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Signature of Pest-Organisms in Mato Grosso Agroecosystems Using WorldView-2 Imagery

Marcelo de C. Alves
Federal University of Mato Grosso Soil and Rural Engineering Department Av. Fernando Correa da Costa S/N Coxipo District, 78060-900 Cuiab -MT, Brazil P (55-65) 3615-8655 F (55-65) 3615-8668 mdecalves@ufmt.br

Signature of Pest-Organisms in Mato Grosso Agroecosystems Using WorldView-2 Imagery

Abstract
This paper presents an application in which WorldView-2 images were used to detect the damage caused by nematodes in soybean (Glycine max L.), maize (Zea mays L.), sunnhemp (Crotalaria ochroleuca G. Don.) and dark sword-grass (Agrotis ipsilon) in maize (Zea mays L.). After the atmospheric correction, signals of pest-organisms were evaluated using different band composition as well as by the soil adjusted vegetation index, leaf area index, fraction of absorbed photosynthetically active radiation, surface albedo, absorbed solar radiation flux and the first principal component analysis derived from WorldView-2 multispectral images. The pixel value of the images and derived indexes were submitted to variogram analysis. It was possible to characterize the spatial variation of nematodes in soybean, maize, sunnhemp and dark sword-grass in maize crop using 8-band high resolution satellite image and derived indexes. The spatial and spectral approach adopted in this study enabled to observe the high resolution variability of the energy budget of a given landscape and its applicability to detect spatial variation of the infestation of pest-organisms in agroecosystems. Keywords SAVI, LAI, FPAR, albedo, absorbed solar radiation flux, Agrotis ipsilon, geostatistics.

1. Introduction
Traditional spectral classification of remotely sensed images applied on a pixel-by-pixel basis ignores the potentially useful spatial information between the values of proximate pixels (Atkinson & Lewis, 2000). Geostatistical analysis can be used in digital image processing to quantify the spatial texture or pattern of the distinct spatial properties of Earths surface (Li et al., 2009), based on the value of a pixel and its neighbors, trying to quantify the spatial autocorrelation relationships in the imagery. The brightness values in imagery constitute a record of spatial properties forming texture or pattern with autocorrelation characteristics of a random variable distributed in space, said to be regionalized (Jensen, 2005). Colombo et al. (2003) used geostatistics to evaluate different spatial variability patterns of vegetation based on leaf area index derived from IKONOS imagery. According to the authors, the high spatial resolution mapping of leaf area index was useful for management decisions in precision agriculture. Kerry and Oliver (2007) also used geostatistics to analyze observations of soil structure using indicator statistics. Aerial photographs with ground pixel size of 3.4 m were geo-corrected, and digital numbers (8 bits) of the red, green and blue wavebands were extracted for each pixel and submitted to variogram analysis. The authors observed correspondence between the range of variograms and kriging maps of the waveband images, quantifying the soil structure of the evaluated areas. Similarly, Pozdnyakova et al. (2002) evaluated spatial and spectral properties of phytophthora root rot of cranberry using color-infrared aerial photography and geostatistics. According to the authors, the spatial pattern of stressed vegetation was corresponded to the spread of phytophthora root rot infection, causing chronic injury and low yield. The disease developed in surface depressions with low infiltration rates, with high soil water content later in the growing season. Kriging results provided relatively accurate surface maps which spatially matched the features found on the photographs. Santoso et al. (2011) used QuickBird imagery to detect basal stem rot disease caused by Ganoderma boninense in palm field. Six vegetation indices derived from visible and near infrared bands were used to identify palms infected by the disease. The resulting maps enabled to observe older palms with sporadic disease pattern and younger palms with dendritic pattern with medium to low infection. Basal stem rot had a higher reflectance in the visible bands and a lower reflectance in the near infrared band. Considering that control strategies require knowledge about bioecology, dynamics and spatial patterns of the pest-organisms in the field, in order to determine whether site-specific management is feasible in relation to the pest potential spread, the objective of the present work is to evaluate if the multispectral

Signature of Pest-Organisms in Mato Grosso Agroecosystems Using WorldView-2 Imagery

WorldView-2 images and derived products from the images can be used to detect nematodes and dark sword-grass in Mato Grosso agroecosystems, Brazil.

2. Methods
2.1 Study Area
The experiment was conducted at Rotilis farm, in Jaciara, Mato Grosso state, centr al Brazil. It comprises the Brazilian Savannas (Cerrado) zone, with flat elevation, about 700 m above sea level. The predominant soil class is the Latossolo Vermelho-Escuro distrofrrico (Typic Acrustox in the Soil Taxonomy). The climate is tropical with a rainy season between October and April and dry season between March and September.

