21.9%). In South Africa roots were more often used (38.4%) medicinally, followed by bark (25.6%) and leaves / stems (13.5%) (Williams et al. 2000). Most informants described a disease by mentioning its symptoms rather than the name of the illness. This could be their normal way of describing a disease to the medicine man, as for example they

1724 probably do not distinguish stomach ache caused by worm infection from stomach ache resulting from malnutrition. Several remedies were mentioned by only one informant. In some studies information reported only once is not included in the results (Phillips and Gentry 1993; Lykke 2000a), because a single informant may be wrong, either because of lack of memory, because of insufcient knowledge or because of giving wrong information on purpose. In the present case Figure 2 shows that not the whole spectrum of remedies used for medicine was covered. Including more informants would probably raise the number of reports on each remedy. This is supported by comparing the present results with those of Legemaat-Bruggeling (1989) from the same study area. That study mentions only 64 remedies, but 34% of her remedies are identical to the present results and 55% of these are mentioned by only one informant in the present study. Knowledge distribution The RUVi quantied the knowledge of each informant (Phillips and Gentry 1993). Figure 3 shows the mean relative knowledge of informants in each of the ve use categories. Informants gave twice as much information about medicinal plants compared to each of the other use categories. The Gourounsi are almost totally dependent on traditional medicine, which may explain why they know and use many plant species for medicine. More species were found to have a medicinal effect than to be used for edible fruits, vegetable sauce, rewood or construction, as described in the Methods section. Ethnobotanical knowledge of species with edible fruits differed between men and women, with men being the most knowledgeable (P 5 0.0052). Many of the edible fruits are consumed when the men are in the bush preparing the elds or when hunting. Wild fruits are often their only food intake during the day. So even though women collect wild products in the bush for the household and secure the food stock, men eat wild fruits more regularly and this is probably why they are more knowledgeable. No signicant knowledge variation was found with respect to an informants age and use of edible fruits. Other studies have shown that knowledge of edible fruits is obtained rather early in life (Phillips and Gentry 1993; Hanazaki et al. 2000), as it is easy to learn and very practical to know. It is concluded that all ethnobotanical knowledge of edible fruits is obtained before the age of 36. Informants who have visited other areas than the studied area were found not to know of additionally useful fruit species compared to the informants who have been around their home village all their life. The vegetation on the West African savanna is uniform, which can explain the fact that informants who have travelled have not seen many new useful fruit species. Maybe those who have been far from home have been in other types of vegetation, like the forests in Ghana, but probably they do not think of these species while interviewed in their home village. The level of knowledge concerning species with vegetable sauce ingredients was similar for men and women, young and old, people who have travelled or not and

1725

Figure 3. Relative knowledge of informants in the different use categories. (A) Divided between women and men. (B) Divided between three age groups. (C) Divided between amount of visits to other areas. (D) Divided between the ve villages. For each use category and explanatory variable, signicant differences between the explanatory variables are marked with a * and the actual P -value is given (analysed by four-way factorial ANOVA).

