THE RESERVOIR

THE RESERVOIR
PETROLEUM
PETROLEUM
RESERVOIR
RESERVOIR
ROCK PROPERTIES
FLUID PROPERTIES
PRESSURE
RESERVOIR DRIVE
ROCK PROPERTIES
ROCK PROPERTIES
Rocks are described by three properties:
Porosity - quantity of pore space
Permeability - ability of a formation to flow
Matrix - major constituent of the rock
note: porosity & permeability has been discussed partially in
Chapter I. Introduction
Permeability is a property of the porous medium and is a
measure of the capacity of the medium to transmit fluids
Absolute Perm: When the medium is completely
saturated with one fluid, then the permeability
measurement is often referred to as specific or absolute
permeability
Effective Perm: When the rock pore spaces contain
more than one fluid, then the permeability to a particular
fluid is called the effective permeability. Effective
permeability is a measure of the fluid conductance
capacity of a porous medium to a particular fluid when
the medium is saturated with more than one fluid
Relative Perm: Defined as the ratio of the effective
permeability to a fluid at a given saturation to the
effective permeability to that fluid at 100% saturation.
PERMEABILITY
PERMEABILITY
DARCY
DARCY

S LAW
S LAW
L = length
q = flow rate
p
1
, p
2
= pressures
A = area perpendicular to flow

= viscosity
q
Direction of flow
A
p
2
p
1 L
)
(
2 1
p p
L
A
q
k

=
k = permeability
(measured in darcies)
k/

=
kh/

=
DARCY
DARCY

S LAW:
S LAW:

RADIAL FLOW
RADIAL FLOW
h = height of the cylinder (zone)
P = pressure at r
P
w
= pressure at the wellbore
rw / r ln
) Pw P ( kh
q

=
2
.
r
r
w
PERMEABILITY
PERMEABILITY

POROSITY
POROSITY
CROSSPLOT
CROSSPLOT
100
10
1
0.1
0.01 0.01
0.1
1
10
100
1000
2 6 10 14
2 6 10 14 18
P
e
r
m
e
a
b
i
l
i
t
y

(
m
d
)
Porosity (%)
Limestone A1 Sandstone A1
Oil
Water
Gas
k
k
k
eo
ro
=
k
k
k
ew
rw
=
k
k
k
eg
rg
=
CALCULATING RELATIVE
CALCULATING RELATIVE
PERMEABILITIES
PERMEABILITIES
Relative Permeability Curve
Relative Permeability Curve
IRREDUCIBLE WATER SATURATION
IRREDUCIBLE WATER SATURATION
In a formation the minimum saturation induced by
displacement is where the wetting phase becomes
discontinuous.
In normal water-wet rocks, this is the irreducible water
saturation, Swirr.
Large grained rocks have a low irreducible water
saturation compared to small-grained formations
because the
capillary
pressure is
smaller.
TRANSITION ZONE
TRANSITION ZONE
The phenomenon of capillary pressure gives rise to the
transition zone in a reservoir between the water zone and the
oil zone.
The rock can be thought of as a bundle of capillary tubes.
The length of the zone depends on the pore size and the
density difference between the two fluids.
Relative
Relative
Permeability
Permeability
Take a core 100% water-
saturated. (A)
Force oil into the core
until irreducible water
saturation is attained
(Swirr). (A-> C -> D)
Reverse the process:
force water into the core
until the residual
saturation is attained. (B)
During the process,
measure the relative
permeabilities to water
and oil.
FLUID SATURATIONS
FLUID SATURATIONS
Basic concepts of hydrocarbon accumulation
Initially, pore space filled 100% with water
Hydrocarbons migrate up dip into traps
Hydrocarbons distributed by capillary forces and gravity
Connate water saturation remains in hydrocarbon zone
Fluid saturation is defined as the fraction of pore volume
occupied by a given fluid
Definitions
S
w
= water saturation
S
o
= oil saturation
S
g
= gas saturation
S
h
= hydrocarbon saturation = S
o
+ S
g
Saturations are expressed as percentages or fractions, e.g.
Water saturation of 75% in a reservoir with porosity of 20%
contains water equivalent to 15% of its volume.
SATURATION
SATURATION
Amount of water per unit volume =

