University of Lincoln

MA Design. Unit DGN169

A Journey through the 20th century Industrial Architectural scene

With reference to its influence on the authors design practice

Kevin Robert Hallsworth

Contents

1. Introduction............................................................................................................ 5 2. The architectural scene, factory design in the 20th century ........................ 7
2.1. 2.2. 2.3. 2.4. 2.5. 2.6. 2.7. 2.8. 2.9. 3.1. 3.2. 3.3. 3.4. 3.5. 3.6. 4.1. 4.2. 4.3. 4.4. 4.5. 4.6. 4.7. Preparation for travel, gathering the supplies. ........................................................................................... 7 Structure and the search for light; taking the factory into a new century................................................... 9 Over here, the Model Factory and influence from the USA. .................................................................... 13 The Modern factory and thoughts from Europe. ......................................................................................... 19 Britain in the interwar years; reluctance to roadside showmanship. .......................................................... 23 Clouds of war to regeneration. ............................................................................................................................ 35 The Cool box, the functional tradition and the arrival of High tech. ............................................. 40 End of a century and the Millennium ................................................................................................................... 50 The current scene, a new era? .............................................................................................................................. 55 Taking in the scenery, the journey continues. .................................................................................................. 57 Factory as a Detail. The look of the factory................................................................................................. 59 Factory as a Structure ......................................................................................................................................... 60 Factory as an Environment ................................................................................................................................. 61 Factory as a symbol .................................................................................................................................................. 62 Summary of this design stage ................................................................................................................................. 63 Navigation and realisation, the final pieces. ....................................................................................................... 65 Opposed frame ......................................................................................................................................................... 67 Workscape chair....................................................................................................................................................... 71 Section wall unit ........................................................................................................................................................ 73 Airscape chair ............................................................................................................................................................ 75 Northern light table/ Airscape table .................................................................................................................... 79 Summary of the collection as a whole. ............................................................................................................... 80 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................................... 87 Early influences, origins, Hoffmann Behrens and the Jugendstil .................................................................... 87 A Plastic reality .......................................................................................................................................................... 89 Utopia to handlebars ............................................................................................................................................... 91 Lsprit Nouveau ...................................................................................................................................................... 93 Remove and subtract to embellish ................................................................................................................... 97 The Poetics of the technical object .................................................................................................................. 99 Crossing borders, the flow of ideas to Britain and beyond. ........................................................................101 Post war enlightenment, surplus materials ......................................................................................................104 People sit differently today. and the Womb .......................................................................................106 Rover chairs and sand dunes ...............................................................................................................................108 Summary, happy travellers? ..................................................................................................................................115

3. Translation and realisation the approach to furniture design. ................... 57

4. By ways, diversion and reflection ..................................................................... 65

5. Travelling companions ........................................................................................ 87

5.1. 5.2. 5.3. 5.4. 5.5. 5.6. 5.7. 5.7. 5.9. 5.10. 5.11. 6.1.

6. Conclusion ..........................................................................................................115 7. Bibliography and Web resources ...................................................................116

1.

Introduction

The record of a journey of this kind may be more important if it chronicles a succession of moods than if it captures a succession of scenes1 I refer back to the quote by J B Priestley 2 in his Book English Journey written some 80 years ago, as he describes his journeys approach to the English Black Country 3, which I used in an earlier unit where I allude to the metaphor of a journey in respect to my research studies. I also quote from my own text4; Whenever I read this, it transports me back to the time, around 20 years ago, that I would be on a journey through this very same area. Most likely, I would have been driving; working with my father, Frank, in our family heating business5. One of a multitude of journeys like this, travelling to or from one of many of our jobs, where all around were the sights of industry old and new, the factories, the machinery, the people who worked there, and to accompany them, the associated colours, smells and ambience. Within our van, weighed down with the tools and spares of our industrial heating trade, the smells of industrial oils were there and still resonate now along with my own succession of remembered scenes and moods. The mood of this passage has remained with me for the remainder of my study and in this unit I would like to carry this metaphor on to some extent to illustrate my thought processes. The next passage, also quoted from my own texts6 is pertinent to the prevailing ethos of my study. I have a deep-rooted interest in industrial buildings, most likely stemming from the time working with my father in and around the West Midlands industrial conurbation. This time has left an impression, physically with my attained skills and mentally with the wish to synthesize the memories and ambience of this time into a tangible form through the medium of furniture design. The majority of the buildings with which I became familiar could be described perhaps as basic boxes or sheds with arguably little architectural merit, although even amongst these there were often details remembered, structures, colours , machines etc. that now I shall venture to use as keys to open up ideas for my theme of industry. What these buildings were, their design, humble or otherwise, grows out of a chain of events from the past, such as developments in architectural styles, materials innovation and practical need. Conceivably this type of architecture has not been at the forefront of study, it has been put back in favour of much grander buildings. I wish to engage with these buildings and express my interest in them by the use of the theme of industry in my designs. With these two passages taken in mind the ethos of my design practice has been created and will, I hope become clear to the reader during the following work. To briefly recap, the first part of the journey was to explore and evaluate the various research methods available to me to complete my task, my journey. This collected knowledge, was used to build the foundation of the future design units by the creation of a study into the historical contexts of factory design and by the accumulation of a database of images to support this. This collected baggage, became the basis of the design 5