2.2 Remote-Sensor Data

WorldView-2 images were obtained from the experimental area in the periods of 06/12/2010, 09/16/2010 and 01/26/2011. WorldView-2 acquired 11-bit data in nine spectral bands covering panchromatic (671 nm), coastal (band 1, 427 nm), blue (band 2, 478 nm), green (band 3, 546 nm), yellow (band 4, 608 nm), red (band 5, 659 nm), red edge (band 6, 724 nm), NIR1 (band 7, 831 nm), and NIR2 (band 8, 908 nm). At nadir, the collected nominal ground sample distance was 0.46 m (panchromatic) and 1.84 m (multispectral). The images were geometric orthorectified and the final product was resampled to 0.5 m (panchromatic) and 2.0 m (multispectral) (Updike and Comp, 2010).

2.3 Remote-Sensor Data Processing

The radiative transfer algorithm MODTRAN 4 + (Jensen, 2005) was used to correct the eight multispectral bands of each image. The first step of the algorithm compares measured and model of the planetary albedos of earth and atmosphere to calculate the surface reflectance. The solar radiance reflected from a uniform Lambert surface of reflectance received by a spaceborne sensor is defined by (Kaufman, 1985). Model MODTRAN-2 defines a path radiance Lp that includes the diffusely reflected ground radiation. Then, the model of the planetary albedo was calculated with SENSAT-5 code (Richter, 1996). Considering that WorldView-2 has variable gain settings, the true gain-values have to be extracted from the metadata. The provided calibration file must be updated with value found in the metadata for each scene. After atmospheric correction, the images were converted into reflectance in order to generate the spectral curves of the studied targets. The reflectance images were submitted to 6 image processing procedures to identify and map the pest-organisms in the field. Firstly, soil adjusted vegetation index (SAVI) was used to detect plants infected by the nematodes and dark sword-grass. The soil adjusted vegetation index was calculated for each scene (Huete, 1988; Baret and Guyot, 1991). The SAVI index was chosen to outline the existing spots in crops by minimizing the brightness variations of the soil in the vegetation index (Huete, 1988). SAVI was divided by 1000 in order to obtain physical values.

Signature of Pest-Organisms in Mato Grosso Agroecosystems Using WorldView-2 Imagery

The leaf area index (LAI) was other vegetation index used to evaluate the leaf area affected by the attack of pests. The LAI was determined by an empirical relation between LAI and SAVI, with three parameters (Asrar et al., 1984; Baret and Guyot, 1991). The parameters ao, a1 and a2 were set to 0.72, 0.61 and 0.65, referent to soybean crop development (Choudury et al., 1994). The parameters were the same for all evaluated images, in order to compare the algorithm results among the multitemporal studied images. LAI was divided by 1000 in order to obtain physical values. The fraction of absorbed photosynthetically active radiation (FPAR) was also determined empirically (Asrar et al., 1984; Wiegand et al., 1990; Wiegand et al., 1991). FPAR is associated with the green phytomass and crop productivity, considering that PAR is referent to the spectral 0.4 to 0.7 m region, where plants mainly absorb solar radiation. FPAR was divided by 1000 in order to obtain physical values. Since LAI and FPAR equations are simple empirical relationships based on the selected vegetation index, the resulted trends are only approximations, therefore it is recommended to use the same parameter set for all multitemporal scenes. The ground albedo, related to the wavelength-integrated ground reflectance, was used to substitute the surface albedo. Principal components analysis (PCA) was used to explore the linear combination of the 8 multispectral bands of each image, using correlation (PC correl) and covariance (PC cov) matrices approaches. The linear combination was the same of the number of the original variables. The main idea was to perform a rigid rotation in the coordinate system, resulting new axes positioned towards greater variability in order to obtain the principal components. In this case, the first principal components are responsible for most of the variability contained in the original data (Richards, 1999; Jolliffe, 2002). The first principal component, which explained the major amount of the total variance of the 8 bands, was adopted as an indicator to identify and map the pest-organisms in the field. True color compositions R5G3B2, false color compositions R8G5B3 and 7R6G4B were also evaluated to identify signals of the damage caused by the pest-organisms in the evaluated crops.

2.4 Subset of Areas around Spots of Pest-Organisms

Areas around plants with signals of pest-organisms were selected in the images to characterize the structure and magnitude of the damage caused by these pests in the evaluated crops. The areas 1 and 2 were located around spots in soybean (Glycine max L) cultivar TMG132RR, in the image of 01/26/2011. Areas 3 and 4 we were demarcated around spots located in maize (Zea mays L.) cultivar AG1051 (area 3) and sunnhemp (Crotalaria ochroleuca G. Don.) (area 4), in the image of 06/12/2010. The area 5 was demarcated around the cultivation of maize (Zea mays L.), cultivar AG1051, in the image of 09/16/2010. SAVI, LAI, FPAR, ALBEDO, RSOLAR and the first principal component index were subset from each area, in order to perform the detection of spatial signatures (Figure 1).