1726 between the ve villages. Women collect sauce ingredients and prepare meals, but men must be aware of important species. The Gourounsi farming style is to leave a lot of useful species in the eld, so when the men clear new areas for cultivation they need to know which species to eliminate and which to leave in the eld. The present results are similar to other ndings (Phillips and Gentry 1993; Joyal 1996; Hanazaki et al. 2000). The knowledge of species used for rewood was consistent for men and women, young and old, people who have travelled or not, but varied between villages. The informants of Koumbili mentioned signicantly (a -level of 0.05) more rewood species than those in the other four villages. An explanation could be that Koumbili resides far from the other four villages and here the vegetation may contain additional rewood species. This agrees with earlier ndings (M. Kristensen and A.M. Lykke, submitted). Men from 20 to 50 years old perform the construction work; knowledge of construction species is evenly distributed relative to gender, age, amount of travel activity or village. Even informants who do not undertake construction work know which species are used. Knowledge of species for medicine is often shown to increase with age (Phillips and Gentry 1993; Caniago and Siebert 1998; Luoga et al. 2000). In the present case neither gender, age, visits to other areas nor village showed a signicant inuence on the knowledge pattern. There may be a variety of reasons for this. First, informants were only asked to name useful medicine species and not how they prepared the medicine. The differences in knowledge of medicinal plants may be based on efcacy and actual preparation, more than on the quantity of plants mentioned by each informant. Second, the Gourounsi live in a remote area and they do not interact much with the outside world through trade or the like (Howorth 1999). Therefore it is believed that they still maintain and rely on their own medicinal knowledge. Acculturation and thereby loss of ethnobotanical knowledge is only occurring slowly (M. Kristensen and A.M. Lykke, submitted). Moreover, each informant was interviewed only once and after giving maybe 10 remedies he or she may have lost interest and stopped. Returning to the same informant later on might have shown that some informants knew only the few remedies they mentioned the rst time and others would report new ones, as it was estimated that there exist more than 650 remedies among the Gourounsi (Figure 2). Finally, schools have been in the area for the last 15 years only. Only recently young people have begun to use their time away from their families, who are known to pass on medicinal knowledge from one generation to the next (Legemaat-Bruggeling 1989), so if acculturation occurs due to new priorities among the young it is too early to tell. But 17% of the informants said that the young people do not want to work as hard, as people used to do in order to survive in the bush. Rejected rewood species The informants give different reasons for rejecting some species for rewood (Table 2). The explanations: brings misery, forbidden, ancestors did not use and

1727
Table 2. Species rejected as rewood by the Gourounsi in south-central Burkina Faso, their reasons for rejection and number of reports. Species Acacia sieberiana Adansonia digitata Afzelia africana Albizia chevalieri Annona senegalensis Bombax costatum Ceiba pentandra Crateva adansonii Daniellia oliveri Diospyros mespiliformis Entada africana Faidherbia albida Ficus sycomorus Gardenia sp. Khaya senegalensis Lannea acida Lannea microcarpa Ozoroa insignis Parkia biglobosa Pericopsis laxiora Piliostigma thonningii Prosopis africana Sarcocephalus latifolius Sterculia setigera Stereospemum kunthianum Tamarindus indica Terminalia avicennoides Terminalia laxiora Vitex doniana Brings Forbidden Ancestors Totem Holy Burn Makes Gives name Do not misery did not use badly you faint to children know 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 7 1 1 1 1 3 1 1

1 1

1 4 3

2 3

1 6 1

3 1

2 1 1 1

1 1

2 2 1 1

1 1 1 1 1

7 1

totem are similar and can reect regulations made by ancestors. The Gourounsi have strong relations to their ancestors and because the ancestors did not use a particular species no matter for what reason they do not use it either. Informants who said that a species was not used for rewood without knowing why are probably not aware of prohibitions made by ancestors. They just follow the prohibitions, or maybe they simply did not want to reveal the reason. Species with many medicinal uses are not burnt, because it is their totem or because it is forbidden. These regulations are probably made to conserve species with important curative effects and to satisfy the spirits within them. Two species are pointed out as holy among the Gourounsi: Diospyros mespiliformis and Ficus sycomorus. A village often has its own species of holy trees. In the present case a large individual of F. sycomorus was growing in the middle of one of the villages. Only one informant from the village mentioned it, but this is probably merely an oversight of the other informants. A tree can be holy because it was planted when the village was established, or because it was pointed out as tree of

