Empire of Brazil

Empire of Brazil The Empire of Brazil was a 19th-century state that broadly comprised the territories which form
modern Brazil and Uruguay. Its go ernment was a representati e parliamentary constitutional monarchy under the rule of Emperors !om "edro I and his son !om "edro II# both members of the $ouse of Braganza%a branch of the &apetian dynasty. ' colony of the (ingdom of "ortugal# Brazil became the seat of the "ortuguese colonial Empire in 1)*)# when the "ortuguese "rince regent# later (ing !om +o,o -I# fled from .apoleon Is in asion of "ortugal and established himself and his go ernment in the Brazilian city of /io de +aneiro. +o,o -I later returned to "ortugal# lea ing his eldest son and heir# "edro# to rule Brazil as regent. 0n 1 2eptember 1)33# "edro declared the independence of Brazil and# after waging a successful war against his father4s 5ingdom# was acclaimed on 13 0ctober as "edro I# the first Emperor of Brazil. The new country was huge but sparsely populated and ethnically di erse. Unli5e most of its $ispanic republic neighbors# Brazil had political stability# freedom of speech# respect for ci il rights and ibrant economic growth. Its bicameral parliament was elected under comparati ely democratic methods for the era# as were the pro incial and local legislatures. This led into a long ideological conflict between "edro I and a sizable parliamentary faction o er the role of the monarch in the go ernment. $e also faced other obstacles6 the unsuccessful &isplatine 7ar against the neighboring United "ro inces of the /8o de la "lata led to the secession of a Brazilian pro ince 9later to become Uruguay: in 1)3). !espite his role in Brazilian independence# he became the 5ing of "ortugal in 1)3; but immediately abdicated in fa or of his eldest daughter. Two years later her throne was usurped by "edro I4s younger brother. Unable to deal with both Brazilian and "ortuguese affairs# "edro I abdicated on 1
'pril 1)<1 and immediately departed for Europe to restore his daughter to her throne. "edro I4s successor was his fi e-year-old son# "edro II. 's the latter was still a minor# a wea5 regency was created. The power acuum resulting from the absence of a ruling monarch as the ultimate arbiter in political disputes led to regional ci il wars between local factions. $a ing inherited an empire on the erge of disintegration# "edro II# once declared of age# managed to bring peace and stability to the country# which e entually became an emerging international power. Brazil was ictorious in three international conflicts 9the "latine 7ar# the Uruguayan 7ar and the "araguayan 7ar: under "edro II4s rule# and it pre ailed in se eral other international disputes and domestic strifes. 7ith prosperity and economic de elopment came an influ= of European immigration# including "rotestants and +ews# although Brazil remained mostly &atholic. 2la ery# which had initially been widespread# was restricted by successi e legislation until its final abolition in 1))). Brazilian isual arts# literature and theater de eloped during this time of progress. 'lthough hea ily influenced by European styles that ranged from .eoclassicismto /omanticism# each concept was adapted to create a culture that was uni>uely Brazilian. !espite the fact the last four decades of "edro II4s reign were mar5ed by continuous internal peace and economic prosperity# he personally had no desire to see the monarchy sur i e beyond his lifetime. 's the Emperor grew older# he made no effort to maintain support for the institution. 2ince he lac5ed iable heirs 9the ne=t in line was his daughter Isabel# and both "edro II and the ruling classes considered a female monarch unacceptable: the Empire4s political leaders belie ed that there was no reason to defend the monarchy. !espite the lac5 of enthusiasm among most Brazilians for adopting a republican form of go ernment# on 1? .o ember 1))9# after a
?)-year reign# the Emperor was o erthrown in a sudden coup dtat that had almost no support outside a cli>ue of military leaders whose goal was the formation of a republic headed by a dictator. Independence and early years The territory which would come to be 5nown as Brazil was claimed by "ortugal on 33 'pril 1?**# when the na igator "edro @l ares &abral landed on its coast. A1B "ermanent settlement followed in 1?<3# and for the ne=t <** years the "ortuguese slowly e=panded westwards until they had reached nearly all of the borders of modern Brazil. A3B In 1)*)# the army of Crench Emperor .apoleon I in aded "ortugal# forcing the "ortuguese royal family%the $ouse of Braganza# a branch of the thousand-year-old &apetian dynasty%into e=ile. Theyre-established themsel es in the Brazilian city of /io de +aneiro# which became the unofficial seat of the "ortuguese Empire.A<B In 1)1?# the "ortuguese crown prince !om +o,o 9later !om +o,o -I:# acting as regent# created the United (ingdom of "ortugal# Brazil and the 'lgar es# which raised the status of Brazil from colony to 5ingdom. $e ascended the "ortuguese throne the following year# after the death of his mother# Daria I of "ortugal. $e returned to "ortugal in 'pril 1)31# lea ing behind his son and heir# "rince !om "edro# to rule Brazil as his regent.AEBA?B The "ortuguese go ernment immediately mo ed to re o5e the political autonomy that Brazil had been granted since 1)*).A;BA1B The threat of losing their limited control o er local affairs ignited widespread opposition among Brazilians. +osF BonifGcio de 'ndrada# along with other Brazilian leaders# con inced "edro to declare Brazil4s independence from "ortugal on 1 2eptember 1)33.A)BA9B 0n 13 0ctober# the prince was acclaimed "edro I# first Emperor of the newly created Empire of Brazil# a constitutional monarchy. A1*BA11B The declaration of independence was opposed
throughout Brazil by armed military units loyal to "ortugal. The ensuing war of independence was fought across the country# with battles in the northern# northeastern# and southern regions. The last "ortuguese soldiers to surrender did so in Darch 1)3E#A13BA1<B and independence was recognized by "ortugal in 'ugust 1)3?.A1EB "edro I encountered a number of crises during his reign. ' secessionist rebellion in the pro ince of &isplatina in early 1)3? and the subse>uent attempt by the United "ro inces of the /8o de la "lata 9later 'rgentina: to anne= &isplatina led the Empire into the &isplatine 7arH Ia long# inglorious# and ultimately futile war in the southJ.A1?B In Darch 1)3;# +o,o -I died and "edro I inherited the "ortuguese crown# briefly becoming (ing "edro I- of "ortugal before abdicating in fa or of his eldest daughter# Daria II.A1;B The situation worsened in 1)3) when the war in the south ended with Brazil4s loss of &isplatina# which would become the independent republic ofUruguay.A11B !uring the same year in Kisbon# Daria II4s throne was usurped by "rince Diguel# "edro I4s younger brother.A1)B 0ther difficulties arose when the Empire4s parliament# the Leneral 'ssembly# opened in 1)3;. "edro I# along with a significant percentage of the legislature# argued for an independent Mudiciary# a popularly elected legislature and a go ernment which would be led by the emperor who held broad e=ecuti e powers and prerogati es.A19B 0thers in parliament argued for a similar structure# only with a less influential role for the monarch and the legislati e branch being dominant in policy and go ernance.A3*B The struggle o er whether the go ernment would be dominated by the emperor or by the parliament was carried o er into debates from 1)3; to 1)<1 on the establishment of the go ernmental and political structure.A1?B Unable to deal with the problems in both Brazil and "ortugal simultaneously# the Emperor abdicated on
behalf of his son# "edro II# on 1 'pril 1)<1 and immediately sailed for Europe to restore his daughter to her throne.A31B Anarchy Collowing the hasty departure of "edro I# Brazil was left with a fi e-year-old boy as head of state. 7ith no precedent to follow# the Empire was faced with the prospect of a period of more than twel e years without a strong e=ecuti e# as# under the constitution# "edro II would not attain his maMority and begin e=ercising authority as Emperor until 3 !ecember 1)E<. A33B ' regency was elected to rule the country in the interim. Because the /egency held few of the powers e=ercised by an emperor and was completely subordinated to the Leneral 'ssembly# it could not fill the acuum at the ape= of Brazil4s go ernment.A3uell the growing dissent# the Leneral 'ssembly passed a constitutional amendment in 1)<E# called the Ato Adicional 9'dditional 'ct:. Instead of ending the chaos# these new powers only fed local ambitions and ri alries. -iolence erupted throughout the country. A3EB Kocal parties competed with renewed ferocity to dominate pro incial and municipal go ernments# as whiche er party dominated the pro inces would also gain control o er the electoral and political system. Those parties which lost elections rebelled and tried to assume power by force# resulting in se eral rebellions.A3?B The politicians who had risen to power during the 1)<*s had by then become familiar with the difficulties and pitfalls of power. 'ccording to historian /oderic5 +. Barman# by 1)E* Ithey had lost all faith in their ability to rule the country on their own. They accepted "edro II as an authority figure whose presence was indispensable for the country4s
sur i al.JA3;B 2ome of these politicians 9who would form the &onser ati e "arty in the 1)E*s: belie ed that a neutral figure was re>uired%one who could stand abo e political factions and petty interests to address discontent and moderate disputes.A31B They en isioned an emperor who was more dependent on the legislature than the constitutional monarch en isioned by "edro I# yet with greater powers than had been ad ocated at the beginning of the /egency by their ri als 9who later formed the Kiberal "arty:. A3)B The liberals# howe er# contri ed to pass an initiati e to lower "edro II4s age of maMority from eighteen to fourteen. The Emperor was declared fit to rule in +uly 1)E*.A39B Consolidation To achie e their goals# the liberals had allied themsel es with a group of high-ran5ing palace ser ants and notable politiciansH the I&ourtier CactionJ. The courtiers were part of the Emperor4s inner circle and had established influence o er him#A<*B which enabled the appointment of successi e liberalcourtier cabinets. Their dominance was short-li ed# though. By 1)E;# "edro II had matured physically and mentally. .o longer an insecure 1E-year-old swayed by gossip# suggestions of secret plots# and other manipulati e tactics# A<1B the young emperor4s wea5nesses faded and his strength of character came to the fore.A<1B $e successfully engineered the end of the courtiers4 influence by remo ing them from his inner circle without causing any public disruption.A<3B $e also dismissed the liberals# who had pro ed ineffecti e while in office# and called on the conser ati es to form a go ernment in 1)E).A<<B The abilities of the Emperor and the newly appointed conser ati e cabinet were tested by three crises between 1)E) and 1)?3.A<EB The first crisis was a confrontation o er the illegal importation of sla es. Importing sla es had been banned in 1)3; as part of a treaty with Britain. A<<BTraffic5ing
continued unabated# howe er# and the British go ernment4s passage of the 'berdeen 'ct of 1)E? authorized British warships to board Brazilian ships and seize anyone who was found to be in ol ed in the sla e trade.A<?B 7hile Brazil grappled with this problem# the"raieira re olt# a conflict between local political factions within "ernambuco pro ince 9and one in which liberal and courtier supporters were in ol ed:# erupted on ; .o ember 1)E)# but was suppressed by Darch 1)E9. It was the last rebellion to occur during the monarchy# and its end mar5ed the beginning of forty years of internal peace in Brazil. The EusFbio de NueirOs Kaw was promulgated on E 2eptember 1)?* gi ing the go ernment broad authority to combat the illegal sla e trade. 7ith this new tool Brazil mo ed to eliminate the importation of sla es# and by 1)?3 this first crisis was o er# with Britain accepting that the trade had been suppressed.A<;B The third crisis was a conflict with the 'rgentine &onfederation o er ascendancy in territories adMacent to the /8o de la "lata and free na igation of that waterway. A<1B 2ince the 1)<*s# 'rgentine dictator +uan Danuel de /osas had supported rebellions within Uruguay and Brazil. The Empire was unable to address the threat posed by /osas until 1)?*#A<1Bwhen an alliance was forged between Brazil# Uruguay and disaffected 'rgentines#A<1B leading to the "latine 7ar and the subse>uent o erthrow of the 'rgentine ruler in Cebruary 1)?3.A<)BA<9B The Empire4s successful na igation of these crises considerably enhanced the nation4s stability and prestige# and Brazil emerged as a hemispheric power. AE*B Internationally# Europeans came to see the country as embodying familiar liberal ideals# such as freedom of the press and constitutional respect for ci il liberties. Its representati e parliamentary monarchy also stood in star5 contrast to the mi= of dictatorships and instability endemic in the other nations of 2outh 'merica during this period.AE1B
Lrowth 't the beginning of the 1)?*s# Brazil was enMoying internal stability and economic prosperity.AE3B The nation4s infrastructure was being de eloped# with progress in the construction of railroads# the electric telegraph and steamship lines uniting Brazil into a cohesi e national entity.AE3B 'fter fi e years in office# the successful conser ati e cabinet was dismissed and on 2eptember 1)?<# $onOrio $ermeto &arneiro Ke,o# Dar>uis of "aranG# chieftain of the &onser ati e "arty# was charged with forming a new cabinet.AE<B Emperor "edro II wanted to ad ance an ambitious plan# which became 5nown as Ithe &onciliationJ#AEEB aimed at strengthening parliament4s role in settling the country4s political disputes.AE<BAE?B "aranG in ited se eral liberals to Moin the conser ati e ran5s and went so far as to name some as ministers. The new cabinet# although highly successful# was plagued from the start by strong opposition from ultraconser ati e members of the &onser ati e "arty who repudiated the new liberal recruits. They belie ed that the cabinet had become a political machine infested with con erted liberals who did not genuinely share the party4s ideals and were primarily interested in gaining public offices.AE;B !espite this mistrust# "aranG showed resilience in fending off threats and o ercoming obstacles and setbac5s.AE1BAE)B $owe er# in 2eptember 1)?;# at the height of his career# he died une=pectedly# although the cabinet sur i ed him until Day 1)?1.AE9B The &onser ati e "arty had split down the middleH on one side were the ultraconser ati es# and on the other# the moderate conser ati es who supported the &onciliation. A?*B The ultraconser ati es were led by the +oa>uim /odrigues Torres# -iscount of Itabora8# EusFbio de NueirOs and "aulino 2oares de 2ousa# 1st -iscount of Uruguai%all former ministers in the 1)E)P1)?< cabinet. These elder statesmen
had ta5en control of the &onser ati e "arty after "aranG4s death.A?1B In the years following 1)?1# none of the cabinets sur i ed long. They >uic5ly collapsed due to the lac5 of a maMority in the &hamber of !eputies. The remaining members of the Kiberal "arty# which had languished since its fall in 1)E) and the disastrous Praieira rebellion in 1)E9# too5 ad antage of what seemed to be the &onser ati e "arty4s impending implosion to return to national politics with renewed strength. They deli ered a powerful blow to the go ernment when they managed to win se eral seats in the &hamber of !eputies in 1);*.A?3B 7hen many moderate conser ati es defected to unite with liberals to form a new political party# the I"rogressi e KeagueJ#A?<B the conser ati es4 hold on power became unsustainable due to the lac5 of a wor5able go erning maMority in the parliament. They resigned# and in Day 1);3 "edro II named a progressi e cabinet.A?EB The period since 1)?< had been one of peace and prosperity for BrazilH IThe political system functioned smoothly. &i il liberties were maintained. ' start had been made on the introduction into Brazil of railroad# telegraph and steamship lines. The country was no longer troubled by the disputes and conflicts that had rac5ed it during its first thirty years.JA??B "araguayan war This period of calm came to an end when the British consul in /io de +aneiro nearly spar5ed a war between Lreat Britain and Brazil. $e sent an ultimatum containing abusi e demands arising out of two minor incidents at the end of 1);1 and beginning of 1);3.A?;B The Brazilian go ernment refused to yield# and the consul issued orders for British warships to capture Brazilian merchant essels as indemnity.A?1B Brazil prepared itself for the imminent conflict#A?)BA?9B and coastal defenses were gi en permission to fire upon any British warship that tried to capture Brazilian merchant ships. A;*B The
Brazilian go ernment then se ered diplomatic ties with Britain in +une 1);<.A;1B 's war with the British Empire loomed# Brazil had to turn its attention to its southern frontiers. 'nother ci il war had begun in Uruguay which pitted its political parties against one another.A;3B The internal conflict led to the murder of Brazilians and the looting of their Uruguayan properties.A;<B Brazil4s progressi e cabinet decided to inter ene and dispatched an army# which in aded Uruguay in !ecember 1);E# beginning the brief Uruguayan 7ar.A;EB The dictator of nearby "araguay# Crancisco 2olano KOpez# too5 ad antage of the Uruguayan situation in late 1);E by attempting to establish his nation as a regional power. In .o ember of that year# he ordered a Brazilian ci ilian steamship seized 9triggering the "araguayan 7ar: and then in aded Brazil.A;?BA;;B 7hat had appeared at the outset to be a brief and straightforward military inter ention led to a full-scale war in 2outh 'merica4s southeast. $owe er# the possibility of a twofront conflict 9with Britain and "araguay: faded when# in 2eptember 1);?# the British go ernment sent an en oy who publicly apologized for the crisis between the empires. A;1B A;)B The "araguayan in asion in 1);E led to a conflict far longer than e=pected# and faith in the progressi e cabinet4s ability to prosecute the war anished.A;9B 'lso# from its inception# the "rogressi e Keague was plagued by internal conflict between factions formed by former moderate conser ati es and by former liberals.A;9BA1*B The cabinet resigned and the Emperor named the aging -iscount of Itabora8 to head a new cabinet in +uly 1);)# mar5ing the return of the conser ati es to power. A11B This impelled both progressi e wings to set aside their differences# leading them to rechristen their party as the Kiberal "arty. ' third# smaller and radical progressi e wing would declare itself republican in 1)1*%an ominous signal for the monarchy.