units that followed. Selection and further evaluation from the following units provided the material, the fuel perhaps for the major project designs and the creation of tangible objects. The journey is almost over now, but before it is completed, I again need to reflect upon the contexts by means of a more insightful look at what the journey produced, created, and what I gained from it. How I interpreted the signs along the way and chose which route to carry on the metaphor. This is the purpose of the following written study. To accomplish this task I intend to do the following. In the first main major section I shall again research and reflect upon the contexts surrounding the industrial building in an essay that outlines the architectural scene from the beginning of the 20th century to the present day. This first section will illustrate the factorys architectural development, through styles and materials and designers, with primary focus on British factories and warehouse type buildings but including pertinent reference to influences from Europe and the USA. The second main major section will, with reference to the first sections information, describe and evaluate my design processes and illustrate how this physical architectural context has been converted into my design portfolio. Examples images where relevant will be shown. In the third major section I will refer to the work of other architects and designers not necessarily mentioned in the previous work and compare examples of their practice with mine with reference to how their ethos has influenced my personal design direction.

Priestley. J.B. English Journey, Jubilee edition, London, Heinemann, 1984, p.85.

J. B. Priestley. Born, Sept. 13, 1894, Bradford, Yorkshire, Eng. died Aug. 14, 1984, Alveston, near Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire. British novelist, playwright, and essayist, noted for his varied output and his ability for shrewd characterization.
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The Black Country Predominantly an industrial area of the West midlands north west of the city of Birmingham, encompassing the towns of Wolverhampton and Walsall in the north, down through Dudley and West Bromwich to Stourbridge in the south.
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Research and enterprise unit , introduction G.T.I Heating services, specialising in the service and repair of industrial heating and ventilating equipment. Negotiated unit 1, introduction to essay.

2. The architectural scene, factory design in the 20th century

2.1.

Preparation for travel, gathering the supplies.

The factory or Industrial building of any type has been described as the Cinderella of architectural study with other more notable types of architecture gaining the focus of studies. Further study of this building type can show that it is a more deserving case. I will attempt to highlight this in the following text. From the cottage industries of the eighteenth century to the vast mills of the nineteenth, innovations of materials and production needs provided the basis of the architectural look of the factory. The coming of further developments in the twentieth century and later the influence of the designer founded the basis for the appearance of the factory we see today.

Fig 2.1 A Bond Warehouse 1905

Fig 2.1 Mons Mill 1914

Fig 2.3 Sheerness Boathouse 1866

2.2.

Structure and the search for light; taking the factory into a new century.