1728 the village when the village was established, or because of the spirits living within it, or because it has given a name to children. Species that give names to children are highly valued. For example, if parents wish their child to be fertile, it will be named after a species with edible products. Felling a tree that has given a name to a child is viewed as an attempt to kill the person. Species that make you faint develop a poisonous smoke when burnt and people around Tenkodogo in Burkina Faso had the 1998). same experience with Stereospermum kunthianum (Kere Species rejected as rewood were often said to burn badly. Adansonia digitata, Bombax costatum and Ceiba pentandra belong to Bombacaceae, which have spongy, porous, low quality wood and the same is true for Sterculia setigera. The other species rejected because they burn badly are used for rewood elsewhere in 1998; Lykke 2000a). The Gourounsi can West Africa (Sambou and Ba 1995; Kere choose the best and do not have to use everything they nd because plenty of wood is available in the studied area. Impressions of availability The 50 Gourounsi informants had different opinions concerning the availability of the useful plants in their area (Figure 4); 31% said it was easy to nd needed products in the bush, 16% said it was difcult, 35% said that some products were easy to nd and others were difcult to nd, and the rest of the informants did not know or answered that the availability was satisfactory. The high percentage of informants who said that the availability of useable products is good shows that the savanna area is not degrading rapidly and that it does provide wild products for the local people. However, Table 1 reveals that A. digitata and B. costatum, among others, are viewed as becoming rare by a few informants. These two species are very important food sources and the result indicates an emerging problem. The pressure on natural resources is rising in the area because of growing human population due to immigration and a high birth rate (Smith et al. 1996; Attwell and Cotterill 2000; Lykke 2000b). Useable products are collected more intensively and more land is withdrawn for cultivation. Personal observations exposed that the invading Mossi people clear the land more thoroughly when cultivating. The Gourounsi live in close relation with the surrounding savanna vegetation and 47% of the informants daily searched the savanna for useable products. Additionally, 24% of the informants went into the savanna two to three times a week. Only old informants did not venture into the savanna, but they had gathered knowledge during their entire lifetime. It was expected that informants who seldom go into the savanna would rank availability higher, as they have less experience. But overall there was no correlation between an informants impression of useful products availability and the frequency of his / her visits into the bush (Figure 4). The informants who went into the savanna daily disagreed on the products availability. Either they did not search for the same kind of products, they did not know of the same good locations or some of them might not know that previously it had been easier to nd the needed products. In conclusion, the local knowledge gathered in the present study conrms that useful products from the savannas are still available

1729

Figure 4. Impressions of availability of useable products among 50 Gourounsi people in south-central Burkina Faso. The informants impressions are compared to how often they go in the bush. The number of reports is given.

and in reasonable amounts, but the picture is beginning to change and alertness is necessary.

Implications for conservation The present study shows that the Gourounsi people live in close relation with the surrounding savanna. They depend on the savanna for food, rewood, construction material and medicine. The degradation occurs at a slow pace because the population density (27.5 inhabitants / km 2 ; Anonymous 1992) is low and because of a high awareness of the importance of non-destructive use and knowledge about the environment acquired through generations. But a beginning decline of important species is indicated by the study and a high awareness of the limited natural resources is needed to secure biodiversity for future generations. The Gourounsi have a high degree of comprehension concerning management in the area and during the study they suggested that it would be useful to have a person in each village who could teach them how to conserve the savanna. It shows their awareness of the environment and their willingness to learn and adopt new conservation practices. Before implementing this suggestion, it must be investigated whether this management consultant should be the same person for the whole

1730 ranch and travel from village to village, and if it should be an outsider, e.g. a forester who is educated from a national education centre. Otherwise the game ranch could train a villager from each village in conservation management and let the villager pass on his knowledge to his neighbours. The competition for natural resources between wild animals and the human population must be followed closely in order to secure a reasonable level of game animal populations, so they do not cause unreasonable damage to the savanna and in the villages surrounding the game ranch. Continued information concerning the justication of the game ranch existence and its advantages must be given to the villagers to ensure their continued collaboration. It is important to retain their support and loyalty, as this will keep them from collaboration with poachers and sabotage.

Acknowledgements We thank the Ministere des Enseignements Secondaire, Superieur et de la Recherche Scientique for research permission in Burkina Faso. We thank S. Guinko and J. Boussim for support during eldwork, and S. Nana and I. Nganga for allowing us to work in and around the Nazinga Game Ranch. We are grateful to N. Neti for valuable support as interpreter during interviews with local residents and to M. Hien and N. Neti for help during plant collection. We are indebted to B. Some, the Gourounsi people for generously sharing their knowledge of plant use with us. A.M. Lykke is thanked for helpful comments on the manuscript and C. Lange and A. Sloth for drawing the map. Finally, we are grateful to WWF / Novo A / S Biodiversity fund, Knud Hjgaards fund, the Faculty of Science at the University of Aarhus and the Danish Natural Science Research Council (grant 11-0390) for nancial support.