S
w
Amount of hydrocarbon per unit volume =

(1 - S
w
) =

S
h

Matrix
1

Water
Hydrocarbon
(1-S
w
)
S
w
RESERVOIR PRESSURE
RESERVOIR PRESSURE
Lithostatic pressure is caused by the
pressure of rock, transmitted by grain-to-
grain contact.
Fluid pressure is caused by weight of
column of fluids in the pore spaces.
Average = 0.465 psi/ft (saline water).
Overburden pressure is the sum of the
lithostatic and fluid pressures.
RESERVOIR PRESSURE
RESERVOIR PRESSURE
Reservoir Pressures are normally controlled by the
gradient in the aquifer.
High pressures exist in some reservoirs.
Reservoir Pressure Calculation
Reservoir Pressure Calculation
RESERVOIR TEMPERATURE GRADIENT
RESERVOIR TEMPERATURE GRADIENT
The chart shows three possible temperature gradients. The
temperature can be determined if the depth is known.
High temperatures exist in some places. Local knowledge is important.
FLUIDS IN A RESERVOIR
FLUIDS IN A RESERVOIR
A reservoir normally contains either water or
hydrocarbon or a mixture.
The hydrocarbon may be in the form of oil or
gas.
The specific hydrocarbon produced depends
on the reservoir pressure and temperature.
The formation water may be fresh or salty.
The amount and type of fluid produced
depends on the initial reservoir pressure,
rock properties and the drive mechanism.
HYDROCARBON COMPOSITION
HYDROCARBON COMPOSITION
Typical hydrocarbons have the following composition in Mol Fraction
Hydrocarbon C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6+
Dry gas .88 .045 .045 .01 .01 .01
Condensate .72 .08 .04 .04 .04 .08
Volatile oil .6-.65 .08 .05 .04 .03 .15-.2
Black oil .41 .03 .05 .05 .04 .42
Heavy oil .11 .03 .01 .01 .04 .8
Tar/bitumen 1.0
The 'C' numbers indicated the number of carbon atoms in the molecular chain.
HYDROCARBON STRUCTURE
HYDROCARBON STRUCTURE
The major
constituent of
hydrocarbons is
paraffin.
HYDROCARBON CLASSIFICATION
HYDROCARBON CLASSIFICATION
Hydrocarbons are also defined by their weight and the Gas/Oil ratio. The
table gives some typical values:
GOR API Gravity
Wet gas 100mcf/b 50-70
Condensate 5-100mcf/b 50-70
Volatile oil 3000cf/b 40-50
Black oil 100-2500cf/b 30-40
Heavy oil 0 10-30
Tar/bitumen 0 <10
HYDROCARBON GAS
HYDROCARBON GAS
Natural gas is mostly (60-80%) methane,
CH
4
. Some heavier gases make up the rest.
Gas can contain impurities such as
Hydrogen Sulphide, H
2
S and Carbon
Dioxide, CO
2
.
Gases are classified by their specific
gravity which is defined as:
" The ratio of the density of the gas to that
of air at the same temperature and
pressure" .
FLUID PHASES
FLUID PHASES
A fluid phase is a physically distinct state, e.g.: gas or
oil.
In a reservoir oil and gas exist together at equilibrium,
depending on the pressure and temperature.
The behaviour of a reservoir fluid is analyzed using the
properties; Pressure, Temperature and Volume (PVT).
There are two simple ways of showing this:
Pressure against temperature keeping the volume constant.
Pressure against volume keeping the temperature constant.
PVT Experiment
PVT Experiment
PHASE DIAGRAM SINGLE COMPONENT
PHASE DIAGRAM SINGLE COMPONENT
The experiment is conducted at different temperatures.
The final plot of Pressure against Temperature is made.
The Vapour Pressure Curve represents the Bubble Point
and Dew Point.
(For a single component they coincide.)
THE FIVE
RESERVOIR
FLUIDS
Black Oil
Critical
point
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
,

