Chapter (1) Mathematical Modeling of DC Machines

1.1 DC Motor Overview The direct current (DC) motor is one of the first machines devised to convert electrical power into mechanical power, and its origins can be traced to the disc-type machines conceived and tested by Michael Faraday. Direct current motors (the subject of this study) convert electrical energy into mechanical energy through the interaction of two magnetic fields. One field is produced by a magnet of poles assembly, the other field is produced by an electrical current flowing in the motor windings. These two fields result in a torque which tends to rotate the rotor. As the rotor turns, the current in the windings is commutated to produce a continuous torque output. A DC motor can be seen to be comprised of three main parts: currentcarrying conductors called an armature; a circuit for magnetic field provided by magnets of poles; and a commutator that switches the direction of current in the armature as it passes a fixed point in space. Since electric motor design is based upon the placement of conductors in a magnetic field, a discussion of magnetic circuit principles will help facilitate the understanding of motor action. If a conductor were wound into a coil with many turns, the magnetic contribution of each individual turn would add to the magnetic field intensity which exists in the space enclosed by the coil. In this way, extremely strong magnetic fields can be developed. The force which acts to push the magnetic flux through a space is called variously magnetomotance, manetomotive force, or simply
1

mmf. The term magnetic flux is used to describe how much magnetism there is in the space around a coil or permanent magnet, or in the air gap of a motor. Condition assessment of DC motors requires a basic understanding of the design and operating characteristics of the various types available: the separately excited DC motor, the PM DC motor, the series motor, the shunt motor, and the compound motor. Each type has unique operating characteristics and applications. These characteristics enable the operator to perform a wide variety of tasks. 1.2 Types of DC Motors 1.2.1 Separately Excited DC Motor The schematic circuit diagram of separately excited DC motor is illustrated in following Figure 1.1. When the armature of a DC machine rotates in the stator field, a voltage is induced in the armature winding. In a DC motor, it is called counter emf or back emf. In either case, the level of this voltage can be calculated using Faraday's Law, which states that a voltage is induced. The field and armature circuits are totally separate. The field current is supplied from a secondary source.

Figure 1.1 Separately Excited DC Motor

1.2.2 Permanent Magnets (PM) DC Motor The magnetic field of (PM) motors is generated by permanent magnets so no power is used to create the magnetic field structure. The stator magnetic flux remains essentially constant at all levels of armature current and, therefore, the speed vs. torque curve of the PM motor is linear over an extended range. The schematic circuit diagram of a permanent magnets DC motor is illustrated in following Figure 1.2.

Figure 1.2 PM DC Motor 1.2.3 Series DC Motor Components of a series motor include the armature, labeled A1 and A2, and the field, S1 and S2. The same current is impressed upon the armature and the series field. The coils in the series field are made of a few turns of large gauge wire, to facilitate large current flow. This provides high starting torque, approximately 2 times the rated load torque. Series motor armatures are usually lap wound. Lap windings are good for high current, low voltage applications because they have additional parallel paths for current flow. Series motors have very poor speed control, running slowly with heavy loads and quickly with light loads. A series motor should never drive machines with a belt. If the belt breaks, the load would be removed and cause the motor to over speed and destroy itself in a matter of seconds. The schematic circuit diagram of a series DC motor is illustrated in following Figure 1.3.

Figure 1.3 Series DC Motor Common uses of the series motor include crane hoists, where large heavy loads will be raised and lowered and bridge and trolley drives on large overhead cranes. The series motor provides the starting torque required for moving large loads. Traction motors used to drive trains are series motors that provide the required torque and horsepower to get massive amounts of weight moving. On the coldest days of winter the series motor that starts your car overcomes the extreme cold temperatures and thick lubricant to get your car going. 1.2.4 Shunt DC Motor The shunt motor is probably the most common dc motor used in industry today. Components of the shunt motor are the armature, labeled A1 and A2, and the field, labeled F1 and F2. The coils in the shunt field are composed of many turns of small wire, resulting in low shunt field current and moderate armature current. This motor provides starting torque that varies with the load applied and good speed regulation by controlling the shunt field voltage. If the shunt motor loses its field it will accelerate slightly until CEMF rises to a value sufficient to shut off the torque producing current. In other words, the shunt motor will not destroy itself if it loses its field, but it wont have the torque required to do the job it was designed for. The schematic circuit diagram of a shunt DC motor is illustrated in following Figure 1.4.

Figure 1.4 Shunt DC Motor Some of the common uses of the shunt motor are machine shop lathes, and industry process lines where speed and tension control are critical. 1.2.5 Compound DC Motor When comparing the advantages of the series and shunt motors, the series motor has greater torque capabilities while the shunt motor has more constant and controllable speed over various loads. These two desirable characteristics can be found in the same motor by placing both a series field and shunt field winding on the same pole. Thus, we have the compound motor. The schematic circuit diagram of a compound DC motor is illustrated in following Figure 1.5. The compound motor responds better to heavy load changes than a shunt motor because of the increased current through the series field coils. This boosts the field strength, providing added torque and speed. If a shunt coil is added to a series motor at light loads (when a series motor tends to over speed) the added shunt field flux limits the top speed, eliminating self-destruction.

Figure 1.5 Compound DC Motor Common uses of the compound motor include elevators, air compressors, conveyors, presses and shears. Compound motors can be operated as shunt motors by disconnecting the series field. Many manufacturing process lines are designed this way. The reason being that, most off the shelf motors are compound motors, and the series field can always be connected later to provide additional torque, if needed. Compound motors can be connected two ways, cumulatively and differentially. When connected cumulatively, the series field is connected to aid the shunt field, providing faster response than a straight shunt motor. When connected differentially, the series field opposes the shunt field. Differentially connected compound motors are sometimes referred to as suicide motors, because of their penchant for self-destruction. If perhaps, the shunt field circuit were to suddenly open during loading, the series field would then assume control and the polarity of all fields would reverse. This results in the motor stopping, and then restarting in the opposite direction. It then operates as an unloaded series motor and will destroy itself. Differentially connected motors can also start in the opposite direction if the load is too heavy. Therefore, it is seldom used in industry.

