Research question a concise interrogative statement written in the present tense and includes one or more variables Case

studies a description of a single or novel event Pilot studies a small study to test a new intervention before testing with larger sample Replication studies repeated studies to obtain similiar results Generalize applying findings from a sample to a wider population Research topic a clinical problem of interest Problem statement describe the problem addressed in the study Purpose statement a statement indicating the aim of the study Hypotheses formal statements of the expected or predicted relationship between two or more variables 4 categories of hypothese associative vs causal, simple vs complex, nondirectional vs directional, and null vs research Associative relationship when one variable changes, the other variable changes Causal relationship

when one variable determines the presence or change in another variable Simple hypothesis a hypothesis describing the relationship between two variables Complex hypothesis describe the relationships among three or more variables Nondirectional hypothesis statment of the relationship between two variables that does not predict the direction of the relationship Directional hypothesis describes the direction of a relationship between two or more variables Null (Statistical) hypothesis a hypothesis stating that there is no relationship between the variables Research hypothesis indicates that a relationship between two or more variables exists Hypothesis (Empirical) testing objectively measurable data gathered through the five senses to confirm or refute a hypothesis Variables phenomena that can be directly measured using measurable characteristics Independent variable variable that influences the dependent variable or outcome Dependent variable influenced by the independent variable

Confounding (Extraneous) variable factors that interfere with the relationship between the independent and dependent variables PICO Model patient population, intervention of interest, comparison of interest, and outcome of interest used to formulate EBP

Survey Cross-sectional Longitudinal Case Study Correlation Predictive Descriptive Studies May include 1 participant or many May collect data at one time or multiple times About Survey Research Design - Positives Flexible, broad in scope Cost effective for reaching large populations Anonymity easy to maintain Questions pre-determined May research many participants About Survey Research Design - limitations Information may be superficial Cannot detect complexities Content may be limited Subject to misinterpretation Epidemiology research investigates changes within a population or cohort - may have a time dimension. Examples are typically related to following a disease process from the first individual with the disease and determining among who, how, and where it spreads. Cross Sectional Looks at a single phenomenon across multiple populations at a single point in time with no intent to follow-up

Cross Sectional Economical No waiting for outcome to occur Allow exploration of human condition affected by development Data are collected at ONE Point in time Large samples possible No loss due to attrition Longitudinal Studies follow subjects over some period of time Benefits Longitudinal Studies Historical trends / causal associations Retrospective longitudinal are cost effective and efficient Prospective longitudinal strengthen causative assumptions Prospective do not rely on recall Longitudinal Studies Limitations Attrition Retrospective are depending on accurate documentation Once begun cannot be changed Prospective - expensive Large sample sizes are expensive Correlational Design Involves the analysis of two variables and seeks to determine strength of relationship. Correlational Design Why Uncomplicated Flexibility in exploring relationships Practical applications No data manipulation Lack control & randomization Suppressor variable may be cause.... Spurious relationships Prediction (Regression) Designed to look at variables at one point in time in order to predict or forecast and outcome measured at a different point in time.

Prediction (Regression) Why Much info from single data set Results can be applied to group or to individuals May be prospective or retrospective No assurance of causality Requires relatively large sample sizes Case Studies The meticulous descriptive exploration of a single unit of study such as a person, family group, community, or other entity . Case Studies why Provide in depth information Capture changes over time New insights provided No baseline measurement Causation cannot be inferred Results cannot be generalized Single-Subject Deisgn An investigation using a single case or subject in which baseline data is collected, an intervention is applied, and the responses are tracked over time. Single-Subject Deisgn Why Continuous assessment of the variables of interest Assessment during baseline before intervention Continuing assessment over time Explore real changes over time. Intervention / risk and benefits Descriptive data Means, standard deviations, frequencies, and percentages Provide basic information Easy to graph and provide visuals for reader Allows one to check for errors Help the researcher to gain an in-depth understanding of the data before inferential stats.

Overview of Descriptive Data Analysis Counts Measures of central tendency (m.m.m) Measures of variability (r.v.sd) Measures of position (percentile ranks, and standardized scores [z-scores] Graphics - charts, line graphs, and scattergrams Nominal (categories - not subject to mathematical manipulation - bar charts appropriate) Frequencies, Percertages, Mode Ordinal (allows for ranking, no equal intervals - bar charts appropriate Frequencies, Percentages, Mode, median Interval/Ratio (continuous data, mathematical procedures appropriate - bar charts not appropriate) Mean, median, Mode, Range, Min/Max, SD2, SD, Skew, Kurtosis Frequencies How often an event or characteristic occurs May be used to calculate percentages (100/400 = 25%) Using Histograms vs. Bar Graphs or Pie Charts Distributions Normal distribution Skewed Distribution Kurtosis Range Mean Median Mode Variance Standard Deviation - calculating (X-X2) / n-1 Bar charts - Discrete Data Info not related thats why the bars dont touch Standardized Scores