Appendix 1

Woody plant species used among the Gourounsi people in south-central Burkina Faso. The list includes four different use categories and the number of reports in each. The total number of uses is shown. The plant part used for vegetable sauce is noted : owers, fr: fruits, le: leaves and se: seeds. The local Gourounsi names of the plants are written in French and the stressed syllable is underlined. The habits of the plants are included T: tree, S: shrub and C: woody climber.
Habit Fruits T 1 Sauce Firewood Local names Uses Construction Total 1 Plant part used for sauce

Family/species

ANACARDIACEAE

Lannea acida A. Rich.

24 2 3 1 1 3 29 9 1 2 12 20 2 3 25 26 17 3 12 1

Lannea microcarpa Engl. and K. Krause Lannea velutina A. Rich Mangifera indica L. Ozoroa insignis Del. Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich.) Hochst. S C C T T T T Koun-nou ] Koufoung, Touyougou sollou ] ] Gouhou-nou ] Kollou ] Ban-han ] Sinsan-an, Toussohgo, Katchagalaga ] ] ] Bnagassaha ] Loho ] Kawalou ]

T T T T T

ANNONACEAE

Katchogo bouhourra, ] Katchogo bourra, ] Katchogo bourrou, Bourra ] ] Katchogo ] Katchogo lambo ] Mango ] Doua-nampanan ] Kansolou ]

1 1 2 1 1 2 1 3 1 2 2 2 2 le, fr se le le le, se, , fr le, se, , fr se le 3 5 2 1

Annona senegalensis Pers.

APOCYNACEAE

Saba senegalensis (A. DC.) Pichon

ASCLEPIADACEAE

Leptadenia hastata (Pers.) Decne.

BALANITACEAE

Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del.

BOMBACACEAE

Adansonia digitata L. Bombax costatum Pellegr. and Vuill. Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn. T T

CAESALPINIACEAE

38 6 6

35 1

29 2 1 2 1 Tagnan ] ` Tchepounghan ] Katcholo ] Kadankoualo, Dankoualo ] ] Vagnon-non ] Sonhon-non ]

Afzelia africana Smith ex Pers. Bobgunnia madagascariensis (Desv.) J. H. Kirkbride and Wiersema Burkea africana Hook. Cassia sieberiana DC. Daniellia oliveri (Rolfe) Hutch. and Dalz. Detarium microcarpum Guill. and Perr. Piliostigma thonningii (Schumach.) Milne-Redh. Tamarindus indica L. T T T T T T

2 1 1 3 2 2

1731

le, fr

1732

Appendix 1. (continued )
Habit Fruits S T T T Bilhan ] 4 4 16 4 5 1 5 9 30 ` song Kalie ] 2 1 Tihiyan ] Kadjira ] 1 5 3 Sauce Firewood Construction Local names Uses Total 2 1 2 2 fr le le Plant part used for sauce

Family/species

CAPPARACEAE

Cadaba farinosa Forssk. Crateva adansonii DC.

CHRYSOBALANACEAE

Parinari curatellifolia Planch. ex Benth.

CLUSIACEAE

Garcinia livingstonei T. Anders.

COMBRETACEAE

Anogeissus leiocarpa (DC.) Guill. and Perr. Combretum collinum Fresen. Combretum glutinosum Perr. ex DC. Combretum nigricans Lepr. ex Guill. and Perr. Pteleopsis suberosa Engl. and Diels Terminalia schimperiana Hochst. (syn. T. avicennoides Guill. and Perr.) T T Kaprotaloi ] Kakanon, Kanon ] ] 22

T T T T T T

Loua, Lou ] ] Lahponi ] Kamaloho, Kamaloho-pong, Taviou ] ] ] Toutihini, Nikjirisong,Vaouzongya, Gaousong ] ] ] ] Gnissogo ] Koro ]

4 11

2 1 1 1 2 2

EBENACEAE

Diospyros mespiliformis Hochst. ex A. DC.