A13B
.onetheless# the Iministry formed by the iscount of Itabora8 was a far abler body than the cabinet it replacedJA11B and the conflict with "araguay ended in Darch 1)1* with total ictory for Brazil and its allies. A1<B Dore than ?*#*** Brazilian soldiers had died#A1EB and war costs were ele en times the go ernment4s annual budget.A1?B $owe er# the country was so prosperous that the go ernment was able to retire the war debt in only ten years. A1;BA11B The conflict was also a stimulus to national production and economic growth. A1)B 'pogee The diplomatic ictory o er the British Empire and the military ictory o er Uruguay in 1);?# followed by the successful conclusion of the war with "araguay in 1)1*# mar5ed the beginning of the Igolden ageJ of the Brazilian Empire.A19B The Brazilian economy grew rapidly6 railroad# shipping and other modernization proMects were started6 immigration flourished. A)*B The Empire became 5nown internationally as a modern and progressi e nation# second only to the United 2tates in the 'mericas6 it was a politically stable economy with a good in estment potential.A19B In Darch 1)11# "edro II named the conser ati e +osF "aranhos# -iscount of /io Branco as the head of a cabinet whose main goal was to pass a law to immediately free all children born to female sla es.A)1B The contro ersial bill was introduced in the &hamber of !eputies in Day and faced Ia determined opposition# which commanded support from about one third of the deputies and which sought to organize public opinion against the measure.JA)3B The bill was finally promulgated in 2eptember and became 5nown as the IKaw of Cree BirthJ.A)3B /io Branco4s success# howe er# seriously damaged the long-term political stability of the Empire. The law Isplit the conser ati es down the middle# one party faction bac5ed the reforms of the /io Branco cabinet# while the second%5nown as the escravocratas 9EnglishH sla ocrats:%
were unrelenting in their oppositionJ# forming a new generation of ultraconser ati es.A)<B The IKaw of Cree BirthJ# and "edro II4s support for it# resulted in the loss of the ultraconser ati es4 unconditional loyalty to the monarchy.A)<BThe &onser ati e "arty had e=perienced serious di isions before# during the 1)?*s# when the Emperor4s total support for the conciliation policy had gi en rise to the "rogressi es. The ultraconser ati es led by EusFbio# Uruguai and Itabora8 who opposed conciliation in the 1)?*s had nonetheless belie ed that the Emperor was indispensable to the functioning of the political systemH the Emperor was an ultimate and impartial arbiter when political deadloc5 threatened.A)EB By contrast# this new generation of ultraconser ati es had not e=perienced the /egency and early years of "edro II4s reign# when e=ternal and internal dangers had threatened the Empire4s ery e=istence6 they had only 5nown prosperity# peace and a stable administration. A3;B To them%and to the ruling classes in general%the presence of a neutral monarch who could settle political disputes was no longer important. Curthermore# since "edro II had clearly ta5en a political side on the sla ery >uestion# he had compromised his position as a neutral arbiter. The young ultraconser ati e politicians saw no reason to uphold or defend the Imperial office.A)?B !ecline The wea5nesses in the monarchy too5 many years to become apparent. Brazil continued to prosper during the 1))*s# with the economy and society both de eloping rapidly# including the first organized push for women4s rights.A);BA)1B By contrast# letters written by "edro II re eal a man grown world-weary with age# increasingly alienated from current e ents and pessimistic in outloo5.A))B $e remained meticulous in performing his formal duties as Emperor# albeit often without enthusiasm# but he no longer acti ely inter ened to maintain
stability in the country.A)9B $is increasing Iindifference towards the fate of the regimeJA9*B and his inaction to protect the imperial system once it came under threat ha e led historians to attribute the Iprime# perhaps sole# responsibilityJ for the dissolution of the monarchy to the emperor himself.A91B The lac5 of an heir who could feasibly pro ide a new direction for the nation also threatened the long-term prospects for the Brazilian monarchy. The Emperor4s heir was his eldest daughter# Isabel# who had no interest in# nor e=pectation of# becoming the monarch.A93B E en though the &onstitution allowed female succession to the throne# Brazil was still a ery traditional# male-dominated society# and the pre ailing iew was that only a male monarch would be capable as head of state.A9<B "edro II#A9EB the ruling circlesA9?B and the wider political establishment all considered a female successor to be inappropriate# and "edro II himself belie ed that the death of his two sons and the lac5 of a male heir were a sign that the Empire was destined to be supplanted.A9EB ' weary Emperor who no longer cared for the throne# an heir who had no desire to assume the crown# an increasingly discontented ruling class who were dismissi e of the Imperial role in national affairsH all these factors presaged the monarchy4s impending doom. The means to achie e the o erthrow of the Imperial system would soon appear within the 'rmy ran5s. /epublicanism had ne er flourished in Brazil outside of certain elitist circles#A9;BA91B and had little support in the pro inces.A9)B ' growing combination of republican and "ositi ist ideals among the army4s Munior and mid-le el officer ran5s# howe er# began to form a serious threat to the monarchy. These officers fa ored a republicandictatorship# which they belie ed would be superior to the liberal democratic monarchy.A99BA1**B Beginning with small acts of insubordination at the beginning of the 1))*s# discontent in the army grew in scope and audacity during the decade# as
the Emperor was uninterested and the politicians pro ed incapable of re-establishing the go ernment4s authority o er the military.A1*1B Call The nation enMoyed considerable international prestige during the final years of the EmpireA1*3B and had become an emerging power within the international arena. 7hile "edro II was recei ing medical treatment in Europe# the parliament passed# and "rincess Isabel signed on 1< Day 1)))# the Lolden Kaw# which completely abolished sla ery in Brazil.A1*<B "redictions of economic and labor disruption caused by the abolition of sla ery pro ed to be unfounded.A1*EB .onetheless# the end of sla ery was the final blow to any remaining belief in the crown4s neutrality# and this resulted in an e=plicit shift of support to /epublicanism by the ultraconser ati es A1*?B% themsel es bac5ed by rich and powerful coffee farmers who held great political# economic and social power in the country.
A1*;B
To a ert a republican bac5lash# the go ernment e=ploited the credit readily a ailable to Brazil as a result of its prosperity to fuel further de elopment. The go ernment e=tended massi e loans at fa orable interest rates to plantation owners and la ishly granted titles and lesser honors to curry fa or with influential political figures who had become disaffected. A1*1B The go ernment also indirectly began to address the problem of the recalcitrant military by re italizing the moribund .ational Luard# by then an entity which e=isted mostly only on paper.A1*)B The measures ta5en by the go ernment alarmed ci ilian republicans and the positi ists in the military. The republicans saw that it would undercut support for their own aims# and were emboldened to further action.A1**B The reorganization of the .ational Luard was begun by the cabinet in 'ugust 1))9#
and the creation of a ri al force caused the dissidents among the officer corps to consider desperate measures.A1*9BCor both groups# republicans and military# it had become a case of Inow or ne erJ.A11*B 'lthough there was no desire among the maMority of Brazilians to change the country4s form of go ernment#A111B republicans began pressuring army officers to o erthrow the monarchy.A113B They launched a coup and instituted the republic on 1? .o ember 1))9.A11<B The few people who witnessed what occurred did not realize that it was a rebellion. A11EBA11?B $istorian K8dia Besouchet noted that# IArBarely has a re olution been so minor.JA11;B Throughout the coup "edro II showed no emotion# as if unconcerned about the outcome.A111B $e dismissed all suggestions put forward by politicians and military leaders for >uelling the rebellion.A11)B The Emperor and his family were sent into e=ile on 11 .o ember.A119B'lthough there was significant monarchist reaction after the fall of the Empire# this was thoroughly repressed#A13*B and neither "edro II nor his daughter supported a restoration.A131B!espite being unaware of the plans for a coup# once it occurred and in light of the Emperor4s passi e acceptance of the situation# the political establishment supported the end of the monarchy in fa or of a republic. They were unaware that the goal of the coup4s leaders was the creation of a dictatorial republic rather than a presidential or parliamentary Lo ernement "arliament 'rticle 3 of Brazil4s &onstitution defined the roles of both the Emperor and the Assemblia Geral 9Leneral 'ssembly or "arliament:# which in 1)3E was composed of ?* senators and 1*3 general deputies# as the nation4s representati es. The &onstitution endowed the 'ssembly with both status and authority# and created legislati e# moderating# e=ecuti e and
Mudicial branches as Idelegations of the nationJ with the separation of those powers en isaged as pro iding balances in support of the &onstitution and the rights it enshrined.A13<B The prerogati es and authority granted to the legislature within the &onstitution meant that it could and would play a maMor and indispensable role in the functioning of the go ernment%it was not Must a rubber stamp. The Leneral 'ssembly alone could enact# re o5e# interpret and suspend laws under 'rticle 1< of the &onstitution. The legislature also held the power of the purse and was re>uired to annually authorize e=penditures and ta=es. It alone appro ed and e=ercised o ersight of go ernment loans and debts. 0ther responsibilities entrusted to the 'ssembly included setting the size of the military4s forces# the creation of offices within the go ernment# monitoring the national welfare and ensuring that the go ernment was being run in conformity to the &onstitution. This last pro ision allowed the legislature wide authority to e=amine and debate go ernment policy and conduct.A13EB /egarding matters of foreign policy# the &onstitution 9under 'rticle 1*3: re>uired that the Leneral 'ssembly be consulted about declarations of war# treaties and the conduct of international relations. ' determined legislator could e=ploit these &onstitutional pro isions to bloc5 or limit go ernment decisions# influence appointments and force reconsideration of policies.A13?B !uring its annual four-month sessions the 'ssembly conducted public debates. These were widely reported and formed a national forum for the e=pression of public concerns from all parts of the country. It was fre>uently a enue for e=pressing opposition to policies and airing grie ances. Kegislators enMoyed immunity from prosecution for speeches made from the floor and in the discharge of their offices. 0nly their own chambers within the 'ssembly could order the
arrest of a member during his tenure. I7ith no actual responsibility for the actual conduct of affairs# the legislators were free to propose sweeping reforms# ad ocate ideal solutions# and denounce compromising and opportunistic conduct by the go ernment.JA13?B Emperor and council of ministers The Emperor was the head of both the moderating and e=ecuti e branches 9being aided by the &ouncil of 2tate and the &ouncil of Dinisters# respecti ely:6 he had the final say and held ultimate control o er the national go ernment.A13<B $e was tas5ed with ensuring national independence and stability. The &onstitution 9'rticle 1*1: ga e him ery few a enues for imposing his will upon the Leneral 'ssembly. $is main recourse was the right to dissol e or e=tend legislati e sessions. In the 2enate# an emperor4s authority to appoint senators did not necessarily gi e him added influence since senators held their offices for life and were thus freed from go ernment pressure once confirmed. 0n those occasions when the &hamber of !eputies was dissol ed# new elections were re>uired to be held immediately and the new &hamber seated. IThis power was effecti e when held in reser e as a threat. It could not be employed repeatedly# nor would its use wor5 to the emperor4s ad antage.JA13?B !uring the reign of "edro I the &hamber of !eputies was ne er dissol ed and legislati e sessions were ne er e=tended or postponed.A13;B Under "edro II# the &hamber of !eputies was only e er dissol ed at the re>uest of the "resident of the &ouncil of Dinisters 9"rime minister:. There were ele en dissolutions during "edro II4s reign and# of these# ten occurred after consultation with the &ouncil of 2tate# which was beyond what was re>uired by the &onstitution.A131B ' &onstitutional balance of power e=isted between the Leneral 'ssembly and the e=ecuti e branch under the Emperor. The legislature could not operate alone and the monarch could not force his