Z-scores - makes sure you are comparing the same thing Standard normal distribution Why do we need standardized scores? Bcse we need to compare apples to apples Histogram - continuous data Bars will touch Scatter gram - dots represent scores 2 pieces of data and they are somehow related a priori making a determination beforehand are you willing to make a mistake 1 % of the time - 5 % of the time? Control Group a subset of the sample of an experimental study - randomly selected (each subjsect has an equal opportunity of being selected), randomly assigned (already have the sample but you randomly pick who is going into the control group or the sample group)- intervention is withheld Treatment Group a subset of the sample of an experimental study - randomly assigned to get the intervention Control establishing rigor through careful management of all variables Characteristics of Quantitative Design Amenable to PICO Population of Interest is defined Intervention under study Comparison that makes up the control Outcome of interest Relies on numbers to measure effects and quantify error Study objective characteristics Characteristics of Quantitative Design Desire to generalize to a larger population Most aim to determine effects

Aim to establish relationships between independent and dependent variables Compares groups of subjects in some way Seeks to generalize High level of control Experimental Design Objective inclusion and exclusion criteria for population of interest Subjects are randomly assigned to groups Detailed directions about how the intervention is applied Defines comparison Defines how outcome will be measured Recognized and valued by other disciplines Generally understood by patients and the public Complex and difficult to carry out May be expensive Non-Experimental Design differs from Experimental Uses comparison group - not control group Quasi-experimental designs are not as strong because they are not as controlled It cannot be assumed that the sample represents the population It is likely a convenience sample. They are more feasible than experimental Accessible subjects can be used for the study Inappropriate to draw firm conclusions Groups may not be equivalent Rival explanations for outcomes exist Time Series Designs Population defined Independent and dependent variables Baseline - intervention - measurement Outcome variables measured over time Requires fewer subjects Multiple data collection times Standard deviation standardized scores of how close things are to the mean. The square root of the varience. Every SD has a vsalue of one. SD is the average distance from the mean Random selection v. Random assignment

... Comparison Group Not randomly assigned Similar to Control and compared to the Treatment Group Ex post facto both independent and dependent variables have already occurred Causal-comparative i.e., Male/Female - who can run the fastest? Characteristics of Quantitative Design Amenable to PICO Population of Interest is defined Intervention under study Comparison that makes up the control Outcome of interest Relies on numbers to measure effects and quantify error Study objective characteristics Characteristics of Quantitative Design Desire to generalize to a larger population Most aim to determine effects Aim to establish relationships between independent and dependent variables Compares groups of subjects in some way Seeks to generalize High level of control Experimental Design Objective inclusion and exclusion criteria for population of interest Subjects are randomly assigned to groups Detailed directions about how the intervention is applied Defines comparison Defines how outcome will be measured Recognized and valued by other disciplines Generally understood by patients and the public Complex and difficult to carry out May be expensive Non-Experimental Design differs from Experimental

Uses comparison group - not control group Quasi-experimental designs are not as strong because they are not as controlled It cannot be assumed that the sample represents the population It is likely a convenience sample. They are more feasible than experimental Accessible subjects can be used for the study Inappropriate to draw firm conclusions Groups may not be equivalent Rival explanations for outcomes exist Time Series Designs Population defined Independent and dependent variables Baseline - intervention - measurement Outcome variables measured over time Requires fewer subjects Multiple data collection times Pre test vs post test Baseline - pre test what ever happens in the middle - independent variable limitations of cross sectional designs ... case study and single subject designs ... why is reliability is so importanrt on ... correlation ... regresion why is it important to nursing why does it help us to be better ... Scientific method; systematic; minimize bias Empirical evidence; generalizability

Qualitative Constructivist (naturalistic) - subjective Narrative; interaction of researcher & participants Difficult to generalize; contextual Quantitative research Research design determined in advance Very specific question Independent & dependent variables Controlled conditions Statistical analysis Instruments Qualitative research Emergent design -evolves during study Holistic No variables, masking, controls needed Naturalistic conditions Subjective data analysis Researcher is instrument Key characteristics of qualitative research Flexibility Triangulation Lengthy with personal involvement Ongoing data analysis Nonexperimental No planned comparisons Usually not cause-probing ethnography phenomenology grounded theory 3 types of qualitative research traditions ethnography Anthropology; study of culture; field work key informants purposely chosen phenomenology Philosophy/psychology; lived experience Hermeneutics 10 ppl (sample)

grounded theory Sociology; basic social process Historical analysis 20-30 ppl (sample) Hermeneutics Meanings and interpretations of experiences descriptive (bracketing) interpretive/hermeneutics (no bracketing) 2 types of phenomenology basic traditions case studies narrative analysis descriptive 4 types of qualitative research types basic traditions ethnography, phenomenology, grounded theory case studies research type that provides Greater depth; has fewer participants; and explores why narrative analysis research type that explores "why" a story is told in a particular way Descriptive research type most commonly used research type uses content analysis critical theory critique of existing social structures with the goal of envisioning new possibilities and effecting social change snowball purposeful theoretical 3 types of qualitative sampling

purposeful sampling sampling that May follow snowball sampling; with Maximum variation, extreme or typical cases; used with Confirming or disconfirming cases theoretical sampling Used in grounded theory studies; select groups; 20-30 ppl original secondary analysis 2 sources of data Self report Observation Biophysiologic 3 types of original data Records such as chart review Databases 2 types of secondary analysis data questionnaire interview 2 instruments of self report data photo elicitation; photo voice interviews stimulated and guided by photographic images taken by the researcher or participant critical incidents a method of gathering information about people's behaviors in specific circumstances