1 2 5 3 2 1 4 21 11 24 36 2

3 1 1 7 3 2 30 22 12 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 2 3 le, fr

EUPHORBIACEAE

Arg. Bridelia scleroneura Mull. T T T T T T T T T Dankoualka-lansinga ] Kampoua ] Sabouara singan ] Sabouara zenan ] Pahaou ] Sabarpong, Sabouarpong, Kamporl-lia ] ] ] Boussounhou ] Tche-kourou ] Tangue ]

FABACEACE

Acacia dudgeoni Craib ex Holl. Acacia gourmaensis A. Chev. Acacia macrostachya Reichenb. ex DC. Acacia sieberiana DC. Albizia chevalieri Harms Pericopsis laxiora (Benth.) van Meeuwen Pterocarpus erinaceus Poir.

HYMENOCARDIACEAE

Hymenocardia acida Tul.

LOCANIACEAE

Strychnos spinosa Lam.

Appendix 1. (continued )
Habit Fruits T T 1 1 32 23 3 3 2 1 19 6 1 4 27 5 11 1 3 43 2 4 37 39 1 3 2 Pnou, Pnaha ] ] Gnouborri ] 2 1 Sauce Firewood Construction 4 5 Local names Uses Total 2 2 Plant part used for sauce

Family/species

MELIACEAE

Khaya senegalensis (Desr.) A. Juss. Pseudocedrela kotschyi (Schweinf.) Harms

MIMOSACEAE

Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) Wight and Arn. Entada africana Guill and Perr. T T

T T

1 2 3 1 le, se, fr

Parkia biglobosa (Jacq.) R. Br. ex G. Don Prosopis africana (Guill. and Perr.) Taub.

MORACEAE

Tchaa ] Bouassong, Gouasson-non, ] ] Koullasson-non ] Sounhou ] Nissaban ]

Ficus Ficus Ficus Ficus S C Lahamounou ] Muhiyou, Filounou ] ]

glumosa Del. platyphylla Del. sur Forssk. sycomorus L.

T T T T

OLACACEAE

Kanton-non, kalchoo ] ] Kapro-kagnon ] ] Kapro-katchinga, Kapro-kozin-catanga ] ] ] ] ] Kapro-pong ] ]

14 1 1 6 1

2 1 3 2 1 3 1 2 1 3 2 1 4 1 3

le fr le le. fr

Ximenia americana L.

OPILIACEAE

Opilia amentalea Roxb.

RUBIACEAE

Crossopteryx febrifuga (G. Don) Benth. Feretia apodanthera Del. Gardenia sp.a T T T T Kouhou-poulou ] Song ]

T T S

fr

Mitragyna inermis (Wild.) O. Kuntze Sarcocephalus latifolius (Smith) Bruce

SAPOTACEAE

Lobadihia ] Tchilatchiga ] Kantan-koubourou, Kantan-on, ] ] Bouhorre-kantan-on ] Blatooro ] Gloholon, Djoholon ] ]

Vitellaria paradoxa C.F. Gaertn.

se se le, se

STERCULIACEAE

Sterculia setigera Del.

VERBENACEAE

Vitex doniana Sweet

19 22 1 T Kanounou ] We do not distinguish between the three species: Gardenia aqualla, G. erubescens and G. ternifolia due to inconsistent naming by the local people.

1733

1734 Appendix 2
Woody plant species used for medicine among the Gourounsi people in south-central Burkina Faso. The plant part used for medicine is noted as: ash from the tree, ba: bark, fr: fruits, la: latex, le: leaves, re: resin, se: seeds, st: stem and ro: roots. The local Gourounsi names of the plants are written in French and the stressed syllable is underlined. The habits of the plants are included T: tree, S: shrub and C: woody climber.
Family/Species
ANACARDIACEAE

Habit Local names T Katchogo ] Mango ] Doua-nampanan ] Kawalou ] Boumbahallou ] Loho ]

Plant part Remedy for ba ba, le le ba le, ro as le ro ro ro ro ba ba, le ba, le le ro ro ro dizziness diarrhea for good health stomach ache, malaria, diarrhea snake bite headache for good health general pain malaria sick children snake bite general pain stomach ache for good health an arm or the like out of joint diarrhea dysentery healing of wound snake bite stomach ache, malaria healing of wound back-ache general pain stomach ache, malaria for good health stomach ache sick children hemorrhoids hemorrhoids diarrhea stomach ache wash newborn malaria stomach ache for good health for good health stomach ache diarrhea diarrhea for good health woman is ill malaria cough

No. of reports 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7 1 1 1 3 2 3 1 1 3 1 2 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1

Lannea microcarpa Engl. and K. Krause

Mangifera indica L. Ozoroa insignis Del.