2.5 Ground Reference Information

Root and soil samples were collected at 0-20 cm depth, in December 10, 2010 and February 10, 2011, around signs of nematode infestation, characterized by injuries in the plants and nodules in the roots. The samples were numbered with 1, 2, 4, 5, 6 and 7 codes and georeferenced using Topcon Hiper L1/L2 GPS, real time kinematic mode, and submitted to perform soil physicochemical (Embrapa, 1997) and nematode analysis (Jenkins, 1964; Coolen and DHerde, 1972) (Figure 2). In September 2010, it was detected high infestation of dark sword-grass (Agrotis ipsilon) in the maize crop, cutting off the stem of the plants in the beginning of the tillage.

Signature of Pest-Organisms in Mato Grosso Agroecosystems Using WorldView-2 Imagery

2.6 Geostatistical Analysis

The pattern of spatial dependence of infestation by nematode in sunnhemp crop was evaluated by the variogram analysis. The pixel of each WorldView-2 spectral band and normalized difference vegetation index were considered to be a random function Z(x), where x denotes the spatial location. In geostatistics, estimating and modeling the variogram are an important step because the parameters of the chosen model describe the spatial correlation structure and are used in kriging (Liebhold et al., 1993; Burrough and McDonnell, 1998). Webster and Oliver (2007) recommended a minimum of 100 data from which to compute a reliable experimental variogram by the usual method, i.e. Matherons (1965) method of moments estimator. A theoretical function is then fitted to the experimental values to summarize the spatial relations in the data. The parameters of the fitted model can be used to estimate or predict at unsampled places at points by kriging (Webster and Oliver, 2007). Several isotropic authorized functions were fitted by weighted ordinary least squares (OLS) (Cressie, 1985), but spherical (Olea, 2003) and stable (Wackernagel, 1999) functions provided the best fit. The best fitting models were chosen by cross-validation (Cressie, 1993; Chils and Delfiner, 1999).

2.7 Used Software

Digital image processing was done using Erdas IMAGINE 11 and Atcor 11 softwares. Variograms and cross-validation were performed using the ArcGIS 11 software.

3. Results
3.1 Ground reference information
Based on reports of soil samples, it was observed the occurrence of the nematodes in all sampled points, identifying Pratylenchus brachyurus and Helicotylenchus spp. as the major etiologic agent of the spots in the areas 1, 2, 3 and 4 (Table 1). Sampled points 1 and 2, presented higher occurrence of Helicotylenchus spp. in area 2, determining lighter spots on the plants when compared to the sampled points 4, 5, 6 and 7, with higher occurrence of Pratylenchus brachyurus on the roots (Figure 1).

3.2 WorldView2 Data Processing

True color compositions R5G3B2 and false color compositions R8G5B3 and 7R6G4B enabled to identify signals of the damage caused by the pest-organisms in the evaluated crops, but false color compositions were better than color composition to detect the damage caused by nematodes in soybean ( Glycine max L.), maize (Zea mays L.), sunnhemp (Crotalaria ochroleuca G. Don.) and dark sword-grass (Agrotis ipsilon) in maize (Zea mays L.) (Figures 1 and 3). WorldView-2 8 -multispectral bands enabled to derive the soil adjusted vegetation index, leaf area index, fraction of absorbed photosynthetically active radiation, surface albedo, absorbed solar radiation flux and the first principal component analysis based on covariance and correlation matrices. The principal component based on covariance matrix was chosen because the total variance explained was higher than the correlation matrix, for all evaluated images of 01/26/2011, 06/12/2010 and 09/16/2010 (Table 2). SAVI enabled to outline the existing spots in the evaluated crops by minimizing the brightness variations of the soil in the vegetation index. The damage caused by the pest-organisms was characterized by lower SAVI values. Higher SAVI values were observed in 06/12/2010, followed by 01/26/2011 and 09/16/2010

Signature of Pest-Organisms in Mato Grosso Agroecosystems Using WorldView-2 Imagery