will upon the 'ssembly. The system functioned smoothly only when both 'ssembly and Emperor acted in a spirit of cooperation for the national good.A13?B ' new element was added when the office of I"resident of the &ouncil of DinistersJ was officially created in 1)E1%although it had e=isted in practice since 1)E<. The president of the &ouncil owed his position to both his party and to the Emperor and these could sometimes come into conflict. 19 th-century abolitionist leader and historian +oa>uim .abucos aid that the I"resident of the &ouncil in Brazil was no /ussian &hancellor# 2o ereign4s creature# nor a British "rime Dinister# made only by the trust of the A$ouse ofB &ommonsH the delegation of the &rown was to him as necessary and important as the delegation of the &hamber# and# to e=ert with safety his functions# he had to dominate the caprice# the oscillations and ambitions of the "arliament# as well as to preser e always unalterable the fa or# the good will of the emperor.JA13)B "ro incial and local go ernment 7hen enacted in 1)3E# the Imperial &onstitution created the Conselho Geral de Provncia 9"ro incial Leneral &ouncil:# the legislature of the pro inces.A139B This council was composed of either 31 or 1< elected members# depending on the size of a pro ince4s population.A1<*B 'll IresolutionsJ 9laws: created by the councils re>uired appro al by the Leneral 'ssembly# with no right of appeal.A1<*B "ro incial &ouncils also had no authority to raise re enues# and their budgets had be to be debated and ratified by the Leneral 'ssembly. A1<*B "ro inces had no autonomy and were entirely subordinate to the national go ernment.A139B 7ith the 1)<E constitutional amendment 5nown as the 'dditional 'ct# "ro incial Leneral &ouncils were supplanted by theAssembleias Legislativas Provinciais 9"ro incial Kegislati e 'ssemblies:. The new
'ssemblies enMoyed much greater autonomy from the national go ernment.A1<1B ' "ro incial 'ssembly was composed of <;# 3) or 3* elected deputies# the number depending on the size of the pro ince4s population.A1<3B The election of pro incial deputies followed the same procedure as used to elect general deputies to the national &hamber of !eputies.A1<3B The responsibilities of the "ro incial 'ssembly included defining pro incial and municipal budgets and le ying the ta=es necessary to support them6 pro iding primary and secondary schools 9higher education was the responsibility of the national go ernment:6 o ersight and control of pro incial and municipal e=penditures6 and pro iding for law enforcement and maintenance of police forces. The 'ssemblies also controlled the creation and abolishment of# and salaries for# positions within pro incial and municipal ci il ser ices. The nomination# suspension and dismissal of ci il ser ants was reser ed for the president 9go ernor: of the pro ince# but how and under what circumstances he could e=ercise these prerogati es was delineated by the 'ssembly. The e=propriation of pri ate property 9with due monetary compensation: for pro incial or municipal interests was also a right of the 'ssembly.A1<<B In effect# the "ro incial 'ssembly could enact any 5ind of law%with no ratification by "arliament %so long as such local laws did not iolate or encroach upon the &onstitution. $owe er# pro inces were not permitted to legislate in the areas of criminal law# criminal procedure laws# ci il rights and obligations# the armed forces# the national budget or matters concerning national interests# such as foreign relations.A1<EB The pro incial presidents were appointed by the national go ernment and were# in theory# charged with go erning the pro ince. In practice# howe er# their power was intangible# arying from pro ince to pro ince based upon each president4s relati e degree of personal influence and personal
character. 2ince the national go ernment wanted to ensure their loyalty# presidents were# in most cases# sent to a pro ince in which they had no political# familial or other ties. A1<?B In order to pre ent them from de eloping any strong local interests or support# presidents would be limited to terms of only a few months in office.A1<?B 's the president usually spent a great deal of time away from the pro ince# often tra eling to their nati e pro ince or the imperial capital# the de facto go ernor was the ice-president# who was chosen by the "ro incial 'ssembly and was usually a local politician. A1<;B 7ith little power to undermine pro incial autonomy# the president was an agent of the central go ernment with little function beyond con eying its interests to the pro incial political bosses. "residents could be used by the national go ernment to influence# or e en rig# elections# although to be effecti e the president had to rely on pro incial and local politicians who belonged to his own political party. This interdependency created a comple= relationship which was based upon e=changes of fa ors# pri ate interests# party goals# negotiations# and other political maneu ering.A1<1B The cmara municipal 9town council: was the go erning body in towns and cities and had e=isted in Brazil since the beginning of the colonial period in the 1;th century. The &hamber was composed of vereadores 9councilmen:# the number of which depended on the size of the town.A1<)B Unli5e the "ro incial Leneral &ouncil# the &onstitution ga e town councils great autonomy. $owe er# when the "ro incial 'ssembly replaced the "ro incial Leneral &ouncil in 1)<E# many of the powers of town councils 9including the setting of municipal budgets# o ersight of e=penditures# creation of Mobs# and the nomination of ci il ser ants: were transferred to the pro incial go ernment. 'dditionally# any laws enacted by the town council had to be ratified by the "ro incial 'ssembly% but not by "arliament.A1<9B 7hile the 1)<E 'dditional 'ct
granted greater autonomy to the pro inces from the central go ernment# it transferred the towns4 remaining autonomy to the pro incial go ernments.A1E*B There was no office of mayor# and towns were go erned by a town council and its president 9who was the councilman who won the most otes during elections:.A1E1B Elections Until 1))1# oting was mandatoryA1E3B and elections occurred in two stages. In the first phase oters chose electors who then selected a slate of senatorial candidates. The Emperor would choose a new senator 9member of the 2enate# the upper house in the Leneral 'ssembly: from a list of the three candidates who had recei ed the highest number of otes. The Electors also chose the Leneral !eputies 9members of the &hamber of !eputies# the lower house:# pro incial deputies 9members of the "ro incial 'ssemblies: and councilmen 9members of the town councils: without the in ol ement of the Emperor in ma5ing a final selection. A1Eui alent in 1)3E to Q9) U.2.A1EEB: were eligible to ote in the first phase. The oting age was lowered to 31 for married men. To become an elector it was necessary to ha e an annual income of at least /s 3**Q***.A1Euirement was much higher in the United (ingdom# e en after the reforms of 1)<3.A1E?B 't the time the only nations not re>uiring a minimum le el of income as a >ualification for oting were Crance and 2witzerland where uni ersal suffrage was introduced only in 1)E).A1E;BA1E1B It is probable that no European country at the time had such liberal legislation as Brazil.A1E?B The income re>uirement was low enough that any employed male citizen
could >ualify to ote.A1EEBA1E1B 's an illustration# the lowest paid ci il employee in 1)1; was a Manitor who earned /s ;**Q*** annually.A1E?B Dost oters in Brazil had a low income.A1E)BA1E9B Cor e=ample# in the Dinas Lerais town of Cormiga in 1)1;# the poor constituted 1*R of the electorate. In IraMG in the pro ince of /io de +aneiro# the poor were )1R of the electorate. A1?*B Cormer sla es could not ote# but their children and grandchildren could#A1E;B as could the illiterateA1?1B 9which few countries allowed:.A1E)B In 1)13# 1*.)R of the Brazilian population otedA1E9B 91<R of the non-sla e population:.A1?3B By comparison# electoral participation in the U( in 1)1* was 1R of the total population6 in Italy it was 3R6 in "ortugal 9R6 and in the .etherlands 3.?R.A1E;B In 1)<3# the year of the British electoral reform# <R of the British oted. Curther reforms in 1);1 and 1))E e=panded electoral participation in the U( to 1?R.A1?<B 'lthough electoral fraud was common# it was not ignored by the Emperor# politicians or obser ers of the time. The problem was considered a maMor issue and attempts were made to correct abuses#A1E<BA1?1B with legislation 9including the electoral reforms of 1)??# 1)1? and 1))1: repeatedly being enacted to combat fraud.A1?EB The 1))1 reforms brought significant changesH they eliminated the two-stage electoral system# introduced direct and facultati e oting#A1??B and allowed the otes of former sla es and enfranchised non-&atholics. A1E9B &on ersely# illiterate citizens were no longer allowed to ote.A1E9B "articipation in elections dropped from 1<R to only *.)R in 1));.A1E9B In 1))9# about 1?R of the Brazilian population could read and write# so disenfranchising the illiterate does not solely e=plain the sudden fall in oting percentages.A1?;B The discontinuation of mandatory oting and oter apathy may ha e been significant factors contributing to the reduction in the number of oters.A1?1B
'rmed forces 9CorSas 'rmadas: Under 'rticles 1*3 and 1E) of the &onstitution# the Brazilian 'rmed Corces were subordinate to the Emperor A1?)B as &ommander-in-&hief. $e was aided by the Dinisters of 7ar and .a y in matters concerning the 'rmy and the 'rmada 9.a y:%although the "resident of the &ouncil of Dinisters usually e=ercised o ersight of both branches in practice. The ministers of 7ar and .a y were# with few e=ceptions# ci ilians.A1?9BA1;*B
(Segundo os artigos 102 e 148 da Constituio, as Foras Armadas brasileiras eram subordinadas ao Imperador como Comandante Supremo !le era au"iliado pelos #inistros da $uerra e #arin%a em assuntos re&erentes ao !"'rcito e a Armada (#arin%a( ) embora o *residente do Consel%o de #inistros normalmente e"ercesse &iscali+ao de ambos os ramos na pr,tica -s ministros da $uerra e #arin%a eram, com poucas e"ce.es, ci/is(
The military was organized along similar lines to the British and 'merican armed forces of the time# in which a small standing army could >uic5ly augment its strength during emergencies from a reser e militia force 9in Brazil# the .ational Luard:. Brazil4s first line of defense relied upon a large and powerful na y to protect against foreign attac5. 's a matter of policy# the military was to be completely obedient to ci ilian go ernmental control and to remain at arm4s length from in ol ement in political decisions.A1;1B
(As &oras armadas esta/am organi+adas ao longo de lin%as similares 0s &oras armadas brit1nicas e americanas da 'poca, nas 2uais um pe2ueno e"'rcito permanente poderia rapidamente ampliar sua &ora durante emerg3ncias a partir de uma &ora mil4cia reser/a (no 5rasil, a $uarda 6acional( A primeira lin%a brasileira de de&esa dependia de uma ampla e poderosa marin%a para proteger contra ata2ue estrangeiro *or uma 2uesto de pol4tica, o militar seria completamente obediente ao controle do go/erno ci/il e permanecer distante do en/ol/imento em decis.es pol4ticas(
Dilitary personnel were allowed to run for and ser e in political office while remaining on acti e duty. $owe er they did not represent the 'rmy or the 'rmada# but were instead e=pected to ser e the interests of the city or pro ince which had elected them.A1?9B "edro I chose nine military officers as 2enators and
appointed fi e 9out of fourteen: to the &ouncil of 2tate. !uring the /egency# two were named to the 2enate and none to the &ouncil of 2tate 9this body was dormant during the /egency:. "edro II chose four officers as 2enators during the 1)E*s# two in the 1)?*s and three others during the remaining years of his reign. $e also appointed se en officers to be 2tate &ouncilors during the 1)E*s and 1)?*s# and three others after that.A1;3B
90s militares foram autorizados a candidatar-se e ser ir em cargos pol8ticos en>uanto permanecessem ati os na funS,o. Entretanto# eles n,o representa am o E=Frcito ou a 'rmada#
mas em ez disso esperou-se >ue ser issem aos interesses da cidade ou pro 8ncia >ue os tinha elegido. "edro I escolheu no e oficiais militares como senadores e nomeou cinco 9de 1E: para o &onselho de Estado. !urante a /egTncia# dois foram nomeados para o 2enado e nenhum para o &onselho de Estado 9este corpo foi inati o durante a /egTncia:. "edro II escolheu >uatro oficiais como 2enadores durante a dFcada de 1)E*# dois na de 1)?* e outros trTs durante os anos restantes de seu reinado. Ele tambFm nomeou sete oficiais para serem &onselheiros de Estado durante as dFcadas de 1)E* e 1)?* e trTs outros depois disso: The Brazilian 'rmed Corces were created in the aftermath of Independence. They were originally composed of Brazilianand "ortuguese-born officers and troops who had remained loyal to the go ernment in /io de +aneiro during the war of secession from "ortugal. The 'rmed Corces were crucial to the successful outcomes of international conflicts faced by the Empire# starting with Independence 91)33P1)3E:# followed by the &isplatine 7ar 91)3?P1)3):# then the "latine 7ar 91)?1P 1)?3:# the Uruguayan 7ar 91);EP1);?: and# finally# the"araguayan 7ar 91);EP1)1*:. They also played a part in >uelling rebellions# beginning with the &onfederation of the E>uator 91)3E: under "edro I# followed by the uprisings during "edro II4s early reign# such as the 7ar of the
/agamuffins 91)<?P1)E?:# &abanagem 91)<?P 1)E*:#Balaiada 91)<)P1)E1:# among others.A1;Uente V IndependTncia. Elas foram originalmente compostas de brasileiros P e portugueses P nascidos oficiais e tropas >ue tinham permanecido leais ao go erno no /io de +aneiro durante a guerra de separaS,o de "ortugal. 's CorSas armadas foram cruciais para os resultados bem sucedidos dos conflitos internacionais enfrentados pelo ImpFrio# comeSando com a IndependTncia 91)33-1)3E:# seguidos pela Luerra &isplatina 91)3?-1)3):# depois a Luerra "latina 91)?1-1)?3:# a Luerra Uruguaia 91);E-1);?: e# finalmente# a Luerra do "araguai 91);E-1)1*:. Eles tambFm desempenharam um papel reprimindo rebeliWes# comeSando com a &onfederaS,o do E>uador 91)3E: sob "edro I# seguida
pelas insurreiSWes durante o in8cio do reinado de "edro II# tais como a Luerra Carroupilha 91)<?-1)E?:# a &abanagem 91)<?-1)E*:# Balaiada 91)<)1)E1:# entre outras. The 'rmada was constantly being modernized with the latest de elopments in na al warfare. It adopted steam na igation in the 1)<*s# ironclad plate armor in the 1);*s# and torpedoes in the 1))*s. By 1))9# Brazil had the fifth or si=th most powerful na y in the worldA1;EB and the most powerful battleships in the western hemisphere.A1;?B The 'rmy# despite its highly e=perienced and battle-hardened officer corps# was plagued during peacetime by units which were badly paid# inade>uately e>uipped# poorly trained and thinly spread across the ast Empire.