1.3 Separately Excited DC Motor Differential Equations The DC machine as dynamic system , including the interactions of the electromagnetic and the mechanical effect, is dealing within the following section. The equivalent circuit of the separately exited dc machine can be represented in schematic from as shown in Fig. 1.1. The electrical equation of a DC motor is derived from the simple motor circuit illustrated in Figure 1.1. The electrical relation between these variables is given by equations (1.1-1.6) where Eb, the internally generated voltage, is proportional to the motor velocity. The motor back emf constant, Kv, is a measure of the voltage per unit speed generated when the rotor is turning. The magnitude and polarity of Kv are functions of the shaft angular velocity, r, and direction of rotation respectively. Also Kv is the motor torque constant that is a measure of the torque-per-unit-current produced by the motor. equation of a motor is given by:
V a = i a R a + La di a + Eb dt

The dynamic

(1.1) (1.2) (1.3)

E b = Laf i f r K = Laf i f
Vf = if Rf + Lf Te = K i a
Te = J d r + r + TL dt

di f dt

(1.4) (1.5) (1.6)

Va: Ia: Eb: La:

applied voltage motor current induced back emf voltage armature winding inductance

Ra: Te: r:

armature resistance motor output torque motor output speed

1.4 Block Diagram and Transfer Function of Separately Excited DC Motor It is necessary to depict the voltage and torque equations of DC machine in block diagram form when considering the machine as a part of an overall system. Accurately, the equations which we have already derived for the separately excited DC motor which we will put into block diagram form. From the block diagrams we can derive the transfer function of the DC motor which are used in the design of current and speed controllers. 1.4.1 Time Domain Block Diagram of Separately Excited DC Motor Block diagram, which portray the interconnection of the system equations is used extensively in control system design . we shall work with time-domain equations using the
p

operator to denote

differentiation with respect to time d / dt and the operator 1 / p denote integration ion. Therefore, we will have no trouble converting the timedomain block diagram , so transfer functions by using the Laplace operator,

dt .

Arranging the equation of the separately excited DC

machine into a block diagram representation is straight forward. The field and armature voltage equations and the relationship between torque and rotor speed (1.1-1.6) may be Combined produces the armature current, torque, field current and motor speed as follows:
1 / Ra (1 + a p)

i a = (V a E a ).

(1.7)

 r = (Te TL ).
if =Vf . 1/ R f

1 ( Jp + )

(1.8)

(1 + f p)

(1.9)

Where, a = La / R a and f = L f / R f

From equations. (1.1-1.9), the time-domain block diagram is obtained as shown in Fig. 1.6.
Va ia Te Laf
TL

1 / Ra (1 + ap )
Vf

1 ( Jp + )

Eb
1/ R f (1 + f p )

if

Fig. 1.6 Time domain block diagram of separately excited DC motor 1.4.2 State Equation of Separately Excited DC Motor The so-called state equations of the system represent the formulation of the state variables into a matrix form convention for computer implementation. The state variable of a system are define as a minimal set of variables such that knowledge of these variables at any initial condition time t o plus information on the input excitation subsequently applied is sufficient to determine the state of the system at any time t t o . In the case of DC machine, the field current i f , armature current i a and the rotor speed r . The formulation of the state equations for the

separately excited dc machine can be achieved by straight forward manipulation of the field and armature voltage equations given by (1.19

1.4) and the equation relating torque and rotor speed given by (1.5-1.6). In particular, solving equations (1.1, 1.4, 1.6) for yields:
Laf 1 1 d ia = ia i f r + Va dt La La a
d 1 1 if = if + Vf f dt Lf di a di f , dt dt

and

d r dt

(1.10) (1.11) (1.12)

Laf T d r = r + i f ia L dt J J J

These equations can be written in matrix form as follows:

1 i f f d ia = 0 dt r 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 L f i f Laf 1 i f r + 0 0 i a + La L a r Laf 0 i f ia 0 J J 0 V f 0 V a T L 1 J

a
0

(1.13) 1.4.3 Time Domain Transfer Functions of Separately Excited DC Motor

After identified all the major components in the block diagram, the transfer functions of all parts in the diagram have been defined. An open loop

represents the single direction of flow in a system with no knowledge of the response. On the other hand, we have a closed loop system. The output of the system is being measured and fed back to the input to form a close loop system. All these explanation can be summarized by a complete transfer function representation made up of all the block diagrams defined in the previous sections. Fig. 1.7 as follows. The closed loop transfer function is easily obtained from all blocks in the block diagram shown in

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 r (t )
V a (t )
TL = 0

=
Ra J K 2

(1 / K a m ) p + (1 / a + / J ) p + (1 / a ).(1 / m + / J )
2

(1.14)

Where, m =
r (t )
TL i a (t ) TL V i a (t ) V a (t )

=
Va = 0

(1 / J ).( p + 1 / a ) p + (1 / a + / J ) p + (1 / a ).(1 / m + / J )
2

(1.15) (1.16) (1.17)

=
a =0

(1 / K a m ) p + (1 / a + / J ) p + (1 / a ).(1 / m + / J )
2

=
TL = 0

(1 / a R a ).( p + / J ) p + (1 / a + / J ) p + (1 / a ).(1 / m + / J )
2

Va

1 / Ra (1 + ap )

ia K

Te

TL

1 ( Jp + )

Eb

Fig. 1.7 Time domain block diagram of separately excited DC motor at constant flux 1.4.4 S-Domain Block Diagram of Separately Excited DC Motor Block diagram, which portray the interconnection of the system equations is used extensively in control system design . we shall work with S-domain equations using the s operator to denote differentiation with respect to time d / dt and the operator 1 / s denote integration ion. Therefore, we will have no trouble converting the time-domain block diagram, so transfer functions by using the Laplace operator. Arranging
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the equation of the separately excited DC machine into a block diagram representation is straight forward. The field and armature voltage equations and the relationship between torque and rotor speed (1.1-1.6) may be Combined produces the armature current, torque, field current and motor speed as follows:
i a = (V a E a ).