evaluated periods. Similarly to SAVI, LAI images also enabled to detect the damage caused by the pestorganisms, with higher LAI values in 06/12/2010, followed by 01/26/2011 and 09/16/2010 (Figure 4). Maize and sunnhemp LAI values were near to 6 in 06/12/2010, confirming that a quantitative agreement with field measurements of different crop types in different seasons cannot be expected. Thus, field observations of LAI would be necessary to confirm the obtained values. The FPAR, related to be associated with the green phytomass and crop productivity, also presented similar pattern as LAI and SAVI, with higher values at regions without damage caused by the pest-organisms. Higher values near 0.92 occurred in 06/12/2010. The surface albedo, related to the wavelength-integrated ground reflectance, presented was similar to SAVI, LAI and FPAR, in the periods of 01/26/2011 and 06/12/2010, but presented distinct pattern in 09/16/2010 (Figure 5). The variation of the absorbed solar radiation in 09/16/2010, with low values in the plants with damage, determined the albedo variation in relation to the other periods, and caused doubts about the areas with higher damage caused by pest-organisms (Figure 6). Otherwise, in the periods of 01/26/2011 and 06/12/2010, the absorbed solar radiation was higher in the areas with damage caused by the nematodes. The first principal component derived from the PCA analysis using covariance matrix not only was useful to characterize the greater variability of all the 8 bands of WorldView-2 images, but also enabled to identify and map the pest-organisms in the field. Areas with damage in plants were represented by low values of the principal component index, in contrast with higher values in not damaged areas.

3.4 Spatial Signature

The variogram analysis enabled to detect the structure and magnitude of spatial dependency of the SAVI, LAI, FPAR, surface albedo, absorbed solar radiation flux and the first principal component based on covariance matrix. The choice on the order of trend removal was chosen observing the variography analysis and cross validation results. The second order of trend removal was adopted for the variables LAI, albedo and solar radiation flux in 06/12/2010 and solar radiation flux in 09/16/2010. Spherical models better described the spatial pattern of the evaluated variables, except for albedo and solar radiation flux in 09/16/2010, wherein the stable model performed better. Considering the subsets of the areas A and B, the range of spatial dependency in 01/26/2011 varied between 370 to 392 m. In relation to the subsets of the areas C and D, the range in 06/12/2010 varied between 162 to 169 m. Regarding the area E, in 09/16/2010, the range was between 170 and 176 m, except for albedo and solar radiation flux, which presented ranges of about 75 m and 36 m, respectivelly (Table 3). The satisfactory implementation of the geostatistical analysis to characterize the spatial pattern of the damage caused by the pest-organisms was observed in the well-defined structures of the variograms, with binned and average values increase with the distance until stabilization after a distance that separates the structured and not spatially dependent data (Figures 7, 8 and 9). In general, geostatistical analysis performed better based on the kriging error coefficients. Better coefficient results were observed for albedo and solar radiation flux in all evaluated periods (Table 4).

3.5 Spectral Signatures

The occurrence of the nematodes and maize plants cut by the dark sword-grass, determined spectral signature with peaks of lower reflectance in the far red-edge region (724 nm), NIR1 infrared region (831 nm), and NIR2 infrared region (908 nm), with higher reflectance peaks in the visible region when compared to plants located outside of the signals of the pest-organisms (Figure 10). The spatial signature of health plants, presented peaks of lower reflectance near center wavelengths of the costal (427 nm) and red (659 nm) bands, and higher reflectance peaks near center wavelengths of the green (546 nm) and NIR2 (908 nm) regions.

Signature of Pest-Organisms in Mato Grosso Agroecosystems Using WorldView-2 Imagery

Discussion
4.1 Ground reference information
The darker spots on the plants in the sampled points 4, 5, 6 and 7, with higher occurrence of Pratylenchus brachyurus, were already related in other works. According to Costa and Ferraz (1998), Pratylenchus brachyurus is a plant parasitic nematode which has wide distribution due to a broad range of hosts (Endo, 1967; Ferraz, 1996). Chlorosis and dwarfing in soybean plants are very common symptoms associated with this nematode infestation. Schmitt and Barker (1981) observed yield reduction of soybean crop in function of soil physical characteristics and densities of P. brachyurus. The nematode aggressiveness determined soybean and maize death, enabling the soil visualization, causing dark pattern of the spots in the region with nematode occurrence. P. brachyurus associated to other diseases, like Rhizoctonia solani, caused severe post-emergence damping-off of soybeans, with greater damage than either pathogen alone (Lindsey and Cairns, 1971).

4.2 WorldView2 data processing

Greater oscillation of LAI values observed in the presented work, were also observed by other authors studying soybean crop and the directional effects on NDVI and LAI retrievals from MODIS in Mato Grosso state, Brazil. According to Breunig et al. (2011), LAI differences up to 3.2 for consecutive days were observed when the global empirical model was used. Thus, it was recommended care when use this variable in agronomic growing/yield models. Forward global LAI estimates presented values near to 5.5, 48 days of planting of soybean cultivar Emgopa, in February 23, 2005. After 100 days after planting, LAI values were near to 1. The higher values of LAI observed in the present study could be explained by the higher values of maize crop when compared to soybean crop. Similarly, but related to phytophthoracranberry pathosystem, Pozdnyakova et al. (2002) studying spatial patterns of vegetation index, observed that low NDVI image derived from CIR aerial photography corresponded to reduction of cranberry yield and the spread of phytophthora root rot chronic injury. In relation to surface albedo, the distinct pattern presented in 09/16/2010, was related to other wavelength regions of the spectrum than the fraction of absorbed photosynthetically active radiation. This pattern was represented by the low values of the absorbed solar radiation flux near the spots caused by the dark sword-grass in maize. Thus, albedo variability can be related to the critical characteristic of the albedo in defining the energy budget of a given landscape and of the Earth as a whole. Albedo can create variability in the no-radiant energy budget fluxes of latent and sensible heat, in the temperature of terrestrial systems and in the gross primary production of an ecosystem (Sumner et al., 2011).