9'
'rmada foi sendo constantemente modernizada com os Xltimos desen ol imentos na guerra na al. 'dotou a na egaS,o a apor na dFcada de 1)<*# a blindagem fFrrea na de 1);*# e os torpedos na de 1))*. "or olta de 1))9# o Brasil tinha a >uinta ou se=ta mais poderosa marinha no mundo e os mais poderosos encouraSados no hemisfFrio ocidental. 0 E=Frcito# apesar de sua e=trema e=periTncia e do seu aguerrido corpo de oficiais# foi afligido durante os tempos de paz pelas unidades >ue eram mal pagas# inade>uadamente e>uipadas# insuficientemente treinadas e escassamente espalhadas ao longo do asto ImpFrio.:
!issension resulting from inade>uate go ernment attention to 'rmy needs was restrained under the generation of officers who had begun their careers during the 1)3*s. These officers were loyal to the monarchy# belie ed the military should be under ci ilian control# and abhorred the caudillism 9$ispanic'merican dictatorships: against which they had fought. But by the early 1))*s# this generation 9including commanders such as the !u5e of &a=ias# the &ount of "orto 'legre# and the Dar>uis of Er al: had died# were retired# or no longer e=ercised direct command.A99BA1;1B
9' discOrdia resultante da atenS,o inade>uada
do go erno Vs necessidades do E=Frcito foi contida sob a geraS,o de oficiais >ue tinham comeSado suas carreiras durante a dFcada de 1)3*. Estes oficiais eram leais V monar>uia# acredita am >ue os militares de eriam estar sob o controle ci il# e abomina am o caudilhismo 9ditadores hispanoamericanos: contra os >uais eles tinham lutado. Das por olta do in8cio da dFcada de 1))*# esta geraS,o 9incluindo comandantes como !u>ue de &a=ias# o &onde de "orto 'legre# e o Dar>uTs de Er al: tinha falecido# esta a reformada# ou n,o mais e=ercia o comando direto:. !issatisfaction became more e ident during the 1))*s# and some officers began to display open insubordination. The Emperor and the politicians did nothing to impro e the military nor meet their demands.A1;)B The dissemination of "ositi ist ideology among young officers brought further complications# as "ositi ism opposed the monarchy under the belief that a dictatorial republic would bring impro ements. A1**B ' coalition between a mutinous 'rmy faction and the "ositi ist camp was formed and directly led to the republican coup on 1? .o ember 1))9.A1;9B Battalions and e en full regiments of soldiers loyal to the Empire# who shared the ideals of the older generation of leaders# attempted to restore the monarchy. 'ttempts at a restoration pro ed futile and
supporters of the Empire were e=ecuted# arrested or forcibly retired.A11*B

9' insatisfaS,o tornou-se mais e idente durante a dFcada de 1))* e alguns oficiais comeSaram a manifestar aberta insubordinaS,o. 0 Imperador e os pol8ticos nada fizeram para beneficiar
os militares nem satisfizeram suas demandas. ' disseminaS,o da ideologia positi ista entre os Mo ens oficiais trou=e mais complicaSWes# por>ue o "ositi ismo opunha-se V monar>uia segundo a crenSa de >ue uma repXblica ditatorial traria melhorias. Uma coaliz,o entre uma facS,o amotinada do E=Frcito e o campo positi ista foi formada e imediatamente le ou ao golpe republicano em 1? de no embro de 1))9. BatalhWes e mesmo regimentos completos de soldados leais ao ImpFrio# >ue compartilha am os ideais da elha geraS,o de l8deres# tentaram restaurar a monar>uia. 's tentati as de restauraS,o demonstraram-se inXteis e os partidGrios do ImpFrio foram e=ecutados# presos ou forSosamente reformados:. Foreign relations (Relaes exteriores)
Upon independence from Portugal the immediate focus of !ra"il#s foreign policy $as to gain $idespread international recognition% &he first nation to recogni"e !ra"ilian so'ereignty $as the United (tates in )ay *+,-% .*/*0 1ther nations follo$ed in esta2lishing diplomatic relations o'er the next fe$ years% .*/,0 Portugal recogni"ed the separation in August *+,-% .*/30 &he !ra"ilian go'ernment su2se4uently made it a priority to esta2lish its international 2orders through treaties $ith its neigh2ors% &he tas5 of securing recogni"ed frontiers $as complicated 2y the fact that 2et$een */// and *+6* Portugal and (pain had annulled their pre'ious treaties setting out the 2orders 2et$een their American colonial empires%.*/70 8o$e'er the 9mpire $as a2le to sign se'eral 2ilateral treaties $ith neigh2ors including Uruguay (in *+-*) Peru (in *+-* and *+/7) the Repu2lic of :e$ ;ranada (later Colom2ia in *+-3) <ene"uela (in *+-=) !oli'ia (in
*+>/) and Paraguay (in *+/,)% .*/-0.*/>0 !y *++= most of its 2orders $ere firmly esta2lished% &he remaining issues?including the purchase of the region of Acre from !oli'ia $hich $ould gi'e !ra"il its present@day configuration.*//0?$ere only finally resol'ed after the country 2ecame a repu2lic%.*/+0
(ApAs a IndependBncia de Portugal o foco imediato da polCtica estrangeira 2rasileira foi o2ter o reconhecimento internacional geral% A primeira naDo a reconhecer a so2erania 2rasileira foram os 9stados Unidos em maio de *+,-% 1utras naes seguiram esta2elecendo relaes diplomEticas ao longo dos prAximos anos% Portugal reconheceu a separaDo em agosto de *+,-% 1 go'erno 2rasileiro ulteriormente tornou uma prioridade esta2elecer suas fronteiras internacionais por meio de tratados com seus 'i"inhos% A tarefa de conseguir as fronteiras reconhecidas foi complicada pelo fato de 4ue entre */// e *+6* Portugal e 9spanha tinham anulado seus tratados anteriores esta2elecendo suas fronteiras entre seus impFrios coloniais americanos% 9ntretanto o ImpFrio foi capa" de assinar 'Erios tratados 2ilaterais com seus 'i"inhos incluindo o Uruguai (em *+-*) Peru ( em *+-* e *+/7) a RepG2lica de :o'a ;ranada (depois ColHm2ia em *+-3) <ene"uela (em *+-=) !olC'ia (em *+>/) e Paraguai (em *+/,)% Por 'olta de *++= a maioria de suas fronteiras esta'a firmemente esta2elecida% 1s pro2lemas restantes I incluindo a a4uisiDo da regiDo do Acre da !olC'ia 4ue daria ao !rasil sua atual configuraDo I somente foram finalmente resol'idos apAs o paCs se tornar uma repG2lica%)
A num2er of conflicts occurred 2et$een the 9mpire and its neigh2ors% !ra"il experienced no serious conflicts $ith its neigh2ors to the north and $est due to the 2uffer of the nearly impenetra2le and sparsely populated Ama"onian rainforest%.!0 In the south ho$e'er the colonial disputes inherited from Portugal and (pain o'er the control of the na'iga2le ri'ers and plains $hich formed the frontiers continued after independence% .*/=0 &he lac5 of mutually agreed 2orders in this area led to se'eral international conflicts from the Cisplatine Jar to the Paraguayan Jar%.*+60
(<Erios conflitos ocorreram entre o ImpFrio
e seus 'i"inhos% 1 !rasil nDo experimentou sFrios conflitos com seus 'i"inhos ao norte e ao oeste de'ido K proteDo da 4uase impenetrE'el e esparsamente po'oada floresta ama"Hnica% :o sul entretanto a herana das disputas coloniais de Portugal e 9spanha pelo controle dos rios na'egE'eis e planCcies
4ue forma'am as fronteiras continuou apAs a independBncia% A falta de acordos de fronteira comuns nesta Erea le'ou a 'Erios conflitos internacionais desde a ;uerra Cisplatina atF a ;uerra do Paraguai)% L!ra"il is next to oursel'es the great po$er on the American continentM affirmed Names Jatson Je22 the U%(% minister to !ra"il in *+>/%.*+*0 &he 9mpire#s rise $as noticed as early as *+77 2y Nohn C% Calhoun the U%(% (ecretary of (tateO L:ext to the United (tates !ra"il is the most $ealthy the greatest and the most firmly esta2lished of all the American po$ers%M .*+,0 !y the early *+/6s ./=0 the international reputation of the 9mpire of !ra"il had impro'ed considera2ly and it remained $ell@ regarded internationally until its end in *++=% .*6,0 Christopher Colum2us Andre$s an American diplomat in the !ra"ilian capital in the *++6s later recalled !ra"il as an Limportant 9mpireM in his memoirs% .*+30 In *+/* !ra"il $as in'ited to ar2itrate the dispute 2et$een the United (tates and !ritain $hich 2ecame 5no$n as the Ala2ama Claims% In *++6 the 9mpire acted as ar2iter 2et$een the United (tates and France o'er the damage caused to U%(% nationals during the French inter'ention in )exico% In *++7 !ra"il $as called upon to ar2itrate 2et$een Chile and se'eral other nations (France Italy !ritain ;ermany !elgium Austria@8ungary and ($it"erland) o'er damages arising from the Jar of the Pacific%.*+70
(L1
!rasil F depois de nAs mesmos o grande poder no continente americanoM afirmou NJJ o ministro norte@americano no !rasil em *+>/% A ascensDo do ImpFrio foi anunciada PE em *+77 por NCC o secretErio de 9stado norte@americanoO LQepois dos 9UA o !rasil F o mais rico o maior e o mais firmemente esta2elecido de todos os poderes americanos% Pelo inCcio de *+/6 a reputaDo internacional do ImpFrio do !rasil tinha melhorado considera'elmente e permaneceu 2em@'isto internacionalmente atF seu fim
em *++=% CCA um diplomata americano na capital 2rasileira na dFcada de *++6 mais tarde recordou o !rasil como um Limportante ImpFrioM em suas memArias% 9m *+/* o !rasil foi con'idado para ar2itrar a disputa entre os 9UA e a ;rD@!retanha 4ue se tornou conhecido como Rei'indicaes do Ala2ama% 9m *++6 o ImpFrio atuou como Er2itro entre os 9UA e a Frana so2re os danos causados pelos nacionais dos 9UA durante a inter'enDo francesa no )Fxico% 9m *++7 o !rasil foi chamado a ar2itrar entre o Chile e 'Erias outras naes (F I ;! A ! A8 e () so2re os danos decorrentes da ;uerra do PacCfico%
&he !ra"ilian go'ernment e'entually felt confident enough to negotiate a trade deal $ith the United (tates in *++= the first to 2e underta5en $ith any nation since the disastrous and exploitati'e trade treaty $ith !ritain in *+,> (canceled in *+77)% American historian (te'en C% &opi5 said that Pedro II#s L4uest for a trade treaty $ith the United (tates $as part of a grander strategy to increase national so'ereignty and autonomy%M Unli5e the circumstances of the pre'ious pact the 9mpire $as in a strong position to insist on fa'ora2le trade terms as negotiations occurred during a time of !ra"ilian domestic prosperity and international prestige%.*+-0
(1 go'erno 2rasileiro finalmente sentiu@se seguro o 2astante para negociar um acordo comercial com os 9U( em *++= o primeiro a
ser empreendido com uma naDo desde o desastroso e explorador tratado comercial com a ;! em *+,> (cancelado em *+77)% 1 historiador norte@ americano (C& disse 4ue Pedro II L2uscou 4ue o tratado comercial com os 9UA fosse parte de uma grande estratFgia para aumentar a so2erania e a autonomia nacionaisM% Qiferente das circunstRncias do pacto anterior o ImpFrio esta'a numa forte posiDo para insistir em termos comerciais fa'orE'eis como as negociaes ocorreram durante uma Fpoca de prosperidade nacional 2rasileira e prestCgio internacional%) &urrency
The unit of currency from the Empire4s founding# and until 19E3# was the real 9IroyalJ in English# its plural form was ris and is reais in modern "ortuguese:# and was deri ed from the "ortuguese real. It was usually called milris 9EnglishH thousand royals: and written as 1Q***. ' thousand milris 91H***Q***:%or one million ris%was 5nown as conto de ris.A1);B 0ne conto de ris was represented by the symbol Rs written before the alue and by a dollar sign was written before any amounts lower than 1#*** ris. Thus# <?* ris was written as I/s <?*J6 1#113 ris as I/s 1Q113J6 and 1#*3*#)** ris was written as I/s 1H*3*Q)**J. Cor millions# a period was used as a separator between millions# billions# trillions# etc. 9e.g.# 1 billion ris was written as I/s 1.***H***Q***J:. ' colon functioned to separate millions from thousands# and the Q sign was inserted between thousands and hundreds 9999 or fewer:. A1)1B
9Doeda. ' unidade de moeda de fundaS,o do ImpFrio# atF 19E3# foi o IrealJ 9IrealJ em inglTs# sua forma plural era IrFisJ e F IreaisJ no portuguTs moderno:# e era deri ada do real portuguTs. Era normalmente chamado ImilrFisJ 9InglTsH mil reais: e escrito como 1Q***. Um mil ImilrFisJ 91H***Q***: P ou um milh,o de IrFisJ P era conhecido como Iconto de rFisJ. Um Iconto de rFisJ era representado pelo s8mbolo /s escrito antes do alor e por um sinal de dOlar escrito antes de toda a >uantidade abai=o de 1#*** rFis. 'ssim# <?* rFis era escrito como I/s <?*J6 1# 113 rFis como I/s 1Q113J6 e 1#*3*#)** rFis escrito como I/s 1H*3*Q)**J. "ara milhWes# um ponto era usado como separador entre milhWes# bilhWes# trilhWes# etc. 9por e=emplo# um bilh,o de rFis era escrito como I/s 1.***H***Q***J:. 0s dois pontos funciona am para separar milhWes dos milhares# e o sinal Q era inserido entre milhares e centenas 9999 ou menos:. 0 er iew 9-is,o global:
Brazil4s international trade reached a total alue of /s 19.***H***Q*** between 1)<E and 1)<9. This continued to increase e ery year until it reached /s E13.***H***Q*** between 1)); and 1))1H an annual growth rate of <.))R since 1)<9.A1))B The absolute alue of e=ports from the Empire
in 1)?* was the highest in Katin 'merica and triple that of 'rgentina which was in fourth place. Brazil would 5eep its high standing in e=ports and general economic growth until the end of the monarchy.A1)9BBrazilian economic e=pansion# especially after 1)?*# compared well with that of the United 2tates and European nations.A19*B The national ta= re enue amounted to /s 11.19?H***Q*** in 1)<1 and rose to /s 1;*.)E*H***Q*** in 1))9. By 1)?)# national ta= re enues ran5ed as the eighth-largest in the world. A191B Imperial Brazil was# despite its progress# a country where wealth was ery une>ually distributed.A193B $owe er# for purposes of comparison# according to historian 2te en &. Topi5# in the United 2tates# Iby 1)9*# )* percent of the population li ed on the margin of subsistence# while 3* percent controlled almost all wealth.JA19<B
90 comFrcio internacional brasileiro alcanSou um alor total de /s 19.***H***Q*** entre 1)<E e 1)<9. &ontinuou a aumentar todo ano atF alcanSar /sY
entre 1)); e 1))1H um crescimento anual estimado de <.))R desde 1)<9. 0 alor aboluto das e=portaSWes doImpFrio em 1)?* era o maior na 'mFrica Katina e o triplo do da 'rgentina >ue esta a em >uarto lugar. 0 Brasil manteria sua alta posiS,o nas e=portaSWes e crescimento econZmico geral atF o fim da monar>uia. ' e=pans,o econZmica brasileira# principalmente depois de 1)?*# comparou-se bem com a>uela dos EU' e naSWes europFias. 's receitas fiscais nacionais chegaram a ... em 1)<1 e subiram para ... em 1))9. "or olta de 1)?)# as receitas fiscais nacionais classificaram-se como a oita a maior no mundo. 0 impFrio brasileiro era # apesar de seu progresso# um pa8s onde a ri>ueza era distribu8da muito desigualmente. Entretanto# para fins de comparaS,o# de acordo com o historiador 2&T# nos EU'# Ipor olta de 1)9*# )* R da populaS,o i ia na margem da subsistTncia# en>uanto 3*R controla a >uase toda ri>uezaJ.