1 / Ra (1 + a s )

(1.18) (1.19) (1.20)

r = (Te TL ).
if =Vf . 1/ R f

1 ( Js + )

(1 + f s )

From equations. (1.18-1.20), the S-domain block diagram is obtained as shown in Fig. 1.8. 1.4.5 S-Domain Transfer Functions of Separately Excited DC Motor
After identified all the major components in the block diagram, the transfer functions of all parts in the diagram have been defined. An open loop

represents the single direction of flow in a system with no knowledge of the response. On the other hand, we have a closed loop system. The output of the system is being measured and fed back to the input to form a close loop system. All these explanation can be summarized by a complete transfer function representation made up of all the block diagrams defined in the previous sections. Fig. 1.9 as follows.
r (s)
Va ( s)
TL = 0

The closed loop transfer

function is easily obtained from all blocks in the block diagram shown in

(1 / K a m ) s 2 + (1 / a + / J ) s + (1 / a ).(1 / m + / J )

(1.21)

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 r (s)
TL i a ( s) TL V i a ( s) Va ( s)
Va = 0

(1 / J ).( s + 1 / a ) s + (1 / a + / J ) s + (1 / a ).(1 / m + / J )
2

(1.22) (1.23) (1.24)

=
a =0

(1 / K a m ) s + (1 / a + / J ) s + (1 / a ).(1 / m + / J )
2

=
TL = 0

(1 / a R a ).( s + / J ) s + (1 / a + / J ) s + (1 / a ).(1 / m + / J )
2

Va

1 / Ra (1 + as ) Vf

ia

Te Laf

TL

1 ( Js + )

Eb
1/ R f (1 + f s)

if

Fig. 1.8 S-domain block diagram of separately excited DC motor

TL

Va

1 / Ra (1 + as )

ia K

Te

1 ( Js + )

Eb

Fig. 1.9 S-domain block diagram of separately excited DC motor at constant flux

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Chapter (2) Performance Characteristics of Separately Excited DC Motor

2.1 Operation of the Separately Excited DC Motor The operation of a DC motor is described briefly at first. A symbolic representation of a separately-excited DC motor is shown above. The resistance of the field winding is Rf and its inductance is Lf, whereas the resistance of the armature is Ra and its inductance is La. In the description of the motor, the armature reaction effects are ignored. It is justifiable since the motor used has either interpoles or compensating winding to minimize the effects of armature reaction. The field current is described by equation (2.1). If a steady voltage Vf is applied to the field, the field current settles down to a constant value, as shown in equation (2.2). When the field current is constant, the flux induced by the field winding remains constant, and usually it is held at its rated value . If the voltage applied to the armature is Va, then the differential equation that is to be applied to the armature circuit is shown in equation (2.3). In steady-state, equation (2.4) applies. The voltage, ea, is the back emf. in volts. In a separately-excited DC motor, the back emf is proportional to the product of speed of motor r (rad/s) and the field (webers), as shown by equation(2.5).
Vf = if Rf + Lf if =Vf / Rf
V a = i a R a + La di a + Eb dt

di f dt

(2.1) (2.2) (2.3) (2.4) (2.5)

Va = i a Ra + E b E b = K r

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In equation (2.5), K is a coefficient and its value depends on the armature winding. If the armature current in steady-state be Ia, then the power P that is supplied to the armature is EbIa. This electric power is converted to mechanical power by the armature of the DC motor. Let the torque developed by the armature be Te, the unit for torque being Nm (Newtonmetre). Then power and torque can be related as shown in equation (2.62.8). On canceling the common term on both sides, the torque Te developed by the armature is obtained as presented in equation (2.9). If the instantaneous armature current is ia, then equation (2.8) applies. Torque has been denoted by Te in both equations.
Pa = E b I a Eb = K r Pa = K I a r Te = K I a

(2.6) (2.7) (2.8) (2.9)

Speed of the motor can be controlled by varying Va and holding Vf constant at its rated value. Then as the voltage applied to the armature is raised, the armature current increases first. As the armature current increases, the torque developed by motor increases and hence speed of the motor increases. The drop across the armature resistance tends to be small and hence the motor speed rises almost proportionately with the voltage applied to the armature. But there is a limit to the voltage that can be applied to the armature and that limit is the rated voltage of the armature voltage. The speed of the motor corresponding to the rated armature voltage and the rated field voltage is its rated speed. Thus the speed of a motor can be varied below its rated speed by controlling the armature voltage. It would be desirable that the motor should be able to develop as high as a torque as possible and hence the voltage rated applied to the field is held at its rated value. Applying higher than the

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rated voltage to either the field or the armature is not recommended. When the rated voltage is applied to the field, the flux would be near the saturation level in the poles. If a voltage higher than its rated voltage is applied to the field, the flux would saturate and there would not be any significant increase in the torque that the motor can deliver. On the other hand, this would only result in increased losses in the winding. Since the total heat which the DC motor can dissipate is fixed due to its surface area and cooling system, increased losses from the excitation system would mean that the other losses would have to reduce, implying that the armature current cannot be at its rated level and the maximum torque that the motor can deliver may reduce. Increasing the armature voltage above its rated value is not recommended because the insulation of the armature is designed for operation of the motor with the rated voltage applied to its armature. Moreover, the torque that the motor can deliver depends on the armature current and the field current. If the motor is operated continuously, the maximum armature current should not be higher than its rated value. When the armature current and the field voltage are at their rated level, the motor generates the rated torque. Hence the maximum torque the motor can deliver continuously over a long period of time is its rated torque when its speed is varied from a low value to its rated speed. If the speed of the motor is to be increased beyond its rated value, the voltage applied to the armature can be held at its rated value and the field can be weakened by reducing the voltage applied to it. When the speed of the motor is varied in this manner, the maximum power that can be supplied to the armature is fixed, since both the voltage applied to the armature and the armature current cannot exceed the rated level over a long period.

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2.2 Dynamic Characteristics of Separately Excited DC Motor The separately-excited DC motor are widely used and therefore, the dynamic performance of a typical DC motor is illustrated. Two modes of dynamic operation are of interest-starting from stall and changes in load torque with the machine supplied from a constant voltage source. 2.2.1 Dynamic Performance During Starting From a Constant DC Source This block implements a separately excited DC machine using SIMULINK/MATLAB as shown in Fig. 2.1. An access is provided to the field connections so that the machine model can be used as a shuntconnected or a series-connected DC machine.

Fig. 2.1 Separately excited DC machine using SIMULINK/MATLAB The details of the SIMULINK diagram is shown in Fig. 2.2. The first block simulate the equation
d ia , the second block simulate the equation dt

d i f , the third block simulate the equation Te = K ia and the fourth block dt

simulate the equation r = (Te TL ).

1 ( Js + )

17

Fig. 2.2 Details of Separately excited DC motor SIMULINK diagram The no load starting characteristics of separately excited DC motor are shown in Fig. 2.3. The armature voltage, the armature current and the rotor speed are plotted. Initially the motor is stall and at time zero, 240 V

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is applied to the armature terminals. The peak transient current reaches to 500 A and rotor speed has an overshoot of 60 rad/sec (large) .