Technological developments in factory design of the nineteenth century1 provided the foundation for the new century in factory building. On reflection, even though such significant technological advances as the introduction of iron framing and reinforced concrete became readily available, as yet, builders were reluctant, with the exception perhaps of Sheerness boathouse2, to celebrate this material in an outward form. The majority of mill buildings still displayed what we may now call traditional large multi fenestrated look with a brick or stone exterior sometimes of fortress proportions as in the A Bond warehouse (1905) Bristol (figure2.1) The windows may have got bigger, as buildings became deeper and longer with larger machinery, culminating in the Mons mill (1914)3 (figure2.2) at Todmorden where only thin brick mullions divided the windows, but as yet there were no glass sheet walls. In such warehouse buildings the iron structure was contained within and remained partially supported by an outer load bearing wall. At Sheerness (figure 2.3) the frame became a self supporting structure leaving the outer wall to be free of such load bearing constraints and allow the use of lightweight corrugated iron panels and large areas of glazing. At the beginning of the twentieth century, the modern factory was seen as the perfect functional building, with improved materials, building technology, and designed to work with the organisation of the industrial process. Their core may have been built of the latest reinforced concrete system, have up to date iron beam technology, enjoy open spans of up to 16feet (1900)4, even lit by the latest carbon arc electric light 5. However, there was no rush to express the theory of rationalism 6 and still outwardly, they could have the appearance of an Italianate Villa7, a Baroque mansion,8 (figure 2.4), or sport a Byzantine tower9 as displayed in John A Campbells Northern Insurance building in Glasgow 10 (figure 2.5) where the display of innovative construction methods are demoted to the rear of the building behind a traditional Scottish faade. The common factor here is the perceived recalcitrance to consider functionalist construction methods to be an important part of architectural design. Buildings that perhaps stand as good examples of forward looking design, such as the Uniroyal Tyre factory in Dumfries 11, (figure 2.6) with its pure rationalism in construction and obvious use of new building methods does not even have a recorded architect.

Fig 2.4 Baroque style 1905

Fig 2.5 Northern Insurance

Fig 2.6 Uniroyal Factory

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This potential of a design approach to the new methods and materials was not as yet openly recognised in Britain. However, events and influences from elsewhere were about to change this with the forming of the Modern factory movement in Europe and the fo rming of the Model factory idea in the USA which we will consider next.

Main developments were the introduction of fire proofing materials, and the development of the use of structural metals. Sheerness Boathouse, located Inside the Port of Sheerness, is a Grade 2 listed. It was the first of its type of industrial building being a

prototype of the multi-storey iron framed building, eschewing the heavily ornate decorative ironwork and elaborate features of the Victorian period. Constructed in 1866 it had operating rails so that they could be moved up and down the length of the building as would a travelling crane. There are plans for this building to be replaced outside the docks as a permanent historical centre for the Island. http://www.clcshe.eclipse.co.uk/culture.html

. Mons Mill, John Winter. Industrial Architecture, London, 1970, page61 .Span of 16feet, John Winter. Industrial Architecture, London, 1970, page83 Carbon arc light (1900). John Winter. Industrial Architecture, London, 1970, page61

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Bank Mill, Failsworth near Oldham (1906). Edgar Jones, Industrial Architecture in Britain 1750-1939, London 1985, page 161. India House, Whitworth Street, Manchester (1905-6), Edgar Jones, Industrial Architecture in Britain 1750-1939, London 1985, page 180. Broadstone mill near Chorley Lancashire (1910), Edgar Jones, Industrial Architecture in Britain 1750-1939, London, 1985, page 188.

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John A Campbell, John Archibald Campbell was born at 20 Park Circus, Anderston, Glasgow, on 26 January 1859. The Northern

Insurance building was John Archibald Campbell's last building - he died during its construction. The Imperial Union Club at 94 St Vincent Street was part of the project. Dictionary of Scottish Architects - DSA Building/Design Report
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Uniroyal factory, Aka Heathhall Uniroyal Factory, was originally built to manufacture car and aeronautical engines, later being well

known for the manufacture of Hunter Wellington boots. It became Uniroyal in 1966. Dictionary of Scottish Architects - DSA Building/Design Report

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Fig 2.7 Packard Motors 1903

Fig 2.8 Pierce-Arrow works 1906

Fig 2.9 Ford Highland Plant 1910

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2.3.

Over here, the Model Factory and influence from the USA.