ANNONACEAE

T T

Annona senegalensis Pers.

APOCYNACEAE

Carissa edulis (Forssk.) Vahl

Saba senegalensis (A. DC.) Pichon

ASCLEPIADACEAE

Calotropis procera (Ait.) R. Br. in Ait. f. Leptadenia hastata (Pers.) Decne.

BOMBACACEAE

S C T T T T T T

Pollou ] Bnagassaha ] Koun-nou ] Tagnan ] ` Tchepounghan ] Kassila ] Katcholo ] Kadankoualo, Dankoualo ] ]

ro le ro, ba ba ba ro le le re ro ro ro ro, se le, st le le le le, ba ro le le

Adansonia digitata L.
CAESALPINIACEAE

Burkea africana Hook. Cassia sieberiana DC. Cassia singueana Del. Daniellia oliveri (Rolfe) Hutch. and Dalz. Detarium microcarpum Guill. and Perr.

Isoberlinia doka Craib and Stapf

Thoorou ] Vagnon-non ] Sonhon-non ] Tihiyan ] Kadjira ]

Piliostigma thonningii (Schumach.) Milne-Redh. T Tamarindus indica L. T

CAPPARACEAE

Cadaba farinosa Forssk. Crateva adansonii DC.

CELASTRACEAE

S T S

Maytenus senegalensis (Lam.) Exell

Poho, Gaou-paou, Lahaou ro, le ] ] ] ba le ro

1735

Appendix 2. (continued )
Family/Species
CHRYSOBALANACEAE

Habit Local names T ` song Kalie ]

Plant part Remedy for ba le le ba if children have no appetite malaria stomach ache hemorrhoids diarrhea stomach ache for good health malaria stomach ache stomach ache for good health for good health malaria pain in the eyes for good health stomach ache malaria pain in the eyes sick children stomach ache for good health boils malaria headache malaria hemorrhoids stomach ache children have no appetite children have no appetite

No. of reports 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 5 1 2 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 5 4 1 2

Parinari curatellifolia Planch. ex Benth.

COMBRETACEAE

Anogeissus leiocarpa (A. DC.) Guill. and Perr. Combretum collinum Fresen.

Loua, Lou ] ] Lahponi ]

Combretum glutinosum Perr. ex DC. Combretum molle R. Br. ex G. Don Combretum paniculatum Vent.

T T S

Guiera senegalensis J. F. Gmel.

Pteleopsis suberosa Engl. and Diels

Terminalia schimperiana Hochst. syn T. avicennoides Guill. and Perr. Terminalia laxiora Engl. and Diels

T T

le, ba ro le le Kamaloho, Kamaloho-pong, ro ] ] Taviou ] Sanvatua le ] le Bouvahon, Vlavahan le ] ] le le Kaladohori le ] le le le Gnissogo re ] ro, ba ro ro le Koro le ] ` Koro-kone ] le, ba ro ro ro, le ro, le ba ba, le le st le fr

EBENACEAE

Diospyros mespiliformis Hochst. ex A. DC.

Kakanon, Kanon ] ]

to give mother milk to breast 1 for good health 1 general pain 1 healing of wound 1 pain in the eyes 1 diarrhea 1 stomach ache hemorrhoids to give mother milk to breast a sore throat to give mother milk to breast for good health cough if mother is bleeding after giving birth general pain boils 2 1 3 1 3 1 1 1 1 1

EUPHORBIACEAE

Excoecaria grahamii Stapf

FABACEAE

S T

Tholla ] Sabouara singan ] Pahaou ]

la, ro ba ba ba ba ba ro ba ro ro

Acacia dudgeoni Craib ex Holl.

Acacia macrostachya Reichenb. ex DC.

Acacia sieberiana DC.