Fig. 2.3 No load starting characteristics of separately excited DC motor

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2.2.2 Dynamic Performance During Sudden Change in Load Torque The dynamic characteristics following a step change in load torque from zero to 25 N.m are shown in Fig. 2.4. The armature current and rotor speed are plotted. It is noted that the change in steady state rotor speed is quite large.

Fig. 2.4 Dynamic performance of separately excited DC motor following a sudden change in load torque. 2.2.3 Dynamic Performance Using Starting Resistance As the DC motor starts to turn, the interaction of the magnetic fields inside it causes it to generate a voltage internally. This "back voltage" opposes the applied voltage and the current that flows is governed by the difference between the two. So, as the motor speeds up, the internally generated voltage rises, the effective voltage falls, less current is forced
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through the motor and thus the torque falls. The motor naturally stops accelerating when the drag of the train matches the torque produced by the motors. To continue accelerating the train, resistors are switched out in steps, each step increasing the effective voltage and thus the current and torque for a little bit longer until the motor catches up. This can be heard and felt in older DC trains as a series of clunks under the floor, each accompanied by a jerk of acceleration as the torque suddenly increases in response to the new surge of current. When no resistor is left in the circuit, the full line voltage is applied directly to the motor. The train's speed remains constant at the point where the torque of the motor, governed by the effective voltage, equals the drag - sometimes referred to as balancing speed. If the train starts to climb a grade, the speed reduces because drag is greater than torque. But the reduction in speed causes the back voltage to decline and thus the effective voltage rises - until the current forced through the motor produces enough torque to match the new drag. On an electric train, the driver originally had to control the cutting out of resistance manually. This was achieved by an accelerating relay, often called a notching relay in the motor circuit as shown in Fig. 2.5 which monitored the fall of current as each step of resistance was cut out. All the driver had to do was select low, medium or full speed called "shunt", "series" and "parallel" from the way the motors were connected in the resistance circuit) and the equipment would do the rest. As we have seen, DC motors are controlled by a "notching relay" set into the power circuit. But there are other relays provided for motor protection. Sharp spikes of current will quickly damage a DC motor so protective equipment is provided in the form of an "overload relay", which detects excessive current in the circuit and, when it occurs, switches off the power to avoid damage to the motors. Power is switched
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off by means of Line Breakers, one or two heavy-duty switches similar to circuit breakers which are remotely controlled. They would normally be opened or closed by the action of the driver's controller but they can also be opened automatically by the action of the overload relay. On a historical note, early equipment had a huge fuse instead of an overload relay. Some of these lasted into the 1970s and recall the complications of changing one, which involved inserting a wooden board (called a "paddle") between the shoes and the current rail. This was to isolate the current from the locomotive while you changed the fuse. A further protective device is also provided in the classic DC motor control circuit. This is the "no-volt" relay, which detects power lost for any reason and makes sure that the control sequence is returned to the starting point (i.e. all the resistances are restored to the power circuit) before power could be re-applied. This is necessary to ensure that too much current is not applied to a motor which lost speed while current was off. The following circuit illustrates the starting of a 5 HP 240 V DC Machine with a three-step resistance starter, Figure 2.5.

Fig. 2.5 Starting of a separately excited DC motor with a three-step resistance starter

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The block implements a separately excited DC machine. An access is provided to the field connections so that the machine model can be used as a shunt-connected or a series-connected DC machine. The armature circuit and the field circuit of the DC machine model are built with blocks from SIMULINK library. It is represented by a DC motor block created in series with a Controlled Voltage Source and a Current Measurement block. Four internal signals are multiplexed on the SIMULINK measurement output vector (third block output) returning:

Rotor speed in rad/s Armature current in A Field current in A Electromechanical torque in N.m.

The following circuit illustrates the starting of a 5 HP 240 V DC Machine with a three-step resistance starter using SIMULINK as shown Fig. 2.6. The Motor Starter subsystem is shown in Figure 2.7:

Figure 2.6 Starting DC motor SIMULINK diagram

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Figure 2.7 Starter SIMULINK diagram The DC motor current, voltage, torque and speed waveforms obtained at the end of the starting test are shown in Figure 2.8.

Fig. 2.8 Starting performance of DC motor using starter It is noted from this Figure that the starting current reaches to 50 A instead of 500 A as mentioned before but the response time is very long.

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Chapter (3) Open Loop Speed Control of DC Motor Drive Using Solid State Power Devices
3.1 Rectification Rectifiers can be classified as uncontrolled and controlled rectifiers, and the controlled rectifiers can be further divided into semi-controlled and fully-controlled rectifiers. Uncontrolled rectifier circuits are built with diodes, and fully-controlled rectifier circuits are built with SCRs. Both diodes and SCRs are used in semi-controlled rectifier circuits. There are several rectifier circuits rectifier configurations. The popular rectifier configurations are listed below.

Single-phase semi-controlled bridge rectifier, Single-phase fully-controlled bridge rectifier, Three-phase three-pulse, star-connected rectifier, Three-phase semi-controlled bridge rectifier, Three-phase fully-controlled bridge rectifier and

For low voltage, high current applications, a pair of three-phase, threepulse rectifiers interconnected by an inter-phase transformer(IPT) is used. For a high current output, rectifiers with IPT are preferred to connecting devices directly in parallel. There are many applications for rectifiers. Some of them are:

Variable speed dc drives,

3.2 AC to DC Conversion 3.2.1 Full Wave Rectification A thyristor controlled rectifier, employs four thyristors to achieve full wave rectification. If we a DC machine as a load, this has both L and R and generates a back emf as shown in Fig. 3.1.

25

Assuming that there is sufficient inductance to ensure the motor current is continuous, with the lag associated the waveforms are as above. We can see that Io and Vo are both positive, therefore power is being delivered from the supply to the motor. This is normal rectification mode. If the firing angle is delayed to say 135O then the waveforms change.

