Chapter 1:

Basic Concepts and Methods

In This Chapter
Introduction to Human Development
Key Issues in the Study of Human Development Research Methods and Designs

An Introduction to Human Development Human Development: Scientific study of age-related changes in: Behavior Thinking Emotion Personality

Philosophical Roots
Original Sin Augustine of Hippo Humans are born selfish and must seek spiritual rebirth. Developmental Outcomes Individuals struggle to overcome immoral actions.

Philosophical and Scientific Roots Innate Goodness

Jean-Jacques Rousseau Emphasis on children and basic goodness of human nature Nurturance and protection needed Developmental Outcomes Childrens environment interferes or encourages

Philosophical and Scientific Roots The Blank Slate

John Locke Empiricism Children as passive recipients of environmental experiences Developmental Outcomes
Individual differences due to experience

Early Scientific Theories

Charles Darwin
First organized study of human development Evolution Interplay of genetics and environmental adaptation Baby biographies Detailed records of his own childrens early years

Early Scientific Theories

First scientific study of child development G. Stanley Hall Psychologist Emphasis on norms or average ages at which developmental milestones occur Coined storm and stress (adolescence)

The Lifespan Perspective

Overview Important changes occur in each period of development. Children and adults experience major life passages. Increased longevity

Early Scientific Theories

Systematic description of children across domains, particularly in the first five years of life Arnold Gesell Maturation occurs naturally from genetically programmed sequence. Used movie cameras, one-way mirrors

The Lifespan Perspective

Paul Baltes

Multi-contextual nature of development Plasticity and adaptability at all ages Interdisciplinary perspective and research With age, strategies used to maximize gain and compensate for losses

Domains and Periods of Development

Three broad domain categories:

Periods of Development

Prenatal

Infancy

Early Childhood

Middle Childhood

Adolescence

Early Adulthood

Middle Adulthood

Late Adulthood

Stop and Think!

What marks the end of each of these periods of development? How do you know?

Key Issues in the Study of Human Development

Nature versus Nurture
Nature Inborn propensities; biological influences Inborn biases Nurture Learning from environmental experiences Internal models of experience

Continuity versus Discontinuity

Continuity = Quantitative change in amount or degree Discontinuity = Qualitative, step-like change

What are the advantages and disadvantages of each kind of change?

Another Way to Look at It!

If development consists only of additions, the concept of stages is not needed. If development involves reorganization or emergence strategies, quality, or skills, than stages are useful.

Three Kinds of Change

Qualitative Changes in Kind or Type

Normative age-graded universal changes Social clock or age norms

Normative history-graded changes Cohort or generational effects Non-normative changes Unique, unshared changes or individual differences

Contexts of Development
Vulnerability and Resilience

Vulnerabilities and protective factors interact with a childs environment.

Environments cause differential effects.

Resilient children gain support from optimal environments.

Contexts of Development
Gender

Gender matters. Influences individual development Interaction between characteristics and environment influences and is influenced by gender.

Contexts of Development
Origins of Delinquency
Poor discipline and poor monitoring

Push toward delinquency

Noncompliant child

Delinquency

Rejection by peers and school difficulty

Negative behavior patterns established

Patterson et al., 2002

Contexts of Development
Individual differences related to timing Critical period Sensitive period On-time events Off-time events Atypical development Double Whammy

Questions To Ponder
Now that you have heard several issues, which do you think are more important in understanding developmentnature issues or nurture issues? Why? What part of the life span interests you the most? What issues would you like to learn about the most?

Research Methods and Designs

Are theories and hypotheses the same?
Theories Predictions or hypotheses

The Goals of Developmental Science

Describe development
Explain development Predict developmental event Influence some developmental outcome

Descriptive Methods
Variables: characteristics that vary across people Relationship: when two or more variables vary together
Can you think of two variables we could study to learn about our class?

Descriptive Methods
Naturalistic Observations Descriptive methods: ways to identify relationship People observed in their normal environments Potential observer biases Limited generalizability Time consuming

Descriptive Methods
Case Studies and Laboratory Observations
Case Studies In-depth examination of a single individual
Laboratory Observations Controlled setting for study

Descriptive Methods
Surveys, Interviews and Questionnaires
Two broad survey areas: Questionnaires Interviews Methods Questions asked; answers recorded Samples used

Correlations
Correlations
Describe the strength of the relationship between two variables High scores on one variable usually accompany high scores on the other. Scores on two variables move in opposite directions.

Positive correlation

Negative correlation

Limitations of Correlations

Correlation is NOT causality.

Correlations measure the level or degree of covariation between two variables. They do not prove causal relationships.

Experimental Designs
Test causal hypotheses.
Randomly assign participants to different treatment and control groups. Experimental (treatment) group Control group

Experimental Designs
Variables

Independent variable or cause

Dependent variable or effect The dependent variable depends on the cause. Quasi-experiments Participants not randomly assigned

Experimental Designs
Three General Categories

Lets take a closer look at each.

Designs to Study Age-Related Changes

Cross-Sectional Designs People studied from different age groups at same time point Can indicate possible age differences or age changes But age-related differences may become confused with cohort or generational effects.

Birth Cohort or Generational Effects

Different generations have unique experiences.

Cohort and generational effects can become entangled.

Can you see any cohort patterns?

Figure 1.1 An Example of a Cross-Sectional Design

Designs to Study Age-Related Changes

Longitudinal Designs Same individuals studied over a period of time Individual consistencies and inconsistencies can be observed. Net change assessed over time in the same people.

Longitudinal Designs: Some Problems

Practice or testing affect Study attrition

Figure 1.2 Example of a Longitudinal Design

Designs to Study Age-Related Changes

Sequential Designs Combined groups from at least two cohorts followed in a longitudinal study Comparison of cohorts while incorporating some degree of individual differences Both aging AND cohort effects are possible.

Figure 1.3 An Example of a CrossSequential Design

Cross-Cultural Research
Ethnographies

In-depth descriptions of single culture or context May compare two or more cultures or subcultures
Can provide both descriptive and interpretive information

Cross-Cultural Research
Benefits

Cross-cultural Studies Search for universal and unique developmental changes

Demonstrate degree of environmental variation within human development

Research Ethics
Ethics: broad ethical principles for responsible conduct of research and use of any outcomes resulting from research In Research: Protection of animal rights and human subjects Universities, government, and organizations often have Institutional Review Boards (IRBs).

Research Ethics
Protection from harm
Informed consent Confidentiality Knowledge of result

Deception