4.4 Spatial signature

The satisfactory implementation of the geostatistical analysis to characterize the spatial pattern of the damage caused by the pest-organisms was observed considering that increasing in distance, culminated in the stability of the models, up to a value at which the local effects had no more influence, separating clearly the structured universe of the random, satisfying the stationary assumptions. The satisfactory use of geostatistical analysis to assess the spatial representativeness of vegetation based on MODIS BRDF/albedo product was also evaluated by Romn et al. (2009). The authors observed that geostatistical attributes of spatial representativeness have broad utility, but were particularly useful for identifying measurement sites to validate satellite-derived retrievals of albedo, producing a pixel-specific measure of product uncertainty both in terms of the quality of the algorithm inversions and their ability to capture the underlying spatial and seasonal variability at local scales, and identifying appropriately representative measurement sites of the broader regional ecosystems.

Signature of Pest-Organisms in Mato Grosso Agroecosystems Using WorldView-2 Imagery

The variograms obtained in the present work could be used as prior knowledge about the spatial heterogeneity of high spatial resolution data over particular crop sites and pest-organisms. According to Garrigues et al. (2008), a possible strategy to correct the scaling bias of non-linear estimation processes of land surface variable consists in using variogram model of high spatial resolution data as a proxy for the spatial heterogeneity within moderate resolution pixel.

4.5 Spectral Signatures

Spectral signatures of the nematodes and maize plants with dark sword-grass were similar to signatures detected in other studies. Santoso et al. (2011) observed the same pattern studying basal stem rot disease in oil palms of North Sumatra with QuickBird imagery. According to the authors, infected palms had higher reflectance values in the visible bands and lower ones in the NIR band. The pattern of health plants, presented points of reflectance absorption near 400 wavelength Breunig et al. (2011) studying the MODIS surface reflectance spectra of the soybean cultivars Perdiz and Tabarana for different days after planting and opposite view angles, in Tanguro farm, Mato Grosso, Brazil, 2004-2005 growing season, observed points of energy absorption near wavelength of 440 and 650 nm, and peaks of higher reflectance values near 540 and 900 nm.

5. Conclusions
The spatial and spectral variation of the damage caused by pest-organisms in agroecosystems was characterized using WorldView2 multispectral images. The spatial analysis approach adopted in this study enabled to detect spatial variation in the infestation of nematode in soybean, maize and sunnhemp field and dark sword-grass in maize, indicating the possibility of developing strategies to provide more effective control, less environmental impact and sustainability of the agroecosystem, according to the philosophy of integrated pest management and precision agriculture. The use of soil adjusted vegetation index, leaf area index, fraction of absorbed photosynthetically active radiation, surface albedo, absorbed solar radiation flux and the first principal component analysis based on covariance matrix, derived from WorldView2 multispectral images, improved the spatial identification of the damage in the crops.

6. Acknowledgements
To CNPq for funding our research and 2012 ERDAS IMAGINE-DigitalGlobe Geospatial Challenge, for the opportunity to work with WorldView-2 images.

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Signature of Pest-Organisms in Mato Grosso Agroecosystems Using WorldView-2 Imagery