The development of the multi-storey mill starting in the 18th century was on the whole a British affair which was adapted throughout the world. However, in the early part of the 20 th century, across the Atlantic new production methods were being developed, based on the ideas of Frederick Taylor in his publication Principles of scientific management1 and spearheaded by Henry Ford2 and the needs of the automotive industry. This tied in with the availability of a newly developed reinforced concrete system developed by the Kahn brothers in Detroit. The Kahn system3 as it was patented, was marketed by the newly formed Kahncrete company and its subsidiary Trussed Concrete Steel Company, or Truscon as it was often known. The companys aim was to sell the system under licence in the USA and Britain where Moritz Kahn sought new markets and established an office in London (1907). Albert Khan4completed a factory for the Packard Motor Company, 5 Detroit6 (1903), (figure 2.7) the first American reinforced concrete building and the first to have steel windows imported from England. These elements produced a lighter building than ever before. In 1906 with the Pierce Automobile plant in Buffalo 7, New York, (figure 2.8) he designed a factory in which self-contained work cycles were housed within a single storey, steel framed, top lit by saw tooth 8 roof glazed buildings designed for uniform lighting and physical flexibility to aid production within. Khan was then commissioned by Henry Ford to build a new four-storey plant in Highland Park Detroit (1910) (Figure 2.9) and three years later built the factory to house the worlds first moving assembly line. This was for the Ford model T.9 Ford demanded a building with the focus on open space, adaptability, uncluttered areas suitable for production flow lines where the planned integrated processes, from the arrival of raw materials to the finished product, could all take place on one level. His next commission was the Ford Rouge plant10 (1916), (figure 2.10), a mammoth plant, its assembly line ran through a series of single storey units. Here Khan introduced the use of steel rather than reinforced concrete for its structural framework. Kahn was to develop this design in numerous subsequent factories, all single storey, all lit from above to enable the floor to be kept clear for machinery and processes. Services such as lavatories and offices were placed at a higher, often mezzanine level.

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Fig 2.11 Ford Rouge plant 1916

Fig 2.12 Trafford Park works 1911

Fig 2.13 Arrol-Johnson Factory 1912-13

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These buildings became known as Model factories and their design as the Kahn Daylight system being based on a regular grid of column, beam and slab. Concrete sections were fully exposed and external wall spaces were glass filled with slender glazing bars. Truscon opened their first example of this type of building in the U.K at Trafford Park, Manchester (1911) for the Ford motor company (figure 2.11). Soon after on a green field site in Dumfries, a three story E shaped factory was built for the ArrolJohnson Motor Company11 (191213), (figure 2.12). A four story building for the engineers G.J Weir ltd, Glasgow (1912-13) and another for the Albion Motor company in Glasgow (1913-15)12(figure 2.13) were also completed. The aforementioned Uniroyal factory in Dumfries may be another unconfirmed early example. The increasing availability of this new fast economic and adaptable reinforced concrete coincided with the shortage of materials created by the military build up for the First World War 13 in Europe, and the relaxing of building regulations. Its versatility also made it more attractive. Truscon took advantage of this, designing innumerable civil factories before turning to establishments required for armaments and defence hardware. One example being the Birmingham Small Arms factory 14 (B.S.A) (1914), in Small Heath , West Midlands, (Figure 2.14), whose design appeared as a chequer board of concrete piers and rectangular windows.

Fig 2.14 BSA Works 1914

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Frederick Taylor published The Principles of Scientific Management 1911, where he recommended the use of scientific method to

systematise and standardise industry. Taylor demonstrated, for example, that if a man carried out orders to the minutest detail and showed no initiative he could load over 47 tons of pig iron a day onto a railway truck. He then used this as a standard to judge other workers who, he found, were typically loading only about 12 tons. Taylor reasoned that the hard working employee should be better paid and was happier to work under these conditions. There were then attempts to take these models of industrial efficiency into schools. Under the guidance of the US Office of Education a number of schools were surveyed their own work and 'objective tests' were developed to determine the quality of teaching. www.enquirylearning.net/ELU/Issues/Research/Res1Ch3.html

Henry Ford, the son of farmer, was born in Greenfield, Michigan on 30th July, 1863. He left school at 15 to work on his father's farm

but in 1879 he moved to Detroit, Michigan where he became an apprentice in a machine shop. To help him survive on his low wages he spent his evenings repairing clocks and watches. Ford returned to Greenfield after his father gave him 40 acres to start his own farm. He disliked farming and spent much of the time trying to build a steam road carriage and a farm locomotive. Unable to settle at Greenfield, Ford returned to Detroit to work as an engineer for the Edison Illuminating Company. During this period Ford read an article in the World of Science how the German engineer Nicolas Otto, had built a internal combustion engine. Ford now spent his spare time trying to build a petrol-driven motor car. His first car, finished in 1896, was built in a little brick shed in his garden. Driven by a two-cylinder, fourcycle motor, it was mounted on bicycle wheels. Named the Thin Lizzie, the car had no reverse gear or brakes. The Henry Ford: The Life of Henry Ford