Fig. 3.1 Schematic and waveforms diagrams of full wave converter fed DC motor

26

We now see that Vo is ve and Io +ve. This means that the power flow is into the supply. This is called INVERSION MODE. In both cases we can see that as S3 and S4 turn on, the reverse voltage appears across S1 and S2 this is called LINE COMMUTATION. In both cases the average value of the output voltage is:
Vo =

2 2V

cos

(3.1)

Fig. 3.2 Schematic and waveforms diagrams of full wave converter fed DC motor in inversion mode The variation of the converter output, Vo, as defined by (3.1) is shown in Fig. 3.3.

Fig. 3.3 Output voltage variations of full wave converter fed DC motor

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3.2.2 The semi-converter In the semi-converter, two of the thyristors are replaced with diodes. The operation is the same as the full bridge converter except that the diodes do not allow any negative voltage to the load as shown in Fig. 3.4.

Fig. 3.4 Schematic and waveforms diagrams of full wave semi-converter fed DC motor The average output voltage is now given by,
Vo =

2V

(1 + cos )

(3.2)

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3.2.3 Three Phase Circuits. Higher power applications, above several kW, are best met using 3 phase rectifiers. Various configurations of rectifier are available. a- The Half Wave Rectifier In the case of an uncontrolled diode circuit we have the following diagram as shown in Fig. 3.5.

Fig. 3.5 Schematic and waveforms diagrams of full wave converter At any time the diode whose voltage is the most +ve will conduct. We can see that each diode conducts for a span of 120O; also when D1 conducts, the voltage across D2 is vBA, and across D3 is vCA. During this time, D2 and D3 are reverse biased. Using D1 we can also say.
Vo =

3 6V

(3.4)

The thyristor controlled versions is shon in Fig. 3.6.

29

Fig. 3.6 Schematic and waveforms diagrams of full wave converter The output voltage waveform is given by:
Vo =

3 6V

(1 + cos )

(3.5)

b- The Thyristor Full Wave Converter This is by far the most common controller rectifier circuit. It has the following configuration. Both diagrams represent the same format. This is the 3 phase equivalent of the full bridge rectifier, S1,2,3 are fired during the +ve half cycles of the phases to which they are connected and S4,5,6 are fired during the ve half cycles of the respective phases. Again let us assume that the load has significant inductance to maintain constant current such as the DC machine examined earlier. The output current will be continuous and operation will be as follows.

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It should be noted that each device conducts for 120O per cycle but the average output voltage can be expressed as:
Vo =

3 6V

cos

(3.6)

This gives us waveforms as follows.

Fig. 3.7 Schematic and waveforms diagrams of full wave converter Similarly to the single phase converters, firing angles of 0 < < 90 give +ve Vo, but firing angles of 90 < < 180 cause vo to go ve and the converter works in inversion mode, this gives us Vo vs for continuous current,
31

Fig. 3.8 Output voltage variations of full wave converter fed DC motor 3.3 DC-to-DC Conversion When the SCR came into use, a dc-to-dc converter circuit was called a chopper. Nowadays, an SCR is rarely used in a dc-to-dc converter. Either a power BJT or a power MOSFET is normally used in such a converter and this converter is called a switch-mode power supply. A switch-mode power supply can be of one of the types listed below:

Step-down switch-mode power supply, Step-up chopper, Fly-back converter and Resonant converter.

The typical applications for a switch-mode power supply or a chopper are:

DC drive Battery charger and DC power supply.

3.3.2 Description of the Open Loop Drive System In this section illustrates application of the SIMULINK/MATLAB to the operation of a DC motor drive in which the armature voltage is

32

controlled by a GTO thyristor chopper. The objective of this section is to demonstrate the use of electrical blocks, in combination with SIMULINK blocks, in the simulation of an electromechanical system with a control system. The electrical part of the DC motor drive including the DC source, the DC motor, and the chopper is built using blocks from the SIMULINK and Power Electronics libraries. The DC Machine block of SIMULINK models both electrical and mechanical dynamics. The load torque-speed characteristic and the control system are built using SIMULINK blocks. A simplified diagram of the drive system is shown in Figure 3.9. The DC motor is fed by the DC source through a chopper that consists of the GTO thyristor, Th1, and the free-wheeling diode D1. The DC motor drives a mechanical load that is characterized by the inertia J, friction coefficient B, and load torque TL (which can be a function of the motor speed).

Figure 3.9: Chopper-Fed DC Motor Drive In this diagram, the DC motor is represented by its equivalent circuit consisting of inductor La and resistor Ra in series with the counter electromotive force (emf) E.

33

Thyristor Th1 is triggered by a pulse width modulated (PWM) signal to control the average motor voltage. Theoretical waveforms illustrating the chopper operation are shown in Fig. 3.10. The average armature voltage is a direct function of the chopper duty cycle .
Va = Vdc

(3.7)

Note that this relation is valid only when the armature current is continuous. In steady-state, the armature average current is equal to:
Ia = Va Eb Ra

(3.8)

The peak-to-peak current ripple is:

i =
Vdc (1 e + e e (1 ) ) . Ra (1 e )

(3.9)

where is the duty cycle and r is the ratio between the chopper period and the DC motor electrical time constant.
=
T ( La / Ra )

(3.10)

Figure 3.10 Waveforms Illustrating the Chopper Operation

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3.4 Steady-State Voltage and Current Waveforms When the steady-state is attained, you can stop the simulation and plot the current and voltage waveforms using the variables Va and Ia sent back in MATLAB workspace by the scope. The DC motor current and voltage waveforms obtained at the end of the starting test are shown in Fig. 3.11.

Figure 3.11 Steady-State Motor Current and Voltage Waveforms

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Chapter (4) Design and Simulation for Current & Speed Controllers of Separately Excited DC Motor Drive
4.1 Introduction This chapter describes how a separately-excited DC motor can be controlled in closed-loop with a Chopper-controlled supplying DC source to its armature. In a control system, the system dynamics is often described by differential equations. By applying Laplace transformation to the system differential equations, the system output variables can be related to the input variables in an algebraic form. In our single input/ single output system (SISO) where one input position expect one corresponding output position. We use a transfer function to model the input/output relationship. System Transfer Function = Ratio of the output over the input to a control system. Hence, every component in a control circuit will have a transfer function. This is obvious because every component in a control /system will receive some input signal and manipulate this signal to provide a required output. Therefore, we have a series of transfer functions within the system. We can relate these systems together by a block diagram representation where the transfer functions of each component is put into representative blocks. A separately-excited dc motor can be controlled, either by varying the voltage applied to the field winding or by varying the voltage applied to the armature. This Chapter describes how the motor can be controlled by varying the armature voltage and it is assumed that the field is excited by a constant voltage, equaling the rated voltage of the field winding. It means that the discussion to follow assumes that the field current remains steady at its rated value.