's new technologies appeared# and with increases in internal producti ity# e=ports increased considerably. This made it possible to reach e>uilibrium in the balance of trade. !uring the 1)3*s sugar constituted about <*R of total e=ports while cotton constituted 31R# coffee 1)R and leather and s5ins 1ER. Twenty years later coffee would reach E3R# sugar 31R# leather and s5ins 9R# and cotton )R of the total e=ports. This did not mean a reduction in the production of any of these items and# in fact# the opposite occurred. Lrowth occurred in all sectors# some more than others. In the period between 1)3* and 1)E*# Causto says IBrazilian e=ports had doubled in olume and had tripled in nominal alueJ while the aluation denominated in "ounds sterling increased by o er E*R.A19EB Brazil was not the only country where agriculture played an important role on e=ports. 'round 1)9*# in the United 2tates# by then the richest nation in the 'mericas# agricultural goods represented )*R of all its e=ports.A19?B
9&omo no as tecnologias apareciam# e com aumentos
na produti idade interna# as e=portaSWes aumentaram considera elmente. Isso torna a poss8 el alcanSar o e>ul8 rio na balanSa de comFrcio. !urante a dFcada de 1)3* o aSXcar constituiu cerca de <*R do total das e=portaSWes en>uanto o algod,o consitutiu 31R# o cafF 1)R e o couro e as peles 1ER. 3* anos depois o cafF alcanSariaY Isto n,o significou uma reduS,o na produS,o de >ual>uer um destes itens e# na erdade# o contrGrio ocorreu. 0 crescimento ocorreu em todos os setores# alguns mais do >ue outros. .o per8odo entre 1)3* e 1)E*# Causto diz I's e=portaSWes brasileiras tinham dobrado em olume e tinham triplicado em alor nominalJ en>uanto o alor denominado em Kibras esterlinas aumentou em mais de E*R. 0 Brasil n,o foi o Xnico pa8s onde a agricultura desempenhou um importante papel nas e=portaSWes. "or olta de 1)9*# nos EU'# atF
ent,o a naS,o mais rica nas 'mFricas# os produtos agr8colas taram )*R de todas as suas e=portaSWes. In the 1)3*s# Brazil e=ported 11#*** tons of cacao and by 1))* this had increased to 1<#?** tons.A19;B Between 1)31 and 1)3?# E1#11E tons of sugar were e=ported# rising to 3<)#*1E tons between 1))1 and 1))?.A191B Until 1)?*# rubber production was insignificant# but between 1))1 and 1)9*# it had reached third place among Brazilian e=ports. A19)B This was about )1 tons between 1)31 and 1)<* reaching 1#;<3 tons in 1)?3. By 19** the country was e=porting 3E#<*1#E?3 tons of rubber.A19;B Brazil also e=ported around <#<11#*** tons of coffee between 1)31 and 1);* while between 1);1 and 1))9 this reached ;#)*E#*** tons. A199B Technological inno ations also contributed to the growth of e=ports#A19EB in particular the adoption of steam na igation and railroads allowed for faster and more con enient cargo transportation.A3**B
9.a dFcada de 1)3* o Brasil e=portou 11.*** toneladas de cacau e por olta de 1))* isto tinha aumentado para 1<.?** toneladas. Entre 1)31 e 1)3?# E1.11E toneladas de aSXcar foram e=portadas# subindo para 1E toneladas entre 1))1 e 1))?. 'tF 1)?*# a produS,o de borracha era insignificante# mas entre 1))1 e 1)9*# ela tinha alcanSado o terceiro lugar entre as e=portaSWes brasileiras. Coi cerca
de )1 toneladas entre 1)31 e 1)<* alcanSando 1;<3 toneladas em 1)?3. "or olta de 19** o pa8s esta a e=portando 3E.<*1.E?3 toneladas de borracha. 0 Brasil tambFm e=portou cerca de ... toneladas de cafF entre 1)31 e 1);* en>uanto entre 1);1 e 1))9 alcanSou ;.)*E.*** toneladas. 's ino aSWes tecnolOgicas tambFm contribu8ram para o crescimento das e=portaSWes# em particular a adoS,o da na egaS,o a apor e das ferro ias permitiu um mais rGpidoe con eniente transporte de cargas. Qe'elopment
(7esen/ol/imento(
!e elopment on an immense scale occurred during this period# anticipating similar ad ancements in European countries.A3*1BA3*3B In 1)?*# there were fifty factories with a
total capital of /s 1.***H***Q***. 't the end of the Imperial period in 1))9# Brazil had ;<; factories representing an annual rate of increase of ;.1ER o er the number in 1)?*# and with a total capital of appro=imately /s E*1.;<*H;**Q*** 9which represents an annual growth rate in alue of 1*.9ER from 1)?* to 1))9:.A3*<B The Icountryside echoed with the clang of iron trac5 being laid as railroads were constructed at the most furious pace of the 19th century6 indeed# building in 1))*s was the second greatest in absolute terms in Brazil4s entire history. 0nly eight countries in the entire world laid more trac5 in the decade than Brazil.JA1*3B The first railroad line# with only 1? 5ilometres 99.< mi: of trac5# was opened on <* 'pril 1)?EA3*EB at a time when many European countries had no rail ser ice.A3*1B By 1);)# there were 11) 5ilometres 9EE; mi: of railroad lines#A3*?B and by the end of the Empire in 1))9 this had grown to 9#3** 5ilometres 9?#1** mi: with another 9#*** 5ilometres 9?#;** mi: under constructionA3*;B ma5ing it the country with Ithe largest rail networ5 in Katin 'mericaJ.A1*3B
90 desen ol imento numa grande escala ocorreu durante este per8odo# antecipando a anSos similares nos pa8ses
europeus. Em 1)?*# ha ia cin>Uenta fGbricas com um capital total de /s... .o fim do per8odo imperial em 1))9# o Brasil tinha ;<; fGbricas representando uma proporS,o anual de crescimento de ;#1ER sobre o nXmero em 1)?*# e com um um capital total de apro=imadamente /s... 9>ue representa uma proporS,o anual de crescimento em alor de 1*#9ER de 1)?* a 1))9:. 0 Icampo ecoa a com o tinir da pista de ferro sendo sulcado com as ferro ias >ue foram constru8das no mais furioso ritmo do sFculo [I[6 com efeito# as construSWes na dFcada de 1))* foram a segunda maior em termos absolutos em toda a histOria brasileira. 'penas oito pa8ses em todo o mundo instalaram mais ias ferro iGrias na dFcada do >ue o Brasil. ' primeira linha ferro iGria# com apenas 1? 5m de pista# foi inaugurada em <* de abril de 1)?E num momento em >ue muitos pa8ses europeus n,o tinham ser iSo ferro iGrio. "or olta de 1);)# ha ia 11) (m de linhas ferro iGrias# e por olta do fim do ImpFrio em 1))9 isto tinha aumentado para 9.33* (m com outros 9*** (m em construS,o fazendo o pa8s com Ia maior rede ferro iGria na 'mFrica KatinaJ.
Cactories were constructed throughout the Empire in the 1))*s# allowing Brazil4s cities to be modernized and Irecei e
the benefits of gas# electrical# sanitation# telegraph and tram companies. Brazil was entering the modern world.J A1*3B It was the fifth country in the world to install modern city sewers# the third to ha e sewage treatmentA3*1B and one of the pioneers in the installation of a telephone ser ice.A3*1B In addition to the foregoing impro ements to infrastructure# it was also the first 2outh 'merican nation to adopt public electric lighting 9in 1))<:A3*)B and the second in the 'mericas 9behind the United 2tates: to establish a transatlantic telegraphic line connecting it directly to Europe in 1)1E.A3*1B The first domestic telegraph line appeared during 1)?3 in /io de +aneiro. By 1))9# there were 1)#93? 5ilometres 911#1?9 mi: of telegraph lines connecting the country4s capital to distant Brazilian pro inces such as "arG and e en lin5ing to other 2outh 'merican countries such as 'rgentina and Uruguay.A3*9B
CGbricas foram constru8das em
toda parte do ImpFrio na dFcada de 1))*# permitindo Vs cidades brasileiras serem modernizadas e Ireceber os benef8cios do gGs# eletricidade# saneamento# telFgrafo e companhias de bode. 0 Brasil esta a ingressando no mundo modernoJ. Coi o >uinto pa8s no mundo a instalar modernos esgotos da cidade# o terceiro a ter tratamento de esgoto e um dos pioneiros na instalaS,o de ser iSo telefZnico. 'lFm das melhorias mencionadas na infraestrutura# foi tambFm a >uinta naS,o sul-americana a adotar a iluminaS,o elFtrica pXblica 9em 1))<: e o segundo nas 'mFricas 9atrGs dos EU': a estabelecer uma linha telegrGfica transatl\ntica ligando-o diretamente V Europa em 1)1E. ' primeira linha telegrGfica domFstica apareceu no ano de 1)?3 no /+. "or olta de 1))9# ha ia 1).93? (D de linhas telegrGficas ligando a capital do pa8s a distantes pro 8ncias brasileiras como o "arG e atF mesmo ligando a outros pa8ses sul-americanos como a 'rgentina e o Uruguai. 2ociety 92ociedade:
2ince the second half of the 1)th century# when Brazil was still a colony# the go ernment had attempted to gather data regarding the population. $owe er# few captaincies 9later called pro inces: collected the re>uested information.A31*B 'fter independence the go ernment instituted a commission for statistics in an 1)39 decree with a mandate to hold a national census.A31*B The commission was a failure and was disbanded in 1)<E. In the ensuing years# pro incial go ernments were tas5ed with collecting census information# but their census reports were often incomplete or not submitted at all. A31*B In 1)?1# another attempt at a nationwide census failed when rioting bro5e out. This was the result of the erroneous belief among Brazilians of mi=ed-race descent that the sur ey was a subterfuge designed to ensla e anyone ha ing 'frican blood.
A311B 9!esde a segunda metade do sFculo [-III# >uando o Brasil ainda era uma colZnia# o go erno tentou coletar dados com relaS,o V populaS,o. Entretanto# poucas capitanias 9depois chamadas pro 8ncias: coletaram as informaSWes solicitadas. 'pOs a independTncia o go erno instituiu uma comiss,o para estat8sticas num decreto de 1)39 com um mandato para realizar um censo nacional.
' comiss,o foi um fracasso e foi dissol ida em 1)<E. .os anos seguintes# os go ernos pro inciais foram encarregados de coletar informaSWes para o censo# mas suas informaSWes sobre o censo eram geralmente incompletas ou n,o submetiam a todos. Em 1)?1# outra tentati a para um censo em escala nacional falhou >uando tumultos eclodiram. Isso foi o resultado da errZnea crenSa entre os brasileiros de ascendTncia mestiSa de >ue a pes>uisa era um subterfXgio proMetado para escra izar >ual>uer pessoa tendo sangue africano:. The first true national census with e=hausti e and broad co erage was carried out in 1)13. The small number of people and small number of towns reported by the census re eal Brazil4s enormous territory to ha e been sparsely populated. It showed Brazil as ha ing a total population of
9#9<*#E1) inhabitants.A311B Estimates made by the go ernment in prior decades showed E#***#*** inhabitants in 1)3< and ga e a figure of 1#***#1** in 1)?E.A311B The population was distributed across 3* pro inces and the .eutral Dunicipality 9the Empire4s capital: with ;E1 municipalities.A311B
90 primeiro erdadeiro censo nacional com e=austi a e ampla cobertura foi
le ado a cabo em 1)13. 0 pe>ueno nXmero de pessoas e o pe>ueno nXmero de cidades coberto pelo censo re elou um Brasil com enorme territOrio tendo sido esparsamente po oado. 0 censo mostrou o Brasil tendo uma poulaS,o total de ... habitantes. Estimati as feitas pelo go erno em dFcadas anteriores demonstraram ... de habitantes em 1)3< e deu uma cifra de ... em 1)?E. ' populaS,o esta a distribu8da ao longo de 3* pro 8ncias e do Dunic8pio .eutro 9a capital do ImpFrio: com ;E1 munic8pios:. 'mong the free population 3<.ER of males and 1<.ER of females were considered literate.A313B Den represented ?3R 9?#13<#);9: of the total population.A313B Cigures for the population by age showed 3E.;R were children younger than 1* years old6 31.1R were adolescents and young men between 11 and 3*6 <3.9R were adults between 31 and E*6 ).ER were between E1 and ?*6 13.)R were between ?1 and 1*6 and lastly# only <.ER were o er 11.A313B The residents in the combined northeast and southeast regions comprised )1.3R of the nation4s population.A31<B The second national census was held in 1)9* when the Brazilian republic was only a few months old. Its results showed that the population had grown to 1E#<<<#91? inhabitants since the 1)13 census.A31EB
9Entre a populaS,o li re 3<#ER de homens e 1<#ER de mulheres eram considerados alfabetizados. 0s homens representa am ?3R do total da populaS,o. .Xmeros para a populaS,o por idade demonstraram >ue 3E#;R
eram crianSas mais no as do >ue 1* anos de idade6 31#1R eram adolescentes e homens Mo ens entre 11 e 3*6 <3#9R eram adultos entre 31 e E*6 )#ER entre E1 e ?*6 13#)R entre ?1 e 1*6 e por Xltimo# somente <#ER eram maiores de
11. 0s habitantes nas regiWes sudeste e nordeste combinados forma am )1#3R da populaS,o nacional. 0 segundo censo nacional foi realizado em 1)9* >uando a repXblica brasileira tinha apenas alguns meses de idade. 2eu resultado demonstrou >ue a populaS,o tinha crescido para... de habitantes desde o censo de 1)13. Ethnic groups 9Lrupos Ftnicos: Cour ethnic groups were recognized in Imperial BrazilH white# blac5# Indian and pardo.A31EB The pardo 9EnglishH brown: was a designation for multiracial Brazilians which is still officially used#A31?BA31;B though some scholars prefer the term mestio 9EnglishH mi=ed one:. The term denotes a broad category which includes caboclos 9descendants of whites and Indians:# mulattoes 9descendants of whites and blac5s: and cafu os 9descendants of blac5s and Indians:.A311B
9Nuatro grupos Ftnicos eram reconhecidos no Brasil ImperialH branco# negro# 8ndio e pardo.