Matheron, G., 1965, Les variables rgionalises et leur estimation (Paris: Masson et Cie edition). Meng, Q., Cieszewski, C., Madden, M., 2009, Large area forest inventory using Landsat ETM+: A geostatistical approach. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 64, pp. 27-36. Olea, R.A., 2003, Geostatistics for Engineers and Earth Scientists (Norwell: Kluwer Academi c Publishers). Pielke, R.A., Rodriguez, J.H., Eastman, J.L., Walko, R.L. and Stocker, R.A., 1993, Influence of albedo variability in complex terrain on mesoscale systems. Journal of Climate, 6, pp. 1798-1806. Pozdnyakova, L., Oudemans, P.V., Hughes, M.G. and Gimnez, D., 2002, Estimation of spatial and spectral properties of phytophtora root rot and its effects on cranberry yield. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 37, pp. 57-70. Richter, R., 1996, A spatially adaptive fast atmospheric correction algorithm. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 17, pp. 1201-1214. Richards, J.A., 1999, Remote Sensing Digital Image Analysis: An Introduction (Berlin: Springer-Verlag). Robbins, R.T., Riggs, R.D. and Von Steen, D., 1987, Results of Annual Phytoparasitic Nematode surveys of Arkansas soybean fields, 1978-1986. Annals of Applied Nematology, 1, pp.50-55. Romn, M.O., Schaaf, C.B., Woodcock, C.E., Strahler, A.H., Yang, X., Braswell, R.H., Curtis, P.S., Davis, K.J., Dragoni, D., Goulden, M.L., Gu, L., Hollinger, D.Y., Kolb, T.E., Meyers, T.P., Munger, J.W., Privette, J.L., Richardson, A.D., Wilson, T.B. and Wofsy, S.C., 2009, The MODIS (Collection V005) BRDF/albedo product: Assessment of spatial representativeness over forested landscapes. Remote Sensing of Environment, 113, pp. 24762498. Rossi, R.E., Mulla, D.J., Journel, A.G. and Franz, E.H., 1992, Geostatistical tools for modeling and interpreting ecological spatial dependence. Ecological Monographs, 62, pp. 277-314. Rossi, R.E., Dungan, J.L. and Beck, L.R., 1994, Kriging in the shadows: Geostatistical interpolation for remote sensing. Remote Sensing of Environment, 49, pp. 32-40. Santoso, H., Gunawan, T., Jatmiko, R.H., Darmosarkoro, W. and Minasny, B., 2011, Mapping and identifying basal stem rot disease in oil palms in North Sumatra with QuickBird imagery. Precision Agriculture, 12, pp. 233-248. Schmitt, D.P. and Barker, K.R., 1981, Damage and reproductive potentials of Pratylenchus brachyurus and P. penetrans on soybean. Journal of Nematology, 13, pp. 327-332. Seixas, J., Carvalhais, N., Nunes, C. and Benali, A., 2009, Comparative analysis of MODIS-FAPAR and MERISMGVI datasets: Potential impacts on ecosystem modeling. Remote Sensing of Environment, 113, pp. 25472559. Sumner, D.M., Wu, Q. and Pathak, C.S., 2011, Variability of albedo and utility of the MODIS albedo product in forested wetlands. Wetlands, 31, pp. 229-237. Tarnavsky, E., Garrigues, S. and Brown, M.E., 2008, Multiscale geostatistical analysis of AVHRR, SPOTVGT, and MODIS globa NDVI products. Remote Sensing of Environment, 112, pp. 535-549. Treitz, P. and Howarth, P., 2000, High spatial resolution remote sensing data for forest ecosystem classification: an examination of spatial scale. Remote Sensing of Environment, 72, pp. 268-289.

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Signature of Pest-Organisms in Mato Grosso Agroecosystems Using WorldView-2 Imagery

Updike, T. and Comp, C., 2010, Radiometric Use of WorldView-2 Imagery, Technical Note, Revision 1 (Longmont, Colorado, USA). Wackernagel, H., 2003, Multivariate geostatistics: an introduction with applications (New York: Springer). Webster, R. and Oliver, M., 2007, Geostatistics for environmental scientists (England: John Wiley & Sons). Wiegand, C.L., Gerbermann, A.H., Gallo, K.P., Blad, B.L., and Dusek, D., 1990, Multisite analyses of spectral-biophysical data for cor, Remote Sensing of Environment, 33, pp. 1-6. Wiegand, C.L., Richardson, A.J., Escobar, D.E., and Gebermann, A.H., 1991, Vegetation indices in crop assessments, 35, pp. 105-119.

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Signature of Pest-Organisms in Mato Grosso Agroecosystems Using WorldView-2 Imagery

Figure 1: Geographic location of the studied area (upper left), false color composition (7R6G4B) of the WorldView-2 images of 01/26/2011 (upper right), 06/12/2010 (down left), 09/16/2010 (down right), with the A to E subset areas used for geostatistical analysis and sampled points 1 to 10, used for determination of the pixel spectral signature (1 to 11) as well as for laboratorial analysis of nematode (1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7)

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Signature of Pest-Organisms in Mato Grosso Agroecosystems Using WorldView-2 Imagery

Figure 2: Images of 12/10/2010 showing the equipment used to collect soil and root samples (top left), base GPS receiver and meteorological stations (top right), soybean (Glycine max L.), cultivar TMG132RR, with nematode signals (middle left and middle right), sunnhemp (Crotalaria ochroleuca G. Don.) with nematode signals (down left) and maize (Zea mays L.), cultivar AG1051 in the harvest period (down right)

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Signature of Pest-Organisms in Mato Grosso Agroecosystems Using WorldView-2 Imagery