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4.2 Control System Design Classical Feedback Control describes design and implementation of highperformance feedback controllers for engineering systems. This Chapter emphasizes the pole placement and root locus approaches which is widely used in practical engineering. It presents the design methods for highorder SISO, linear and nonlinear, analog and digital control systems. Modern technology allows implementation of high-performance controllers at a very low cost. Conversely, several analysis tools which were previously considered an inherent part of control system courses limit the design to low-order (and therefore low-performance) compensators. Among these are the root-locus method, the detection of right-sided polynomial roots using the Routh-Hurwitz criterion, and manual calculations using the Laplace and Fourier transforms. These methods have been rendered obsolete by structural simulation of complex systems, multi-loop systems and nonlinear controllers, all of which are essential for good design practice. Nonlinear dynamic compensation is employed to provide global and process stability, and to improve transient responses. The nearly-optimal high-order compensators are then economically implemented using analog and digital technology. 4.3 Current Controller Design Using Pole Placement With approximate model of the current loop, the transfer function is given by:
ia ( s ) Va ( s ) T

=
L =0

(1 / Ra ) (1 + a sa )

(4.1)

If we use the desired response,

2 n C ( s) = 2 R( s ) s 2 + 2 n + n

(4.2)

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We can design the current controller as follows:

* ia

K ip s + K ii s

1 / Ra (1 + as)

ia

Fig. 4.1 Block diagram of the current control loop The closed loop transfer function can be deduced as:
I a (s) * Ia ( s) T

=
L

(1 / a Ra ).( K ip s + K ii )
s 2 + (1 / a + K ip / Ra a ) + K ii / Ra a

(4.3)

=0

By comparing equations (4.2, 4.3) yields the controller parameters:

K ip = a Ra (2n 1 / a )
2 K ii = a Ran

(4.4) (4.5)

Now, we can select the damping ratio and then, we can calculate n as follows: For R( s) = , therefore,
2 1 n C ( s) = . 2 2 s s + 2 n + n

1 s

(4.6)

The inverse Laplace Transform for equation (4.6) will yield:

C (t ) = 1 e n t (1 + nt )

(4.7)

From this equation we can calculate n at the rise time tr and C (tr ) = 0.9 . 4.4 Speed Controller Design Using Pole Placement With approximate model of the current loop, the transfer function is given by:

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r ( s )
Va ( s) T
L

=
=0

K / J (s + / J )

(4.8)

We can design the current controller as follows:

r*
K p s + Ki

K / J (s + / J )

Fig. 4.2 Block diagram of the speed control loop The closed loop transfer function can be deduced as:
r ( s ) r* ( s ) T
=
L

( K / J ).( K p s + Ki ) s 2 + ( / J + K p K / J ) s + ( K K i / J )

(4.9)

=0

By comparing equations (4.2, 4.9) yields the controller parameters:

K p = ( 2n / J )
2 K i = n J / K

(4.10) (4.11)

Now, we can select the damping ratio and then, we can calculate n as before. 4.5 Operation of the Current Controller of DC Motor The current controller has two inputs, the reference current signal which is the output of the speed controller and a feedback signal proportional to armature current. The feedback corresponding to A current armature current signal can be obtained in several ways.

transformer can be introduced in the path of ac current from the ac supply. Another option would be to use a DC current transducer that makes use of a Hall-effect sensor or an isolated opamp. The transducer

39

used produces a voltage proportional to current in the armature. The difference between these two signals is processed by another PI controller and its output is also limited to correspond to 0o and 180o firing angle. Output of the current controller may vary between 0 V and 10 V, with 0 V corresponding to 180o firing angle and 10 V corresponding 0o firing angle. If the firing angle be and the output of current controller VC, then:
= 180 * (10 Vc )

(4.12)

As output voltage of the current controller increases due to the difference between the reference signal and the current feedback signal, the firing angle is advanced towards 0o and average output voltage of the bridge rectifier increases. This in turn leads to increased torque generation and the motor accelerates. If the speed reference is brought down suddenly, the current in the motor cannot be reversed and hence the motor slows down due to friction and the load. This process can be slow. The question that can be raised is whether we need the current loop. The answer is that it improves the performance. If there is a change in the supply voltage even by a small amount, output of the bridge circuit tends to a fall a bit for the same firing angle. The reduction in output voltage causes a large change in armature current, with speed remaining more or less constant. Then the current loop comes into action, correcting firing angle to the required value. The time constant of the armature, due to its inductance and resistance, tends to be of the order of a few tens of ms and the mechanical time constant, due to the moment of inertia of motor and load and the friction, is of the order of a few tenths of a second. If a current controller is not used, speed would have to change before the speed controller can come into action. Since the mechanical

40

time constant is about at least 10 times greater, there would be a significant change in speed if there be no current controller. Normally a filter may be necessary in the feedback circuit for speed. The tacho signal usually contains a small ripple superimposed on its dc content. The frequency of the ripple is usually dependent on the speed and the lower the speed is, the lower is the frequency of this ripple. Hence the time constant of the filter may have to be set to correspond to the lowest speed at which the motor would be required to run. Since power output varies proportionately with speed, there is usually no justification to run the motor at an extremely low speed. The next section describes how the simulation is carried out. 4.6 Operation of Speed Controller of DC Motor The block diagram of a dc drive is shown above. It does not show all details. The DC motor has not been represented in the form of a block diagram and the details of the load the motor drives have also not been shown. The block diagram functions as follows. For the system described here, output of the system is speed of the motor. Hence when this system is to be controlled in closed-loop, the parameter that is to be set is what that speed should be. It is denoted to be r* . In order to control speed in closed-loop, we need a feedback signal that corresponds to speed. It can be obtained in several ways. A digital tacho or an analogue tachogenerator can be used. It is assumed that an analogue tachogenerator is used here. It is coupled to the motor shaft and its output voltage varies linearly with its speed. Let the speed feedback signal be r* . This signal can be compared with the speed reference signal and the error can be processed by the speed controller. controller can be of one of several types. The It can be an integral (I)

controller, or a proportional (P) controller controller or a derivative (D)