0 pardo 9InglTsH marrom: era uma designaS,o para os multirracias brasileiros >ue F ainda oficialmente usada# embora alguns estudiosos prefiram o termo mestiSo 9InglTsH misto:. !enota uma ampla categoria >ue inclui caboclos 9descendentes de brancos e 8ndios:# mulatos 9descendentes de brancos e negros: e cafuzos 9descendentes de negros e 8ndios: The caboclos formed the maMority of the population in the .orthern# .ortheastern and &entral-7estern regions.A31)B A313BA319B ' large mulatto population inhabited the eastern coast of the northeastern region from Bahia to "ara8baA33*BA331B and were also present in northern Daranh,o#A333BA33<B southern Dinas Lerais#A33EB eastern /io de +aneiro and in Esp8rito 2anto.A33*BA33EB The cafu os were the smallest and most difficult to distinguish from the two other mi=ed-race subgroups since the descendants of caboclos and mulattoes also fell into this category and were found in the
northeast sert!o 9EnglishH hinterland:. These groups may still be found in the same areas today.A31)B
90s caboclos forma am a maioria da populaS,o nas regiWes .orte# .ordeste e &entro-0este. Uma grande populaS,o de mulatos habita a a costa oriental da regi,o nordeste da Bahia V
"ara8ba e eram tambFm presentes no norte do Daranh,o# sul das Dinas Lerais# leste do /io de +aneiro e no Esp8rito 2anto. 0s cafuzos eram os menores e mais dif8ceis de distinguir entre os dois outros sub-grupos mestiSos# uma ez >ue os descendentes de caboclos e mulatos tambFm ca8am nesta categoria e eram encontrados no sert,o do nordeste 9InglTsH interior de um pa8s:. Estes grupos podem ainda ser encontrados nas mesmas Greas atualmente:. Ethnic groups in Brazil 91)13 and 1)9*: ]ears 7hites Pardos Blac5s Indians Total 1)13 <).1R <).<R 19.1R <.9R 1)9* EE.*R <3.ER 1E.;R 9R 1**R 1**R
7hite Brazilians descended from the original "ortuguese settlers. Crom the 1)1*s onwards this ethnic group also included other European immigrantsH mainly Italians# 2paniards and Lermans. 'lthough whites could be found throughout the country# they were the maMority group in the southern region and in 2,o "aulo pro ince.A313B 7hites also comprised a significant proportion 9E*R: of the population in the northeastern pro inces of &earG# "ara8ba and /io Lrande do .orte.A313B Blac5 Brazilians of 2ub-2aharan 'frican ancestry inhabited the same areas as mulattoes. The maMority of the population of /io de +aneiro# Dinas Lerais# Esp8rito 2anto#
Bahia# 2ergipe# 'lagoas and "ernambuco pro inces 9the last four ha ing the smallest percentages of whites in the whole country%less than <*R in each: were blac5 or pardo.A313B The Indians# the indigenous peoples of Brazil# were found mainly in "iau8# Daranh,o# "arG and'mazonas.A313B
90s brasileiros
brancos descenderam dos primeiros colonizadores portugueses. !a dFcada de 1)1* em diante este grupo Ftnico tambFm incluiu outros imigrantes europeusH principalmente italianos# espanhOis e alem,es. Embora os brancos poderiam ser encontrados em todo o pa8s# eles eram o grupo maMoritGrio na regi,o sul e na pro 8ncia de 2,o "aulo. 0s brancos tambFm forma am uma proporS,o significante 9E*R: da populaS,o nas pro 8ncias nordestinas do &earG# "ara8ba e /.. Brasileiros negros de ascendTncia africana subsaariana habita am as mesmas Greas >ue os mulatos. ' maioria da populaS,o das pro 8ncias do /+# DL# E2# B# 2# ' e " 9os >uatro Xltimos tendo a menor porcentagem de brancos em todo o pa8s P menos do >ue <*R em cada um: era negra ou parda. 0s 8ndios# os po os ind8genas do Brasil# eram encontrados principalmente no "I# D'# "' e 'D. Because of the e=istence of distinct racial and cultural communities# 19th century Brazil de eloped as a multi-ethnic nation. $owe er the data is problematic as no reliable information is a ailable for the years prior to 1)13. The first official national census was compiled by the go ernment in 1)13 showing that out of 9#9<*#E19 inhabitants there were <).1R whites# <).<R pardos# 19.1R blac5s and <.9R Indians. A31EB The second official national census in 1)9* re ealed that in a population of 1E#<<<#91?# EER were whites# <3.ERpardos# 1E.;R blac5s and 9R Indians.A31EB
9"or causa da e=istTncia da de distintas comunidades raciais e culturais# o Brasil do sFculo [I[ desen ol eu-se como uma naS,o multiFtnica. Entretanto o dado F problemGtico por>ue n,o hG informaSWes seguras dispon8 eis para os anos anteriores a 1)13. 0 primeiro censo oficial nacional foi compilado pelo go erno em 1)13 mostrando >ue de ... habitantes ha ia <)#1R brancos# <)#< pardos# 19#1
negros e <#9R 8ndios. 0 segundo censo oficial nacional em 1)9* re elou >ue numa populaS,o de ... EER eram brancos...
Europpean immigration 9ImigraS,o eurpeia: "rior to 1)*)# the "ortuguese were the only European people to settle Brazil in significant numbers. 'lthough British# Lermans# Italians and 2panish had pre iously immigrated to Brazil# they had only done so as a small number of indi iduals or in ery small groups. These earliest non-"ortuguese settlers did not ha e a significant impact on the culture of "ortugal4s Brazilian colony.A33?B The situation changed after 1)*) when (ing +o,o -I began to encourage immigration from European countries outside "ortugal.A33?BA33;B
9'ntes de 1)*)# os portugueses eram os Xnicos po os europeus a colonizar o Brasil em nXmeros e=pressi os.
Embora brit\nicos# alem,es# italianos e espanhOis tenham anteriormente imigrado para o Brasil# eles tinham feito apenas como um pe>ueno nXmero de indi 8duos ou em grupos muito pe>uenos. Estes primeiros colonizadores n,o portugueses n,o ti eram um impacto significati o na cultura da colZnia brasileira de "ortugal. ' situaS,o mudou depois de 1)*) >uando o rei ! +o,o -I comeSou a encoraMar a imigraS,o dos pa8ses europeus fora de "ortugal:. The first to arri e in numbers were the 2wiss# of whom some 3#*** settled in /io de +aneiro pro ince during 1)1). A331B They were followed by Lermans and Irish# who immigrated to Brazil in the 1)3*s. Lerman settlers gra itated mostly to the southern pro inces# where the en ironment was more li5e their homeland.A33)B In the 1)<*s# due to the instability of the /egency# European immigration ground to a halt# only reco ering after "edro II too5 the reins of go ernment and the country entered a period of peace and prosperity.A339B Carmers in the southeast# enriched by lucrati e coffee e=ports# created the Ipartnership systemJ 9a form of indentured ser itude: to
attract immigrants. The scheme endured until the end of the 1)?*s# when the system collapsed and was abandoned. The failure was rooted in the large debts European settlers incurred in order to subsidize their tra el and settlement e=penses# lea ing them as irtual sla es to their employers. A3<*B Immigration suffered another decline during A3<1B the "araguayan 7ar# which lasted from 1);E to 1)1*.
90s primeiros a chegar em foram os su8Sos# dos >uais uns 3.*** estabeleceram-se na pro 8ncia do /+ durante 1)1). Eles foram seguidos pelos alem,es e irlandeses# >ue imigraram para o Brasil na dFcada de 1)3*. 0s colonizadores alem,es mo eram-se principalmente para as pro 8ncias do 2ul# onde o ambiente era mais similar ao de sua pGtria. .a dFcada de 1)<*#
de ido V instabilidade da /egTncia# a imigraS,o europFia dete e-se# somente restabelecendo-se depois >ue "edro II tomou as rFdeas do go erno e o pa8s entrou num per8odo de paz e prosperidade. Cazendeiros no sudeste# enri>uecidos pelas lucrati as e=portaSWes de cafF# criaram o Isistema de parceriaJ 9uma forma de ser id,o por contrato: para atrair imigrantes. 0 programa durou atF o fim da dFcada de 1)?*# >uando o sistema fracassou e foi abandonado. 0 fracasso este e baseado nas grandes d8 idas em >ue os colonizadores europeus incorreram para sub encionar suas despesas de iagem e estabelecimento# dei=ando-os como potenciais escra os para seus empregadores. ' imigraS,o sofreu outro decl8nio durante a Luerra do "araguai# >ue durou de 1);E a 1)1*:. Immigrant numbers soared during the 1)1*s in what came to be called the Igreat immigrationJ. Up to that point# around 1*#*** Europeans arri ed in Brazil annually# but after 1)13# their numbers increased dramatically.A3<3B It is estimated by the Brazilian Institute of Leography and 2tatistics that ?**#*** Europeans immigrated to Brazil between 1)*) and 1))<.A3<<B The figure for European settlers arri ing between 1))E and 1)9< climbed to ))<#;;).A3<<B The number of Europeans immigrating continued to rise in the following
decades# with );3#1** between 1)9E and 19*<6 and 1#**;#;11 between 19*E and 191<.A3<ue eio a ser chamada a Igrande imigraS,oJ. 'tF esse ponto# em torno de 1*.*** europeus chegaram
no Brasil anualmente# mas depois de 1)13# esses nXmeros cresceram radicalmente. ^ estimado pelo Instituto de Leografia e Estat8sticas >ue ?**.*** europeus imigraram para o Brasil entre 1)*) e 1))<. 's cifras para os colonizadores europeus >ue chegaram entre 1))E e 1)9< subiram para ))<.;;). 0 nXmero de imigrantes europeus continuou a subir nas dFcadas seguintes# com ... entre ...6 e ... entre ...:. Crom 1)13 until 1)19# the nationalities forming the bul5 of the new settlers were composed of "ortuguese 9<1.3R:# Italians 93?.)R:# Lermans 9).1R: and 2panish 91.9R:. A3<3B In the 1))*s# Italians would surpass the "ortuguese 9;1.)R to 3<.<R respecti ely:# and the 2panish would displace the Lermans 9;.1R to E.3R respecti ely:.A3<3B 0ther# smaller groups also arri ed# including /ussians# "oles and $ungarians.A3<EB 2ince nearly all European immigrants settled in the southeastern and southern areas of the Empire# ethnic distribution# already une>ual before the mass immigration# became e en more di ergent between regions.A3<?B Cor a nation that had a small# widely scattered population 9E#***#*** in 1)3< and 1E#<<<#91? in 1)9*:# the immigration of more than 1#<)*#*** Europeans had a tremendous effect upon the country4s ethnic composition. In 1)13# the year of the first reliable national census# white Brazilians represented Must o er a third 9<).1R: of the total population6 in 1)9*# they had increased to a little under half 9EE.*R: of all Brazilians.A31EB
9!e 1)13 atF 1)19# as nacionalidades formando a massa dos no os colonizadores era composta de portugueses# italianos# alem,es e espanhOis. .a dFcada de 1))*# os italianos superariam os portugueses# e os espanhOis substituiriam os alem,es0utros pe>uenos grupos tambFm chegaram# incluindo russos# poloneses e hXngaros. -isto >ue >uase todos os imigrantes europeus estabeleceram-se nas Greas
sudeste e sul do ImpFrio# a distribuiS,o Ftnica# MG desigual
antes da imigraS,o em massa# tornou-se atF mais di ergente entre as regiWes. "ara uma naS,o >ue tinha uma pe>uena# muito dispersa populaS,o 9...:# a imigraS,o de mais de ... europeus te e um enorme efeito sobre a composiS,o Ftnica do pa8s. Em 1)13# o ano do primeiro censo nacional de seguranSa# os brasileiros brancos representa am um pouco mais de um terSo do total da populaS,o6 em 1)9*# eles tinham aumentado para um pouco menos da metade 9EER: de todos os brasileiros. 2la ery 9Escra id,o: In 1)3<# a year after independence# sla es made up 39R of the population of Brazil# a figure which fell throughout the lifetime of the EmpireH from 3ER in 1)?E# to 1?.3R in 1)13# and finally to less than ?R in 1))1%the year before sla ery was completely abolished.A3<;B 2la es were mostly adult males from southwestern 'frica.A3<1B 2la es brought to Brazil differed ethnically# religiously and linguistically# each identifying primarily with his or her own nation of origin# rather than by a shared 'frican ethnicity.A3<)B
9Em 1)3<# um ano apOs a independTncia# os escra os compunham 39R da populaS,o do Brasil# uma cifra >ue diminuiu durante toda a e=istTncia do ImpFrioH de 3ER em 1)?E# para 1?#3R em 1)13# e finalmente para menos de ?R em 1))1 P o ano antes da escra id,o ter sido completamente abolida. 0s escra os eram em sua maioria homens adultos do sudoeste da @frica. 0s escra os trazidos para o Brasil diferiram etnicamente# religiosamente e lingUisticamente# cada um identificando-se principalmente com sua prOpria naS,o de origem# em ez de por uma etnicidade africana compartilhada:
2ome of the sla es brought to the 'mericas had been captured while fighting inter-tribal wars in 'frica and had then been sold to sla e dealers.A3<9BA3E*B 7hile sla es were usually blac5 or mulatto there were reported cases of white sla es%the product of generations of interethnic se=ual relations between male sla e owners and their female mulatto sla es 9although this was ery rare and was not appro ed of socially:.A3E1B 2la es and their descendants were usually found in
regions de oted to producing e=ports for foreign mar5ets. A3E3B 2ugarcane plantations on the eastern coast of the northwest region during the 1;th and 11th centuries are typical of economic acti ities dependent on sla e labor. A3E<B In northern Daranh,o pro ince# sla e labor was used in cotton and rice production in the 1)th century. A3EEB In this period# sla es were also e=ploited inDinas Lerais pro ince where gold was e=tracted.A3E?B 2la ery was also common in /io de +aneiro and 2,o "aulo during the 19th century for the culti ation of coffee which became ital to the national economy. A3E;B
9'lguns dos escra os trazidos para as 'mFricas tinham sido capturados en>uanto luta am em guerras intertribais na @frica e tinham ent,o sido
por traficantes de escra os. Embora os escra os fossem normalmente negros ou mulatos hou e casos relatados de escra os brancos P produto de geraSWes de relaSWes se=uais interFtnicas entre donos de escra os masculinos e suas escra as mulatas 9embora isto fosse muito raro e n,o fosse socialmente apro ado:. 0s escra os e seus descendentes eram normalmente encontrados em regiWes dedicadas a produzirem e=portaSWes para os mercados estrangeiros. 's plantaSWes de cana-deaSXcar na costa leste da regi,o noroeste durante os sFculos [-I e [-II eram t8picas das ati idades econZmicas dependentes do trabalho escra o. .a pro 8ncia do Daranh,o# no .orte# o trabalho escra o era usado na produS,o de algod,o e arroz no sFculo [-III. .este per8odo# escra os tambFm eram e=plorados na pro 8ncia de DL onde o ouro era e=tra8do. ' escra id,o tambFm foi comum no /+ e 2" durante o sFculo [I[ para o culti o de cafF >ue se tornaria ital para a economia nacional:. Dost sla es wor5ed as plantation laborers.A3E1B /elati ely few Brazilians owned sla es and most small and medium-sized farms employed free wor5ers.A3E)B 2la es could be found scattered throughout society in other capacitiesH some were used as house ser ants# farmers# miners# prostitutes# gardeners and in many other roles. A3E9B Dany emancipated
endidos
sla es went on to ac>uire sla es and there were e en cases of sla es who had their own sla es.A3?*BA3?1B E en the harshest sla e owners adhered to a long-established practice of selling sla es along with their families# ta5ing care not to separate indi iduals.A3?3B
9' maioria dos escra os trabalhou como trabalhadores
da fazenda. /elati amente poucos brasileiros possu8am escra os e a maioria dos mFdios e pe>uenos fazendeiros emprega am trabalhadores li res. Escra os poderiam ser encontrados espalhados em toda a sociedade em outras habilidadesH alguns eram usados como empregados domFsticos# la radores# mineiros# prostitutas# fazendeiros e em muitos outros papFis. Duitos escra os emancipados iriam obter escra os e hG atF casos de escra os >ue tinham seus prOprios escra os. 'tF os mais se eros proprietGrios de escra os aderiram V prGtica longamente estabelecida de ender escra os Munto com suas fam8lias# tomando o cuidado para n,o separar os indi 8duos:. The pre alence of sla ery was not geographically uniform across Brazil. 'round 1)1* only fi e pro inces 9/io de +aneiro with <*R# Bahia with 1?R# Dinas Lerais with 1ER# 2,o "aulo with 1R and /io Lrande do 2ul also with 1R: held 1<R of the nation4s total sla e population.A3E1BThese were followed by "ernambuco 9with ;R: and 'lagoas 9with ER:. 'mong the remaining 1< pro inces none indi idually had e en <R.A3?<B 2la es who were freed immediately became citizens with all ci il rights guaranteed%the only e=ception being that# until 1))1# freed sla es were barred from oting in elections# although their children and descendants could ote.A3E1B
90
predom8nio da escra id,o n,o foi geograficamente uniforme ao longo do Brasil. "or olta de 1)1* apenas cinco pro 8ncias 9/+ com <*R# B' com 1?R# DL com 1ER# 2" com 1R e /2 tambFm com 1R: mantinham 1<R da populaS,o escra a total da naS,o. Estas eram seguidas por "E 9com ;R: e 'lagoas
9com ER:. Entre as 1< pro 8ncias restantes no e separadamente tinham atF <R. Escra os >ue eram libertados imediatamente torna am-se cidad,os com todos os direitos ci is garantidos - a Xnica e=ceS,o sendo >ue# atF 1))1# os escra os libertos eram impedidos de otarem nas eleiSWes# embora seus filhos e descendentes poderiam otar:. :o2ility
(6obre+a(
The nobility of Brazil differed mar5edly from its counterparts in EuropeH noble titles were not hereditary# with the sole e=ception of members of the Imperial Camily#A3?EB and those who had recei ed a noble title were not considered to belong to a separate social class# and recei ed no appanages# stipends or emoluments.