Kahn system Kahn first developed the concrete framing system when he worked with Henry Ford to design the first automobile

assembly line in a long, low building in 1909 in Highland Park, Michigan. Kahn went on to design many more factories and of his 2,000 works, some 500 were factories built in the Soviet Union in the 1920s. University of Michigan - Michigan Today

Albert Kahn. Born. Rhaunen, Germany 1869; d. New York, N.Y. 1942) Albert Kahn was born in Rhaunen, Germany in 1869. In 1884,

four years after emigrating to the U.S. Kahn joined the architectural firm of Mason & Rise. Eventually, he became the firm's principal architect and chief designer. In 1891, during his tenure with Mason & Rise, he visited Europe on a scholarship award. In 1896, Kahn established a partnership with George Nettleton and Alexander Trowbridge, which dissolved in 1900. In 1902, Kahn established his own practice. Although his early work was unassuming, Kahn achieved a breakthrough in 1906 with his single storey, top-lit modular design for the George N. Pierce Plant in Buffalo, New York. Designed to uniform lighting and physical flexibility, it rapidly became the prototype for American factory design, particularly in the emerging motor industry. Unlike many of his contemporaries, Kahn was not inclined to "romanticize the machine". Extensions of user needs, his designs provided efficient and practical solutions to a growing industrial environment. By the late 1930s Kahn employed over 600 people and was responsible for nearly a fifth of the industrial buildings within the U.S Albert Kahn - Great Buildings Online 5 Packard. The first large scale modern auto plant, the first nine building erected on the site were made in the old style with wood timbers. However building #10 (1905), was made of reinforced steel and concrete (The Kahn System), and was the first factory built that way. The system of reinforced concrete revolutionized factory design and Albert Kahn went on to build many other factories with the design perfected on Packard #10 b www.internationalmetropolis.com/detroit/packard
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Detroit's glory years were 1910 to 1930. In 1929, 5.3 million automobiles were produced, and half the city's labour force worked in

the industry. Spurred by a tremendous immigration movement, the population had swelled from under 300,000 in 1900 to more than 1.5 million in 1929. At that time, Detroit became the foremost industrial centre in the United States Architecture Week - Culture - The Factory Architecture of Albert Kahn - 2000.1101

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1906 George N. Pierce Plant, Buffalo, NY, Architect: Albert Kahn. This automobile factory, home of the famous Pierce Arrow car,

was the first industrial "modular" building. It was designed so that any number of extensions could be added onto it. Skylights in the roof provided the most efficient form of natural light for workers on the new assembly line. http://www.artistsdomain.com/dev/eere/web/images/timeline/1900/pierce2a.jpg
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Saw tooth Roof. A saw tooth roof is an old design often seen in industrial buildings. Typically one sloped surface is opaque and the

other is glazed. A contemporary saw tooth roof may have solar collectors or photovoltaic cells on the south-facing slope and daylight glazing on the north-facing slope.DOE Building Technologies Program: Daylighting
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Ford adopted the idea of focusing primarily on one mass-produced product with his Model T (a code name assigned by the design

department), launched in 1908 and nicknamed the "Tin Lizzie." Nearly 15 million cars were produced in the twenty years of the Model T's existence (1908-27); following World War I, more than one new car in two produced in the United States was a Ford Model T. In addition, Ford decided to begin manufacturing all the auto parts on a single site. Architecture Week - Culture - The Factory Architecture of Albert Kahn - 2000.1101
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Ford Rouge plant. During the late 1920s and early 1930s the Ford Rouge plant became the largest industrial complex in the world, as