p
s
i
a
B
u
b
b
l
e
p
o
i
n
t

l
i
n
e
Separator
Pressure path
in reservoir
Dewpoint line
9
0
8
0
9
0
7
0
6
0
5
0
4
0
1
0
3
0
2
0
% Liquid
Temperature, F
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
Temperature
Separator
% Liquid
B
u
b
b
l
e
p
o
i
n
t

l
i
n
e
D
e
w
p
o
in
t lin
e
Dewpoint line
Volatile oil
Pressure path
in reservoir
3
2
1
5
1
0
3
3
0
2
0
4
0
5
0
6
0
7
0
8
0
9
0
Critical
point
3
3
0
2
0
1
5
1
0
4
0
Separator
% Liquid
Pressure path
in reservoir
1
2
Retrograde gas
Critical
point
B
u
b
b
l
e
p
o
i
n
t

l
i
n
e
D
e
w
p
o
i
n
t

l
i
n
e
5
0
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
Temperature
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
Temperature
% Liquid
2
1
Pressure path
in reservoir
Wet gas
Critical
point
B
u
b
b
l
e
p
o
i
n
t
l
i
n
e
Separator
1
5
2
5
3
0
D
e
w
p
o
i
n
t

l
i
n
e
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
Temperature
% Liquid
2
1
Pressure path
in reservoir
Dry gas
Separator
2
5
D
e
w
p
o
i
n
t

l
i
n
e
1
5
0
Retrograde Gas Wet Gas Dry Gas
Black Oil
Volatile Oil
THREE GASES -

WHAT ARE THE
DIFFERENCES?
Dry gas - gas at surface is same as gas in
reservoir
Wet gas - recombined surface gas and
condensate represents gas in reservoir
Retrograde gas - recombined surface gas
and condensate represents the gas in the
reservoir but not the total reservoir fluid
(retrograde condensate stays in reservoir)
FIELD IDENTIFICATION
Black
Oil
Volatile
Oil
Retrograde
Gas
Wet
Gas
Dry
Gas
Initial
Producing
Gas/Liquid
Ratio, scf/STB
<1750 1750 to
3200
> 3200 > 15,000* 100,000*
Initial Stock-
Tank Liquid
Gravity, API
< 45 > 40 > 40 Up to 70 No
Liquid
Color of Stock-
Tank Liquid
Dark Colored Lightl y
Colored
Water
White
No
Liquid
*For Engineering Purposes
LABORATORY ANALYSIS
Black
Oil
Volatile
Oil
Retrograde
Gas
Wet
Gas
Dry
Gas
Phase
Change in
Reservoir
Bubblepoint Bubblepoint Dewpoint No
Phase
Change
No
Phase
Change
Heptanes
Plus, Mole
Percent
> 20% 20 to 12.5 < 12.5 < 4* < 0.8*
Oil
Formation
Volume
Factor at
Bubblepoint
< 2.0 > 2.0 - - -
*For Engineering Purposes
PRIMARY PRODUCTION TRENDS
G
O
R
G
O
R
G
O
R
G
O
R
G
O
R
Time Time
Time
Time Time Time
Time
Time
Time Time
No
liquid
No
liquid
Dry
Gas
Wet
Gas
Retrograde
Gas
Volatile
Oil
Black
Oil