A3?EB 9' nobreza do Brasil diferia marcadamente de seus e>ui alentes na EuropaH os t8tulos de nobre n,o eram hereditGrios# com a Xnica e=ceS,o dos membros da fam8lia imperial# e a>ueles >ue tinham recebido um t8tulo de nobre n,o eram considerados pertencentes a uma classe social separada# e n,o recebiam apanGgios# estipTndios ou emolumentos:.
$owe er# many ran5s# traditions# and regulations in Brazil4s system of nobility were co-opted directly from the "ortuguese aristocracy.A3??BA3?;B !uring "edro I4s reign there were no clear re>uisites for someone to be ennobled. !uring "edro II4s reign 9apart from the /egency period during which the regent could not grant titles or honorsA3?1B: the nobility e ol ed into ameritocracyA3??B with titles granted in recognition of an indi idual4s outstanding ser ice to the Empire or for the public good. .oble ran5 did not represent Irecognition of illustrious ancestry.JA3?)BA3?9B
9Entretanto# muitas posiSWes# tradiSWes e normas no sistema brasileiro de nobreza eram cooptados diretamente da aristocracia portuguesa. !urante o reinado de "edro
I n,o ha ia re>uisitos claros para alguFm ser nobilitado. !urante o reinado de "edro II 9e=ceto pelo per8odo da /egTncia durante o >ual o
regente n,o poderia conceder t8tulos ou honras: a nobreza e oluiu numa ameritocracia com t8tulos concedidos em reconhecimento a indi 8duos >ue se destacaram no ser iSo ao ImpFrio ou ao bem pXblico. ' posiS,o de nobre n,o representa a Ireconhecimento de ancestrais ilustresJ:. It was the Emperor4s right as head of the E=ecuti e branch to grant titles and honors.A3??B The titles of nobility were# in ascending order# baron# iscount# count# mar>uis and du5e. A3??B 'part from position in the hierarchy there were other distinctions between the ran5sH counts# mar>uises and du5es were considered ILrandees of the EmpireJ while the titles of barons and iscounts could be bestowed Iwith LreatnessJ or Iwithout LreatnessJ.A3??B 'll ran5s of the Brazilian nobility were to be addressed as I]our E=cellencyJ.A3??B
9Era direito do Imperador como chefe do E=ecuti o conceder t8tulos e honras. 0s t8tulos de nobreza foram# em ordem crescente# bar,o# isconde# conde# mar>uTs e du>ue. 'lFm da posiS,o na hierar>uia ha ia outras distinSWes entre as categoriasH condes# mar>ueses e du>ues eram considerados 9Lrandes do ImpFrioJ en>uanto os t8tulos de barWes e iscondes poderiam ser concedidos Icom LrandezaJ ou Isem LrandezaJ. Todas as categorias da nobreza brasileira eram endereSadas como I2ua E=celTncia:.
Between 1)33 and 1))9# 9); people were ennobled. A3;*B 0nly three became !u5esH 'uguste de Beauharnais# 3nd !u5e of Keuchtenberg9as !u5e of 2anta &ruz# brother-in-law to "edro I:# !ona Isabel Daria de 'lc\ntara Brasileira 9as !uchess of LoiGs# illegitimate daughter of "edro I: and lastly Ku8s 'l es de Kima e 2il a 9as !u5e of &a=ias# hero of the "araguayan 7ar:.A3;1B The other titles granted were as followsH E1 mar>uises# ?1 counts# 1E; iscounts Iwith LreatnessJ# )9 iscounts Iwithout LreatnessJ# 1<? barons Iwith LreatnessJ and 1E* barons Iwithout LreatnessJ resulting in a total of 1#311 noble titles.A3;3B There were fewer nobles than noble titles because many were ele ated more than once during their lifetime# such as the !u5e of &a=ias who was first made a baron# then a count# then a mar>uis and finally was ele ated to a du5e.A3?1B Lrants of nobility were not
limited to male BraziliansH Thomas &ochrane# 1*th Earl of !undonald# a 2cot# was made Dar>uis of Daranh,o for his role in the Brazilian 7ar of Independence#A3;<B and 39 women recei ed grants of nobility in their own right. A3;EB's well as being unrestricted by gender# no racial distinctions were made in conferring noble status. Caboclos#A3;?B mulattoes# A3;;B blac5sA3;1B and e en IndiansA3;1B were ennobled. 9Entre 1)33 e 1))9# 9); pessoas foram enobrecidas. 'penas trTs tornaram-se !u>uesH ... 0s outros t8tulos concedidos foram os seguintesH ... $ou e menos nobres do >ue t8tulos de nobre por>ue muitos foram ele ados mais do >ue uma ez durante sua e=istTncia# como por e=emplo o !u>ue de &a=ias >ue primeiro foi feito um bar,o# depois um conde# depois um mar>uTs e finalmente foi ele ado a !u>ue. &oncessWes de nobreza n,o foram limitadas aos homens brasileirosH Thomas &ochrane# dFcimo &onde de !undonald# um escocTs# foi feito Dar>uTs do Daranh,o por seu papel na Luerra brasileira de IndependTncia# e 39 mulheres receberam concessWes de nobreza por direito prOprio. Bem como sendo irrestrita por gTnero# nenhuma distinS,o racial era feita na concess,o do status de nobre. &aboclos# mulatos# negros e atF 8ndios foram nobilitados:. The lesser nobility# who were untitled# were made up of members of the Imperial 0rders. There were si= of theseH the 0rder of &hrist# the 0rder of 2aint Benedict of ' iz# the 0rder of 2aint +ames of the 2word# the 0rder of the 2outhern &ross# the 0rder of "edro I and the 0rder of the /ose.A3?;B The first three had grades of honor beyond the Lrand Daster 9reser ed for the Emperor only:H 5night# commander and grand cross. The latter three# howe er# had different ran5sH the 0rder of the 2outhern &ross with four# the 0rder of the /ose with si=# and the 0rder of "edro I with three.A3?;B
9' nobreza menor# >ue esta a sem t8tulo# foi feita por
membros das 0rdens Imperiais. $a ia seis destasH a 0rdem de &risto# a 0rdem de 2,o Bento de ' is# a 0rdem de 2,o Tiago de Espada# a 0rdem do &ruzeiro do 2ul# a 0rdem de "edro I e a 0rdem da /osa. 's trTs primeiras tinham graus de honra alFm do Lr,oDestre 9reser ado apenas para o Imperador:H ca aleiro# comandante e Lr,-&ruz. 's trTs Xltimas# entretanto# tinham categorias diferentesH a 0rdem do &ruzeiro do 2ul com >uatro# a 0rdem da /osa com seis# e a 0rdem de "edro I com trTs:. /eligion 9/elig,o: 'rticle fi e of the &onstitution declared &atholicism to be the state religion.A3;)B $owe er# the clergy had long been understaffed# undisciplined and poorly educated#A3;9BA31*B all of which led to a general loss of respect for the &atholic &hurch. A3;9B !uring "edro II4s reign# the Imperial go ernment embar5ed upon a program of reform designed to address these deficiencies.A3;9B 90 artigo cinco da &onstituiS,o declarou o &atolicismo a religi,o do Estado. Entretanto# o clero hG muito tempo te e falta de pessoal# era indisciplinado e insuficientemente educado# todos os >uais le aram a uma perda geral do respeito para a IgreMa &atOlica. !urante o reinado de "edro II# o go erno imperial embarcou num programa de reforma proMetado para enfrentar estas deficiTncias:. 's &atholicism was the official religion# the Emperor e=ercised a great deal of control o er &hurch affairs A3;9B and paid clerical salaries# appointed parish priests# nominated bishops# ratified papal bulls and super ised seminaries.A3;9B A311B In pursuing reform# the go ernment selected bishops whose moral fitness# stance on education and support for reform met with their appro al.A3;9BA31*B $owe er# as more
capable men began to fill the clerical ran5s# resentment of go ernment control o er the &hurch increased.A3;9BA31*B &atholic clerics mo ed closer to the "ope and his doctrines. This resulted in the /eligious Nuestion# a series of clashes during the 1)1*s between the clergy and the go ernment# since the former wanted a more direct relationship with /ome and the latter sought to maintain its o ersight of church affairs.A313B
90 catolicismo era
a religi,o oficial# o Imperador e=ercia grande parte do controle sobre os assuntos da IgreMa e paga a os salGrios dos clFrigos# nomea a os pGrocos# indica a os bispos# ratifica a as bulas papais e super isiona a os seminGrios. .a persecuS,o da reforma# o go erno selecionou bispos cuMa boa moral# posiS,o sobre educaS,o e apoio para a reforma reuniu-se com a sua apro aS,o. Entretanto# como os mais capazes homens comeSaram a ocupar as fileiras do clero# o ressentimento do controle do go erno sobre a IgreMa aumentou. &leros catOlicos apro=imaram-se do "apa e de suas doutrinas. Isto resultou na Nuest,o /eligiosa# uma sFrie de conflitos durante a dFcada de 1)1* entre o clero e o go erno# desde >ue os primeiros procuraram uma relaS,o mais direta com /oma e o segundo buscou manter sua fiscalizaS,o dos assuntos da igreMa:. The &onstitution did allow followers of other# non-&atholic# faiths to practice their religious beliefs# albeit only in pri ate. The construction of non-&atholic religious buildings was forbidden.A31<B Crom the outset these restrictions were ignored by both the citizenry and authorities. InBelFm# "arG4s capital# the first synagogue was built in 1)3E. A31<B +ews migrated to Brazil soon after its independence and settled mainly in the northeastern pro inces of Bahia and "ernambuco and in the northern pro inces of 'mazonas and "arG.A31<B 0ther +ewish groups came from the 'lsace-Korraine region of Lermany and from /ussia.A31EB By the 1))*s# there were se eral +ewish communities and synagogues scattered throughout Brazil.A31?B
9' constituiS,o permitia a seguidores de outras fFs n,o catOlicas
praticarem suas crenSas religiosas# embora apenas de forma pri ada. ' construS,o dos edif8cios das religiWes n,o catOlicas foi proibida. !esde o princ8pio estas restriSWes foram ignoradas tanto pelos cidad,os >uanto pelas autoridades. Em BelFm# capital do "arG# a primeira sinagoga foi constru8da em 1)3E. +udeus migraram para o Brasil logo depois de sua independTncia e estabeleceram-se principalmente nas pro 8ncias nordestinas da Bahia e "ernambuco e nas pro 8ncias do .orte do 'mazonas e do "arG. 0utros grupos de Mudeus ieram da 'lsGcia-Korena# regi,o da 'lemanha# e da /Xssia. "or olta da dFcada de 1))*# ha ia Grias comunidades Mudaicas e sinagogas espalhadas em todo o Brasil:. The "rotestants were another group that began settling in Brazil at the beginning of the 19th century. The first "rotestants were English# and an 'nglican church was opened in /io de +aneiro in 1)3*. 0thers were established afterwards in 2,o "aulo# "ernambuco and Bahia pro inces.A31;B They were followed by Lerman and 2wiss Kutherans who settled in the 2outh and 2outhwest regions and built their own houses of worship.A31;B Collowing the U.2. &i il 7ar in the 1);*s# immigrants from the southern United 2tates see5ing to escape /econstruction settled in 2,o "aulo. 2e eral 'merican churches sponsored missionary acti ities# including Baptists# Kutherans# &ongregationalists and Dethodi sts.A311B
90s protestantes eram outro grupo >ue comeSou estabelecendo-se no Brasil no in8cio do sFculo [I[. 0s primeiros protestantes eram ingleses# e uma IgreMa 'nglicana foi aberta no /+ em 1)3*. 0utros estabeleceram-se
mais tarde nas pro 8ncias de 2"# "E e B'. Eles foram seguidos pelos luteranos alem,es e su8Sos >ue se estabeleceram nas regiWes 2ul e 2udoeste e constru8ram suas prOprias casas de culto. 'pOs a Luerra &i il norteamericana na dFcada de 1);*# imigrantes do 2ul dos EU' buscaram escapar da /econstruS,o estabelecendo-se em
2". Duitas igreMas americanas patrocinaram ati idades missionGrias# incluindo batistas# luteranos# congregacionistas e metodistas:. 'mong 'frican sla es# &atholicism was the religion of the maMority. Dost sla es came originally from the midwestern and southwestern portions of the 'frican coast. Cor o er four centuries this region had been the subMect of &hristian mission acti ities.A31)B 2ome 'fricans and their descendants# howe er# held onto elements of polytheistic religious traditions by merging them with &atholicism. This resulted in the creation of syncretic creeds such as &andomblF.A319B Islam was also practiced among a small minority of 'frican sla es# although it was harshly repressed and by the end of the 19 th century had been completely e=tinguished.A3)*B By the beginning of the 19th century# the Indians in most of eastern Brazil had been either assimilated or decimated. 2ome tribes resisted assimilation and either fled farther west# where they were able to maintain their di erse polytheistic beliefs# or were restricted to aldeamentos 9reser ations:# where they e entually A3)1B con erted to &atholicism.