41

controller or PI or PD or PID controller. Here both the controllers used are PI (proportional plus integral) controllers. A PI controller can lead to fast response and zero-error for a step input. The PI controller for speed has as its input the error between the two signals, r* and r . If the speed feedback signal r is lower than the reference signal r* , it means that the DC motor speed is below the set speed and the motor needs to be accelerated. In order to accelerate the motor, it should develop greater torque. To develop greater torque, its armature current has to increase. Hence the output of speed controller is set to function as the reference signal for armature current. It will be a voltage corresponding to armature current with an appropriate coefficient linking the two quantities. When r < r* , the difference causes output of the speed controller to increase. Since output of speed-controller is set to function as the armature current reference signal, an increase in the value of speed-controller output would in turn lead to an increase in armature current. 4.7 Operation of DC Chopper Fed of DC Motor The rectifier circuit is made up of SCRs and the SCRs have a current rating. Hence it is necessary to ensure that current through the SCRs remains within a safe level. Hence output of the speed controller is limited at both ends. Its maximum value corresponds to the safe level for SCRs. It is not normally the rated current of the motor and it is usually set at a value ranging from 1.5 times to 2 times the rated armature current. The reason is that the motor may have to develop more than the rated torque under transient conditions to achieve fast response. In order to ensure that the motor armature current remains within its rated value, another supervisory loop may be used. Another option is to use a circuit-

42

breaker. The instantaneous trip action in the circuit breaker can be due to magnetic effect and the overload trip can be due to thermal action. A bimetallic strip within the circuit-breaker expands due to temperature and would trip the circuit-breaker. The lower limit on the output of speedcontroller would correspond to zero current in the armature, since the motor current in this scheme cannot be in the reverse direction. 4.8 Simulation of the Separately Excited DC Motor Drive Using SIMULINK/MATLAB In this section, we consider a variable-speed DC motor drive using a cascade control configuration. A block diagram of this drive is shown in Figure 4.3. The motor torque is controlled by the armature current Ia, which is regulated by a current control loop. The motor speed is controlled by an external loop, which provides the current reference Ia* for the current control loop.

Figure 4.3 Variable-Speed DC Motor Drive The drive system diagram is built using electrical blocks contained in the SIMULINK library. Voltage Measurement and Current Measurement

43

blocks are used as the interface between the two block types. The system diagram of the DC motor using SIMULINK. is shown in Fig. 4.4

Figure 4.4 DC Motor Drive Using SIMULINK/MATLAB The DC machine parameters are set to the desired values by using the dialog mask of the DC Machine block. The load torque-speed characteristic can be implemented by a SIMULINK Function block. The motor used in this case study is a separately excited 5 HP/240 V DC motor having the following parameters: Ra = 0.5 =1.23 V/(rad/s), Kv = 1.23 N.m/A. A 10mH inductor (Ls) is connected in series with the DC motor to smooth out the armature current. The constant excitation is implemented by connecting a DC Voltage Source block to the field winding. The required trigger signal for the GTO thyristor is generated by a hysteresis current controller, which forces the motor current to follow the reference within +h/2 and -h/2 limits (h is the hysteresis band) as shown in Fig. 4.5. , La = 10 mH, Kv

44

The current controller is a masked block that contains

Figure 4.5 The hysteresis current controller The speed control loop uses a proportional-integral (PI) controller, which is implemented by SIMULINK blocks as shown in Figure 4.6.

Figure 4.6 The PI speed controller 4.9 Simulation Results of the DC Drive Run the simulation by selecting Start from the Simulation menu in Simulink. Set the simulation parameters in the Simulation Parameters menu as follows. Simulation time: Start Time:0, Stop time: 1.2 Solver Type: Variable-step ode23tb (stiff/TR-BDF2) Max Step Size: auto Initial Step Size: auto Relative Tolerance: 1e-3 Absolute Tolerance: 1e-3 The motor voltage, current waveforms and motor speed are displayed on three axes of the scope connected to the variables Vd, Ia and .

45

Once the simulation is completed, you can return to the MATLAB command window to examine the results with more details by using the plot function. 4.9.1 Drive Performance at No Load In this test, we simulate the starting transient of the DC drive. The inertia of the mechanical load is small in order to bring out the details of the chopper commutation details. The speed reference is stepped from 0 to 120 rad/s at t=0.0 s and we observe the DC motor speed and current. The transient responses for the starting of the DC motor drive are shown in Figure 4.7. Note that the final system state vector x Final can be saved by selecting Workspace I/O/Save to workspace/Final state in the Simulation Parameters window. It can be used as initial state in subsequent simulation so that the simulation can start under steady-state conditions. 4.9.2 Speed Regulation Dynamic Performance We can study the drive dynamic performance, (speed regulation performance versus reference and load torque changes), by applying two successive changing operating conditions to the DC drive: a step change in speed reference and a step change in load torque. Replace the block named r* (rad/s) and the block named Load_torque (N.m) in the diagram by two SIMULINK step blocks with different starting times. The speed reference steps from 120 rad/s to 160 rad/s at t = 0.4 s and the load torque steps from 5 N.m to 25 N.m at t = 1.2 s. The final state vector obtained with the previous simulation can be used as initial condition so that the simulation will start from steady-state. Select Workspace I/O/Load from workspace/Initial state in the Simulation Parameters window and restart the simulation.
46

The obtained response of the DC motor drive to successive changes in speed reference and load torque is shown in Figure 4.8.

Figure 4.7: Starting of the DC Motor Drive

47

Figure 4.8 Dynamic Transient of the DC Motor Drive

48

Chapter (5) Implementation of the Open Loop Control for Separately Excited DC Motor
5.1 Introduction In this Chapter the implementation of the DC Chopper feeding DC motor is presented. Power supply circuits, driving circuits of IGBT transistor and control circuit that generate the control signal of the Chopper are designed and implemented. 5.2 Experimental Setup 5.1.1 The Power Supply with Voltage Regulator Circuit Power is supplied to the control circuit through a +5, -5, -15, +15 volt DC power supply. Power form the output of the bridge rectifier is applied to a voltage regulators circuits that steps the voltage down to -5, +5, +15, -15 volt pure DC. This circuit is fairly simple to build because the support circuitry for the LM7805 (5-Volt voltage regulator IC), LM7905, LM7815 and LM7915 require very few components. Each circuit consists of step down transformer, an input jack, a power switch, a resistor, one LED, a voltage regulator IC and two capacitors. The out of the bridge rectifier is brought in through the input jack and then routed to a double pole double throw switch (DPDT). This switch is used to turn the power to the microcontroller on and off. The reason for using the DPDT switch is to allow for disconnecting both the hot and neutral lines. The LED is used to indicate whether power to the circuit is on or off. The tantalum capacitors are used to filter the input and output voltages of the all voltage regulators. Once this testing is completed, power is

49

applied to the circuit. The student then checks the voltage regulator for overheating. Figure (5.1) displays the voltage regulator circuit.