Figure 3: Color (R5G3B2) (left) and false color (R8G5B3) (right) composites of the spatial signatures caused by nematodes in soybean (01/26/2011) (top), maize and sunnhemp (06/12/2010) (middle) and dark sword-grass in maize (09/16/2010) (down). The highlighted areas in the down right image R8G5B3 were cultivated with watermelon

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Signature of Pest-Organisms in Mato Grosso Agroecosystems Using WorldView-2 Imagery

Figure 4: Soil adjusted vegetation index (left) and leaf area index (right) of the spatial signatures caused by nematodes in soybean (01/26/2011) (top), maize and sunnhemp (06/12/2010) (middle) and dark sword-grass in maize (09/16/2010) (down)

15

Signature of Pest-Organisms in Mato Grosso Agroecosystems Using WorldView-2 Imagery

Figure 5: Fraction of absorbed photosynthetically active radiation (left), surface albedo (%) (right), of the spatial signatures caused by nematodes in soybean (01/26/2011) (top), maize and sunnhemp (06/12/2010) (middle) and dark sword-grass in maize (09/16/2010) (down)

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Signature of Pest-Organisms in Mato Grosso Agroecosystems Using WorldView-2 Imagery

Figure 6: Absorbed solar radiation flux (W m-2) (left) and the first principal component analysis based on covariance (right), of the spatial signatures caused by nematodes in soybean (01/26/2011) (top), maize and sunnhemp (06/12/2010) (middle) and dark sword-grass in maize (09/16/2010) (down)

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Signature of Pest-Organisms in Mato Grosso Agroecosystems Using WorldView-2 Imagery

Figure 7: Variograms of the soil adjusted vegetation index (left) and leaf area index (right) of the spatial signatures caused by nematodes in soybean (01/26/2011) (top), maize and sunnhemp (06/12/2010) (middle) and dark sword-grass in maize (09/16/2010) (down)

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Signature of Pest-Organisms in Mato Grosso Agroecosystems Using WorldView-2 Imagery

Figure 8: Variograms of the fraction of absorbed photosynthetically active radiation (left) and surface albedo (%) (right), of the spatial signatures caused by nematodes in soybean (01/26/2011) (top), maize and sunnhemp (06/12/2010) (middle) and dark sword-grass in maize (09/16/2010) (down)

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Signature of Pest-Organisms in Mato Grosso Agroecosystems Using WorldView-2 Imagery

Figure 9: Variograms of the absorbed solar radiation flux (W m-2) (left) and the first principal component analysis based on covariance (right), of the spatial signatures caused by nematodes in soybean (01/26/2011) (top), maize and sunnhemp (06/12/2010) (middle) and dark sword-grass in maize (09/16/2010) (down)

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Signature of Pest-Organisms in Mato Grosso Agroecosystems Using WorldView-2 Imagery

Figure 10: Spectral signatures of the points 1 to 11 sampled in the WorldView-2 multispectral images of 01/26/2011, 06/12/2010 and 09/16/2010.

Table 1: Laboratory report of number of nematodes in soil and root samples collected from the georeferenced points at December 10, 2010 and February 10, 2011. Pratylenchus brachyurus (soil) 20 20 610 640 30 0 Pratylenchus brachyurus (roots) 0 0 5181 9550 2483 280 Junvenil Meloidogyne (soil) 0 0 5570 80 0 0 Junvenil Meloidogyne (roots) 0 0 2010 0 0 0 Juvenil Heterodera (soil) 70 0 0 0 20 30 Heli1cotylenchus spp. (soil) 650 730 180 680 3740 10410 Helicotylenchus spp. (roots) 0 0 90 333 100 540

Point 1 2 4 5 6 7

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Signature of Pest-Organisms in Mato Grosso Agroecosystems Using WorldView-2 Imagery

Table 2: Total variance explained (%) of the principal component analysis using covariance and correlation matrices, derived from the 8 band of WorldView-2 multispectral images of 01/26/2011, 06/12/2010 and 09/16/2010.

Convariance Matrix Component Number 01/26/2011 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 84.89773 13.31642 0.971357 0.462016 0.189057 0.097246 0.047036 0.019139 06/12/2010 79.60984 18.37303 0.898389 0.480571 0.394561 0.14633 0.070117 0.027155 09/16/2010 88.89321 10.42446 0.456973 0.163137 0.047492 0.006413 0.005267 0.00305 01/26/2011 61.39577 33.65917 2.813785 1.168765 0.667508 0.156252 0.081251 0.057501

Correlation Matrix

06/12/2010 53.51692 35.15794 8.148852 1.471268 0.961262 0.555007 0.127502 0.061251

09/16/2010 70.54838 26.92409 1.506269 0.490006 0.343754 0.115001 0.058751 0.01375