Sabarpong, Sabouarpong ] ] Kampor-lia ]

1736

Appendix 2. (continued )
Family/Species Albizia chevalieri Harms Faidherbia albida (Del.) A. Chev. Habit Local names T T Boussounhou ] Nouzon-non ] Lanterpona, tanlorpouna ] ] Plant part Remedy for le ba ba le le le, ro le ro le ba ba le le le le le le ro ro ro ro ro ba, ro ba ro ro ro le ro ro stomach ache if mother is bleeding after giving birth cough diarrhea malaria snake bite for good health hemorrhoids malaria dizziness healing of wound wash newborn malaria wash newborn hemorrhoids general pain sick children malaria, stomach ache the magic of snakes stomach ache back-ache for good health stomach ache hernia toothache for good health stomach ache sick children if children have no appetite hernia cough toothache stomach ache hemorrhoids snake bite diarrhea sick children No. of reports 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 3 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 5 1 1 1

Lonchocarpus laxiorus Guill. and Perr.

Pericopsis laxiora (Benth.) van Meeuwen Pterocarpus erinaceus Poir. Xeroderris stuhlmannii (Taub.) Mendonca and Sousa
FLACOURTIACEAE

T T T

` Tche-kourou ] Tangue ] Koubo-vor ] Kounkouolo ] Dankoualka-lansinga ]

Oncoba spinosa Forssk.

HYMENOCARDIACEAE

T T

Hymenocardia acida Tul.

LOGANIACEAE

Strychnos innocua Del.

Kampoua biya ] ] Kampoua ] Pnou, Pnaha ] ] Gnouborri ] Nahdoua ]

Strychnos spinosa Lam.

MELIACEAE

Khaya senegalensis (Desr.) A. Juss. Pseudocedrela kotschyi (Schweinf.) Harms Trichilia emetica Vahl

T T T

MIMOSACEAE

Entada africana Guill and Perr. Parkia biglobosa (Jacq.) R. Br. ex G. Don

T T

Bouassong, Gouasson-non fr ] ] Koullasson-non fr ] Sounhou ba, ro ] ba, le ro ba ba, se Kapro-Kagnon ] ] Kapro-pong ] ] ba ba ba ba le, ro ro ro ro

MORACEAE

Ficus platyphylla Del. Ficus sycomorus L.

T T

stomach ache 1 to give mother milk to breast 2 diarrhea 3 a sore throat 1 malaria 1 general pain 1 difcult and pain when urinating 1 stomach ache 1

OLACACEAE

Ximenia americana L.

Muhiyou, Filounou ] ]

1737
appendix2. (continued )
Family/Species
OPILIACEAE

Habit Local names C Lahamounou ]

Plant part Remedy for ro le le ro le, ro ro ro ro ro for good health malaria wash newborn back-ache snake bite general pain boils back-ache for good health

No. of reports 2 2 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 3 1 1 2 5 1 2 3 1 9 1 1 5 1 5 2 1

Opilia amentalea Roxb.

POLYGALACEAE

Securidaca longipedunculata Fres.

Sihiya ]

RUBIACEAE

Crossopteryx febrifuga (G. Don) Benth.

Lobadihia ]

Feretia apodanthera Del. Mitragyna inermis (Willd.) O. Kuntze Sarcocephalus latifolius (Smith) Bruce

T T T

Tchilatchiga ] Blatooro ] Gloholon, Djoholon ] ]

le for good health ba general pain le, ro malaria ro stomach ache le, st wash newborn le sick children le stomach ache le malaria ro if children have no appetite ro, fr, le stomach ache ro, le for good health ro wash newborn ro, se malaria le le le le re ba ba ba se la ba ro ro le ba ro ro wash newborn malaria, tiredness for good health pain in the eyes

SAPINDACEAE

Paullinia pinnata L.

`` Bouvala, Anoubi-yere ] ]

SAPOTACEAE

Vitellaria paradoxa C.F. Gaertn.

Song ]

sick children 1 hemorrhoids 2 stomach ache 1 to give mother milk to breast 1 healing of wound 1 snake bite 1 a sore throat 1 diarrhea 1 stomach ache pain in the eyes leprosy infectious hepatitis general pain 1 1 1 1 1

STERCULIACEAE

Sterculia setigera Del.

VERBENACEAE

Kouhou-poulou ] Kanounou ] Tambari-kanounou ] ]

Vitex doniana Sweet Vitex madiensis Oliv.

T T

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