Fig. 5.1 The voltage regulator circuit

5.2.2 Linear Control of Phase Angle In this scheme illustrated in Fig. 5.2, a control voltage Ec changes linearly the phase angle . The voltage V1 is converted to a square voltage e1 and then to a ramp voltage e2 . which is then compared with a control voltage Ec. If e2 is higher than Ec, a signal ea is obtained at the output of the comparator. The time at which the rising edge of ea occurs is proportional to Ec and defines the firing angle . This signal ea is next fed to a pulse amplifier circuit and is used to fire IGBT. The firing angle is given by:
= kEc

(5.1)

This circuit was used to generate a ramp that is synchronized with the line voltage. Each comparator compares the line voltage with zero and the RC circuit integrates the resulting square wave. The reverse diode resets the ramp to zero at each zero crossing and the series diode circuit ORs the ramp outputs to achieve an increasing ramp which resets at each zero crossing of the source voltage. The final comparator stage is used to dial the firing angle, , and the transistor drive circuit bias the IGBT.
50

The ramp waveform and the pulse waveform for degrees were plotted. The circuit was constructed, powered by a DC power supply (15V), and its operation was confirmed. The circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 5.3.

Fig. 5.2 Linear control of phase angle

51

Fig. 5.3 Circuit diagram phase angle control 5.2.3 Pulse Amplifier Circuit (Driving Circuit) The pulses ei or ej in Fig. 5.4 may not be strong enough to bias an IGBT. Besides, the gate and emitter terminals of the IGBT are at higher potentials of the power circuit, and the control circuit should not be directly connected to the power circuit. An optical isolation or pulsetransformer isolation is commonly used in practice to provide physical isolation between the control circuit and the power circuit. Figure 5.4 shows a pulse amplifier circuit using a pulse transformer isolation. A Darlington transistor is used to amplify the pulse-current. If the pulses are long (ex has a long width ), they may saturate the pulse-transformer and the whole width of the pulse may not be transmitted. The whole pulsewidth may not be necessary. In such a case, the pulse is modulated at a high frequency (10-1 MHz) as shown in Fig. 5.4, using a 555 timer or any oscillator. The duly cycle of the timer should be less than 50% so that the flux in the transformer can reset. A modulated pulse also reduces gate dissipation in the IGBT. Processing of the pulse signal, (obtained from
52

the firing or driving circuit) at various stages is illustrated by the timing diagram in Fig. 5.4.

Fig. 5.4 A typical pulse amplifier circuit 5.2.4 Chopper Control Chopper converters in general require firing pulses to turn on a main SCR and a commutating IGBT. The time interval between the firing of the two IGBTs determines the duty cycle and hence the output voltage. A control voltage is used to control the duty cycle of the chopper. Figure 5.5 shows a chopper firing circuit that consists mainly of four parts: a

53

triangular wave generator, a voltage comparator, edge detection and pulse amplifiers. The waveforms at various parts of the circuit are also shown in Fig. 5.5. The three operational amplifiers Q1, and Q2, together form a triangular wave generator that generates the triangular wave ea, shown in Fig. 5.5b. As the voltage ea decreases below 0.6 V (which is the forward bias voltage of the diode D2), the output of Q2 changes from 13.5 V to -13.5 V, and it in turn triggers Q3 to change state. The output of Q3, which is now negative (-13.5 V), makes D1 forward biased, and the 2.2 k path takes control of the integrator input summing junction. The output of Q1 quickly rises to 13.5 V, which in turn triggers Q2 and Q3 and changes their outputs to positive voltages. Now the diode D1 is reverse biased, the feedback loop through D1 is reverse biased, and the feedback loop through D1 is open. With the diode D1 reverse biased, control of the integrator Q1 reverts to the 200 k path, and the output voltage e, has a constant slope that depends on the values of the capacitor C, the input resistor R, and the input voltage Vi . In fact, this oscillator can be used as a voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO). The purpose of using Q2 is to introduce a time delay so that there is enough lime to charge up the capacitor so that ea rises to 13.5 V. The diode D2 is used for the offset adjustment so that ea is always above zero voltage. The operational amplifier Q4 is used as a voltage comparator. If the control voltage Ec exceeds the voltage ea the output of Q4 changes as shown by waveform ea in Fig. 5.5. The two monostable multivibrators are connected in such a way that one of them is triggered by the rising edge and the other by the falling edge of the signal. On receiving the rising or falling edge, the monostable multivibrators produce two output signals whose width can

54

be adjusted. A pulse-width in the range of 20 to 200 sec is sufficient for firing IGBT.

Fig. 5.5 Chopper driving circuit 5.2.5 OPEN-LOOP AND CLOSED-LOOP CONTROL The control voltage Ec in Figs. 5.1, 5.2, 5.3 and 5.5 changes the output voltage of the converter. In an open-loop control as shown in Fig. 5.6, the control voltage Ec is varied by using a potentiometer. In a closed-loop control, the control voltage is obtained from the difference between a reference and the quantity to be controlled. For example, if the dc motor armature current is to be controlled in a closed-loop feedback control

55

system, as shown Fig. 5.6, the control voltage is derived from the difference between the reference current and the actual motor current. The Opamp comparator is used to compare values of 2 input voltages. In this control system, the Opamp received voltage signal from the potentiometer. Then the Opamp amplifies the system's error voltages so that the output voltage is enough to drive the motor. For example, the input signal may be the order of a few miliamperes. This is hardly enough to actuate the motors. This illustrates the need for an increase gain. It is worth mentioning that this amplifier compares the values of the input and feedback voltage and then amplify this voltage to a magnitude suitable to be transmitted

Fig. 5.6 Open loop and closed loop control circuit

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5.3 Experimental Results We test the practical system using a resistive load and a small DC motor. Fig. 5.7 shows the steady state voltage and current waveforms.

Fig. 5.7 Steady state voltage and current waveforms

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