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Signature of Pest-Organisms in Mato Grosso Agroecosystems Using WorldView-2 Imagery

Table 3: Theoretical variograms used to characterize the structure and magnitude of spatial dependency of the soil adjusted vegetation index (SAVI), leaf area index (LAI), fraction of absorbed photosynthetically active radiation (FPAR), surface albedo (ALBEDO), absorbed solar radiation flux (RSOLAR) and the first principal component analysis based on covariance (PC cov) matrix, derived from WorldView-2 multispectral images of 01/26/2011, 06/12/2010 and 09/16/2010. Variable {Date} SAVI [01/26/2011] LAI [01/26/2011] FPAR [01/26/2011] ALBEDO [01/26/2011] RSOLAR [01/26/2011] PC cov [01/26/2011] SAVI [06/12/2010] LAI [06/12/2010] FPAR [06/12/2010] ALBEDO [06/12/2010] RSOLAR [06/12/2010] PC cov [06/12/2010] SAVI [09/16/2010] LAI [09/16/2010] FPAR [09/16/2010] ALBEDO [09/16/2010] RSOLAR [09/16/2010] PC cov [09/16/2010] Second Second Second Second Order of Trend Removal Model Type Spherical Spherical Spherical Spherical Spherical Spherical Spherical Spherical Spherical Spherical Spherical Spherical Spherical Spherical Spherical Spherical Spherical Spherical Nugget 0.000093 0.009595 0.0002670 0.069075 0.47003 3876.8 0.001528 0.6351 0.0057316 2.0951 32.227 174170 0.00099 0.02496 0.000171 0.000000 0.000000 72821 Major Range 370.36 382.02 378.94 379.00 392.51 375.53 166.89 162.16 169.13 165.06 163.77 167.00 175.91 176.69 177.37 75.141 36.123 170.25 Partial Sill 0.002288 0.17902 0.0060337 3.8415 141.33 384350 0.0080352 1.6899 0.024328 8.5919 136.14 896760 0.009333 0.15007 0.01338 12.687 36.109 419480

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Signature of Pest-Organisms in Mato Grosso Agroecosystems Using WorldView-2 Imagery

Table 4: Quality coefficients of the kriging method estimates used to characterize the spatial signature of the injury signals caused by pest-organisms in Mato Grosso state agroecosystems, using soil adjusted vegetation index (SAVI), leaf area index (LAI), fraction of absorbed photosynthetically active radiation (FPAR), surface albedo (ALBEDO), absorbed solar radiation flux (RSOLAR), principal component analysis based on covariance (PC cov) matrix, derived from WorldView-2 multispectral images of 01/26/2011, 06/12/2010 and 09/16/2010

Root Mean Variable [Date] Samples Mead Prediction Error Square Prediction Error

Root Mean Square Mean Standardized Prediction Error Standardized Prediction Error Average Standard Prediction Error

SAVI [01/26/2011] LAI [01/26/2011] FPAR [01/26/2011] ALBEDO [01/26/2011] RSOLAR [01/26/2011] PC cov [01/26/2011] SAVI [06/12/2010] LAI [06/12/2010] FPAR [06/12/2010] ALBEDO [06/12/2010] RSOLAR [06/12/2010] PC cov [06/12/2010] SAVI [09/16/2010] LAI [09/16/2010] FPAR [09/16/2010] ALBEDO [09/16/2010] RSOLAR [09/16/2010] PC cov [09/16/2010]

164940 164940 164940 164940 164940 164940 89424 89424 89424 89424 89424 89424 43680 43680 43680 43680 43680 43680

0.000009 0.0001394 0.000018 -0.000040 0.000974 -0.056772 -0.000009 -0.000418 -0.000021 -0.000615 0.001657 0.308231 0.000002 -0.000018 0.0000007 -0.000090 0.000342 0.052517

0.007296 0.072596 0.012243 0.268429 1.125825 60.242251 0.028486 0.574436 0.054587 1.132135 4.493487 313.374960 0.019261 0.092190 0.024701 2.285436 4.205448 156.058404

0.000810 0.001266 0.000970 -0.000145 0.000880 -0.000737 -0.000181 -0.000470 -0.000224 -0.000328 0.000201 0.000627 0.000046 -0.000132 -0.000014 -0.000046 0.000959 0.000203

0.671282 0.672479 0.670807 0.833151 0.944083 0.721061 0.676659 0.684242 0.675700 0.732899 0.740719 0.697867 0.552120 0.540011 0.544697 0.962587 0.939119 0.535297

0.010867 0.107933 0.018248 0.321199 1.190445 83.492125 0.042089 0.839264 0.080775 1.543760 6.063027 448.950330 0.034882 0.170709 0.045345 2.374562 4.478349 291.507148

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