A
P
I

A
P
I

A
P
I

A
P
I

A
P
I
BLACK OIL FLUID PROPERTIES
Sample : DRY GAS FLUID PROPERTIS
FVF

Formation
Volume Factor
Fluids at bottom hole
conditions produce
different fluids at
surface:
Oil becomes oil plus
gas.
Gas usually stays as
gas unless it is a
Condensate.
Water stays as water
with occasionally
some dissolved gas.
FLUID VISCOSITY
FLUID & FORMATION
COMPRESSIBILITY
DRIVE MECHANISMS
A virgin reservoir has a pressure controlled by the local
gradient.
Hydrocarbons will flow if the reservoir pressure is sufficient to
drive the fluids to the surface (otherwise they have to be
pumped).
As the fluid is produced reservoir pressure drops.
The rate of pressure drop is controlled by the Reservoir Drive
Mechanism.
Drive Mechanism depends on the rate at which fluid expands
to fill the space vacated by the produced fluid.
Main Reservoir Drive Mechanism types are:
1. Water drive.
2. Gas cap drive.
3. Gas solution drive
Water Invasion
Water invading an oil zone, moves
close to the grain surface, pushing
the oil out of its way in a piston-
like fashion.
The capillary pressure gradient
forces water to move ahead faster
in the smaller pore channels.
The remaining thread of
oil becomes smaller.
It finally breaks into smaller
pieces.
As a result, some drops
of oil are left behind in
the channel.
Water Drive
Water moves up to fill the "space"
vacated by the oil as it is produced.
Oil producing well
Water Water
Cross Section
Oil Zone
Bottom Water Drive
Water moves up to fill the "space"
vacated by the oil as it is produced.
Oil producing well
Cross Section
Oil Zone
Water
Water Drive 2
This type of drive usually keeps the reservoir pressure fairly
constant.
After the initial dry oil production, water may be produced. The
amount of produced water increases as the volume of oil in the
reservoir decreases.
Dissolved gas in the oil is released to form produced gas.
Gas Invasion
Gas is more mobile than
oil and takes the path of
least resistance along
the centre of the larger
channels.
As a result, oil is left
behind in the smaller,
less permeable,
channels.
Gas Cap Drive
Gas from the gas cap expands to fill the space
vacated by the produced oil.
Gas Cap Drive 2
As oil production declines, gas production increases.
Rapid pressure drop at the start of production.
Solution Gas Drive
After some time the oil in the reservoir is below
the bubble point.
Solution Gas Drive 2
An initial high oil production is followed by a rapid decline.
The Gas/Oil ratio has a peak corresponding to the higher
permeability to gas.
The reservoir pressure exhibits a fast decline.
GRAVITY DRAINAGE
Oil
Oil
Oil
Point A
Point B
Point C
Gas
Gas
Gas
Recovery = to 60% of OOIP
Drives General
A water drive can recover up to 60% of the oil in place.
A gas cap drive can recover only 40% with a greater
reduction in pressure.
A solution gas drive has a low recovery.
5
4
3
2
1
0
Cumulative oil produced, percent of original oil in place
0 20 40 60 80 100
G
a
s
/
o
i
l

r
a
t
i
o
,

M
S
C
F
/
S
T
B
Water drive
Gas-cap drive
Solution-
gas drive
Gas/oil Ratio Trends
Average Oi l Recovery
Factors,
% of OOIP
Dri ve Mechani sm
Range Average
Sol uti on-gas dri ve 5 - 30 15
Gas-cap dri ve 15 - 50 30
Water dri ve 30 - 60 40
Gravi t y-drai nage
dri ve
16 - 85 50
Average Gas Recovery
Factors,
% of OGIP
Dri ve Mechani sm
Range Average
Vol umetri c reservoi r
(Gas expansi on dri ve)
70 - 90 80
Water dri ve 35 - 65 50
Average Recovery Factors
Drive Problems
Water Drive:
Water can cone upwards and be
produced through the lower
perforations.
Gas Cap Drive:
Gas can cone downwards and be
produced through the upper
perforations.
Pressure is rapidly lost as the gas
expands.
Gas Solution Drive:
Gas production can occur in the
reservoir, skin damage.
Very short-lived.
Secondary Recovery
Secondary recovery covers a range of techniques used to
augment the natural drive of a reservoir or boost production at
a later stage in the life of a reservoir.
A field often needs enhanced oil recovery (EOR) techniques to
maximise its production.
Common recovery methods are:
Water injection.
Gas injection.
In difficult reservoirs, such as those containing heavy oil, more
advanced recovery methods are used:
Steam flood.
Polymer injection. .
CO2 injection.
In-situ combustion.
Secondary
Recovery 2
water injection
gas injection