9Entre os escra os africanos# o catolicismo foi a religi,o
da maioria. ' maioria dos escra os ieram originalmente das partes Deio-0este e sudoeste da costa africana. "or mais de >uatro sFculos esta regi,o este e suMeita Vs ati idades missionGrias do cristianismo. 'lguns africanos e seus descendentes# entretanto# manti eram elementos das tradiSWes religiosas polite8stas fundindo-as com o &atolicismo. Isto resultou na criaS,o de credos sincrFticos como o &andomblF. 0 islamismo tambFm foi praticado entre uma pe>uena minoria de escra os africanos# embora isto fosse duramente reprimido e por olta do fim do sFculo [I[ tenha sido completamente e=tinguido. .o in8cio do sFculo [I[# os 8ndios na maioria do leste do Brasil tinham sido ou assimilados ou dizimados. 'lgumas tribos resistiram V assimilaS,o e ou
fugiram para o distante oeste# onde eles eram capazes de manter suas di ersas crenSas polite8stas# ou foram reduzidos aos aldeamentos 9reser as:# onde eles finalmente con erteram-se ao &atolicismo:. Culture (Cultura) <isual arts (Artes 'isuais) According to historian Ronald Raminelli L'isual arts under$ent huge inno'ations in the 9mpire in comparison to the colonial period%M.,+,0Jith independence in *+,, painting sculpture and architecture $ere influenced 2y national sym2ols and the monarchy as 2oth surpassed religious themes in their importance% &he pre'iously dominant old !aro4ue style $as superseded 2y :eoclassicism%.,+,0 :e$ de'elopments appeared such as the use of iron in architecture and the appearance of lithography and photography $hich re'itali"ed the 'isual arts%.,+,0
(Qe acordo com o historiador Ronald Raminelli Las artes 'isuais experimentaram enormes ino'aes
Com a independBncia em *+,, a pintura a escultura e ar4uitetura foram influenciadas pelos sCm2olos nacionais e pela monar4uia PE 4ue am2os superaram os temas religiosos em sua importRncia% 1 anteriormente dominante 'elho estilo !arroco foi superado pelo :eoclassicismo% :o'os desen'ol'imentos apareceram como o uso do ferro na ar4uitetura e o aparecimento da litografia e da fotografia 4ue re'itali"aram as artes 'isuais)% &he go'ernment#s creation of the Imperial Academy of the Fine Arts in the *+,6s played a pi'otal role in influencing
no
ImpFrio
em
comparaDo
com
perCodo
colonialM%
and expanding the 'isual arts in !ra"il mainly 2y educating generations of artists 2ut also 2y ser'ing as a stylistic guideline%.,+30 &he Academy#s origins lay in the foundation of the Escola Real das Cincias, Artes e Ofcios (Royal (chool of the (ciences Arts and Crafts) in *+*> 2y the Portuguese Sing NoDo <I% Its mem2ers?of $hom the most famous $as Nean@!aptiste Qe2ret?$ere French FmigrFes $ho $or5ed as painters sculptors musicians and engineers%.,+70 &he school#s main goal $as to encourage French aesthetics and the :eoclassical style to replace the pre'alent 2aro4ue style% .,+-0 Plagued 2y a lac5 of funds since its inception the school $as later renamed as the Academy of Fine Arts in *+,6 and in *+,7 recei'ed its final name under the 9mpireO Imperial Academy of the Fine Arts%.,+-0
(A
em *+,6 desempenhou um papel crucial na influBncia e expansDo das artes 'isuais no !rasil principalmente pela educaDo de geraes de artistas mas tam2Fm por ser'ir como uma diretri" estilCstica% As origens da Academia esta'a na fundaDo da 9scola Real das CiBncias Artes e 1fCcios em *+*> pelo rei portuguBs NoDo <I% (eus mem2ros I dos 4uais o mais famoso foi N!Q I eram franceses emigrados 4ue tra2alharam como pintores escultores mGsicos e engenheiros% 1 principal o2Peti'o da escola era incenti'ar a estFtica francesa e o estilo neoclEssico para su2stituir o predominante estilo 2arroco% Afligido pela falta de financiamentos desde seu inCcio a escola foi depois renomeada como Academia de !elas Artes em *+,6 e em *+,7 rece2eu seu nome final so2 o ImpFrioO Academia imperial de !elas Artes)% It $as only follo$ing Pedro II#s maPority in *+76 ho$e'er that the Academy 2ecame a po$erhouse part of the 9mperor#s greater scheme of fomenting a national culture
criaDo
pelo
go'erno
da
Academia
Imperial
de
!elas
Artes
and conse4uently uniting all !ra"ilians in a common sense of nationhood%.,+>0 Pedro II $ould sponsor the !ra"ilian culture through se'eral pu2lic institutions funded 2y the go'ernment (not restricted to the Academy of Fine Arts) such as !ra"ilian 8istoric and ;eographic Institute.,+/0 and Imperial Academy of )usic and :ational 1pera%.,++0 &hat sponsorship $ould pa'e the $ay not only for the careers of artists 2ut also for those engaged in other fields including historians such as Francisco Adolfo de <arnhagen.,+=0 and musicians such as the operatic composer AntHnio Carlos ;omes%.,=60
(Foi apenas apAs a maioridade de Pedro II em *+76 entretanto 4ue a Academia tornou@se um poo de energia parte do grande esforo do Imperador de estimular uma cultura nacional e
por conseguinte unindo todos os 2rasileiros num senso comum de nacionalidade% Pedro II patrocinaria a cultura 2rasileira atra'Fs de 'Erias instituies pG2licas fundadas pelo go'erno (nDo restritas K Academia de !elas Artes) como o Instituto 8istArico e ;eogrEfico !rasileiro e a Academia Imperial de )Gsica e a Tpera :acional% 9ste patrocCnio preparou o caminho nDo apenas para as carreiras de artistas mas tam2Fm para a4ueles en'ol'idos em outros campos incluindo historiadores como FA< e mGsicos como o compositor de Apera AC;)% !y the *+76s Romanticism had largely supplanted :eoclassicism not only in painting 2ut also in sculpture and architecture%.,+30 &he Academy did not resume its role of simply pro'iding educationO pri"es medals scholarships in foreign countries and funding $ere used as incenti'es%.,=*0 Among its staff and students $ere some of the most reno$ned !ra"ilian artists including (implCcio Rodrigues de (E FFlix &aunay )anuel de AraGPo Porto@alegre Pedro AmFrico <ictor )eirelles Rodolfo Amoedo Almeida
NGnior Rodolfo !ernardelli and NoDo Ueferino da Costa%

.,=*0.,=,0 (Por 'olta da dFcada de *+76 o Romantismo suplantou em grande parte o :eoclassicismo nDo apenas na pintura mas tam2Fm na escultura e ar4uitetura% A Academia nDo retomou seu papel de meramente fornecer educaDoO prBmios medalhas 2olsas de estudo em paCses estrangeiros e financiamentos foram usados como incenti'os% 9ntre seu 4uadro de funcionErios e estudantes alguns eram dos mais famos artistas 2rasileiros
incluindo %%%)%
In the *++6s after ha'ing 2een long regarded as the official style of the Academy Romanticism declined and other styles $ere explored 2y a ne$ generation of artists% Among the ne$ genres $as Vandscape art the most famous exponents of $hich $ere ;eorg ;rimm ;io'anni !attista Castagneto Frana NGnior and AntHnio Parreiras% .,=30 Another style $hich gained popularity in the fields of painting and architecture $as 9clecticism%.,=30
(:a dFcada de *++6
o Romantismo declinou e outros estilos foram explorados por uma no'a geraDo de artistas% 9ntre os no'os gBneros esta'a a Arte da Paisagem os mais famosos expoentes da 4ual eram%%% 1utro estilo 4ue o2te'e popularidade nos campos da pintura e da ar4uitetura foi o 9cletismo)% Viterature and theater (Viteratura e teatro) In the first years after independence !ra"ilian literature $as still hea'ily influenced 2y Portuguese literature and its predominant :eoclassical style%.,=70 In *+3/ ;onal'es de )agalhDes pu2lished the first $or5 of Romanticism in !ra"il 2eginning a ne$ era in the nation% .,=-0 &he next year *+3+ sa$ the first play performed 2y !ra"ilians $ith a national theme $hich mar5ed the 2irth of !ra"ilian theater% Until then themes $ere often 2ased on 9uropean $or5s e'en if not performed 2y foreign actors%
apAs ter sido considerado como estilo oficial da Academia
.,=-0
Romanticism at that time $as regarded as the literary style that 2est fitted !ra"ilian literature $hich could re'eal its uni4ueness $hen compared to foreign literature% Quring the *+36s and *+76s La net$or5 of ne$spapers Pournals 2oo5 pu2lishers and printing houses emerged $hich together $ith the opening of theaters in the maPor to$ns 2rought into 2eing $hat could 2e termed 2ut for the narro$ness of its scope a national cultureM% (:os primeiros anos depois da independBncia a literatura 2rasileira ainda era fortemente influenciada pela literatura portuguesa e seu estilo predominante :eoclEssico% 9m *+3/ ;) pu2licou o primeiro tra2alho do Romantismo no !rasil comeando uma no'a na naDo% 1 ano seguinte *+3+ 'iu a primeira pea interpretada por 2rasileiros com um tema nacional 4ue marcou o nascimento do teatro 2rasileiro% AtF entDo os temas eram geralmente 2aseados nos tra2alhos europeus mesmo 4ue nDo representado por atores estrangeiros% 1 Romantismo ao mesmo tempo foi considerado como o estilo literErio 4ue melhor aPusta'a@se K literatura 2rasileira 4ue poderia re'elar suas singularidades 4uando comparada K literatura estrangeira% Qurante as dFcadas de *+36 e *+76 Luma rede de Pornais re'istas li'ros pu2licados e casas de impressDo surgiram 4ue Puntos com a a2ertura de teatros nas maiores cidades trouxeram K existBncia o 4ue poderia ser denominado exceto pela estreite"a de seu alcance uma cultura nacionalM)% Romanticism reached its apogee 2et$een the late *+-6s and the early *+/6s as it di'ided into se'eral 2ranches including Indianism and sentimentalism% &he most influential literary style in *=th@century !ra"il many of the most reno$ned !ra"ilian $riters $ere exponents of RomanticismO )anuel de AraGPo Porto@alegre ;onal'es
Qias ;onal'es de )agalhDes NosF de Alencar !ernardo ;uimarDes Wl'ares de A"e'edo Casimiro de A2reu Castro Al'es Noa4uim )anuel de )acedo )anuel AntHnio de Almeida and Alfredo d#9scragnolle &aunay% (1 Romantismo alcanou seu apogeu entre o final da dFcada de *+-6 e o inCcio da de *+/6 e di'idiu@se em 'Erios ramos incluindo o Indianismo e o (entimentalismo% 1 mais influente estilo literErio no sFculo XIX 2rasileiro muitos dos mais famosos escritores 2rasileiros eram expoentes do RomantismoO %%%) In theater the most famous Romanticist $as the play$right )artins Pena although others such as Noa4uim )anuel de )acedo also achie'ed fame% Although !ra"ilian Romanticism found its place in literature it did not ha'e the same success in theater as most of the plays performed $ere either :eoclassic tragedies or Romantic $or5s from Portugal or translations from Italian French or (panish% As in other areas the theater $as sponsored 2y the go'ernment (after the opening of the !ra"ilian Qramatic Conser'atory in *+7-) $hich tried to help national theater companies $ith financial aid in exchange for staging plays in Portuguese% (:o teatro o mais famoso RomRntico foi o dramaturgo )P em2ora outros como N)) tam2Fm o2ti'eram fama% 9m2ora o Romantismo 2rasileiro encontrasse seu lugar na literatura ele nDo te'e o mesmo sucesso no teatro como a maioria das peas representadas eram ou tragFdias neoclEssicas ou tra2alhos romRnticos de Portugal ou tradues do italiano francBs ou espanhol% Como em outras Ereas o teatro foi patrocinado pelo go'erno (depois da a2ertura do Conser'atArio QramEtico !rasileiro em *+7-) 4ue tentou aPudar as companhias de
teatro nacionais com auxClio financeiro em troca de peas de teatro em portuguBs)% &he first reactions to Romanticism appeared in the *+/6s 2ut it $ould only 2e in the next decade that ne$ literary styles $ould ta5e its place% &he first to appear $as Realism $hich had among its most nota2le $riters Noa4uim )aria )achado de Assis and Raul Pompeia% :e$er styles that coexisted $ith Realism :aturalism and Parnassianism $ere 2oth connected to the former#s e'olution% Among the 2est@ 5no$n :aturalists $ere AluCsio A"e'edo and Adolfo Caminha% :ota2le Parnassians $ere ;onal'es Crespo Al2erto de 1li'eira Raimundo Correia and 1la'o !ilac% (As primeiras reaes ao Romantismo apareceram na dFcada de *+/6 mas somente seria na prAxima dFcada 4ue no'os estilos literErios tomariam o seu lugar% 1 primeiro a aparecer foi o Realismo 4ue tinha entre seus mais notE'eis escritores%%% 9stilos mais recentes 4ue coexistiram com o Realismo o :aturalismo e o Parnasianismo eram am2os relacionados K e'oluDo do primeiro% 9ntre os mais conhecidos naturalistas esta'am%%% Parnasianos notE'eis foram%%%)% !ra"ilian theater 2ecame influenced 2y Realism in *+-decades earlier than the style#s impact upon literature and poetry% Famous Realist play$rights included NosF de Alencar Yuintino !ocaiu'a Noa4uim )anuel de )acedo NGlia Vopes de Almeida and )aria AngFlica Ri2eiro% From the *+-6s until the end of the 9mpire !ra"ilian plays staged 2y national companies continued to compete for audiences alongside foreign plays and companies% Performing arts in Imperial !ra"il also encompassed the staging of musical duets dancing gymnastics comedy and farces% Vess prestigious 2ut
more popular $ith the $or5ing classes $ere puppeteers and magicians as $ell as the circus $ith its tra'elling companies of performers including acro2ats trained animals illusionists and other stunt@oriented artists% (1 teatro 2rasileiro 'eio a ser influenciado pelo Realismo em *+-- dFcadas antes do impacto do estilo na literatura e na poesia% Famosos dramaturgos realistas incluCam %%%Qa dFcada de *+-6 atF o fim do ImpFrio as peas 2rasileiras apresentadas por companhias nacionais continuaram a competir por espectadores ao lado de companhias e peas estrangeiras% As artes cBnicas no !rasil imperial tam2Fm a2rangiam a apresentaDo de duetos musicais dana ginEstica comFdia e farsas% )enos prestigiosos porFm mais popular entre as classes tra2alhadoras eram os teatros de 2onecos e os mEgicos 2em como o circo com suas companhias 'iaPantes de artistas incluindo acro2atas animais treinados ilusionistas e outros artistas de faanhas)%

Empire of Brazil

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Empire of Brazil

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Empire of Brazil The Empire of Brazil was a 19th-century state that broadly comprised the territories which form

/agamuffins 91)<?P1)E?:# &abanagem 91)<?P 1)E*:#Balaiada 91)<)P1)E1:# among others.A1;<B

supporters of the Empire were e=ecuted# arrested or forcibly retired.A11*B

sudeste e sul do ImpFrio# a distribuiS,o Ftnica# MG desigual

9' constituiS,o permitia a seguidores de outras fFs n,o catOlicas

NGnior Rodolfo !ernardelli and NoDo Ueferino da Costa%

apAs ter sido considerado como estilo oficial da Academia

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