well as the most advanced, architecturally and technically. Because Henry Ford was determined to be independent of suppliers, he developed the Rouge into an almost self-sufficient and self-contained industrial city. Construction began on April 1, 1917 and 10 years later the facility contained 93 structures, 90 miles of railroad tracks, 27 miles of conveyors, 53,000 machine tools and 75,000 employees. Detroit architect Albert Kahn designed most of the complex . Today, the Rouge is only one of many Ford Motor Co. manufacturing and assembling facilities. But it is still unique in American industry. Situated on more than 2,000 acres in Dearborn along the Rouge River, a tributary of the Detroit River southwest of downtown Detroit, the Rouge plant was built to easily receive iron ore from Upper Michigan and coal from Pennsylvania by ship. A huge basin in the Rouge allowed the freighters room to easily dock, unload and manoeuvre out. Henry Ford had purchased the site in 1915 as a new home for his revolutionary automated assembly line, perfected at his Highland Park facility. On May 26, 1927, the last Model T came off the line at Highland Park. In September of that year the new Model A began rolling out of the Rouge plant. Over the next 15 years, 15 million cars paraded out of the Rouge. DETNEWS.COM | History Photo Gallery

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Arrol-Johnson, Sir William Arrol was the Engineer (who I am told is Scotlands most famous) responsible for such works as the bridge

in Edinburgh, Sydney Harbour, Nile bridge in Egypt and London Bridge. The car company commenced in 1895 making "Dog Carts" a very basic type of car. Google Image Result for http://www.dumfries-and-galloway.co.uk/people/images/gall_cars.jpg
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Albion Car Company. The Albion name has appeared on vehicles from 1899 to 1975, (Taken over by Leyland motors in 1950).

A few private cars were made between 1900 and 1915 of either two or four cylinders. The first motor dogcarts, in June 1900, had tiller steering, gear-change by "Patent Combination Clutches", solid tyres and cost 400.British Motor Manufacturers 1894-1960, Albion

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Companies applying for licences to build a factory or extension during the First war were required to use as little wood or steel as

possible Reinforced concrete became the obvious choice as it used less steel framing and concrete was not in short supply. Joan S Skinner, Form and Fancy, Liverpool, 1997, page 28.
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Birmingham Small Arms. BSA dates back to the Crimean War (1854-1856). Fourteen Birmingham gunsmiths founded the

Birmingham Small Arms Trade Association to supply armaments to the British government. Their association was cemented in 1861 when they became the Birmingham Small Arms Company. A new factory was built at Small Heath in 1863, which was then on the edge of Birmingham. They diversified into making bicycles, motorcycles and motorcars. Following a turbulent period in the 1960s two BSA companies emerged, BSA Guns and BSA Regal (motorcycles). BSA Guns are still based at the Small Heath factory Google Image Result for http://www.birminghamstories.co.uk/db/media/lrg/BSA_factory.jpg

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Fig 2.15 AEG Works 1909

Fig 2.16 Fagus Factory 1911

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2.4.

The Modern factory and thoughts from Europe.

We cannot leave this period without mentioning relevant events in Europe. The factories and warehouses of the eighteenth and nineteenth century were on the whole the work of practical men and engineers. Architects as such had not availed themselves of such mundane work 1. Their work had often been limited to adorning an engineered building. However, in the early part of the twentieth century, architects who were starting to react against the superficial historical revivals of this time were taking note of the potential of new materials, steel and concrete, and construction methods available in industrial building. The two came together with the partnership

between the German firm of AEG2 and the industrial designer/architect Peter Behrens.3 Industrialisation in Germany was barely thirty years old and the electrical industry spearheaded by AEG was particularly new and full of enthusiastic ideas. Herr P Jordan asked Behrens to design products for AEG, the packaging, the advertising and the buildings, in short a corporate image. The result, buil ding wise was The AEG turbine factory in Berlin (1909), (figure 2.15) often claimed as the first modern building4. It is of immense size, almost monumental proportions constructed of steel and concrete, its sides of glass slope inwards as they rise which gives it a heavy solid stance on the ground. A young assistant in Behrens office at the time was Walter Gropius 5. Other notable junior members at this time were Mies van der Rohe6 and Charles-Edouard Jeanneret later known as Le Corbusier7. They held positions in the Deutsche Werkbund8 who promoted the AEG turbine hall to iconic status and published it in their yearbook of 1913 along with Kahns daylight factories built in reinforced concrete. The publication argues for a new architecture that reflected the spirit of the age, that of mass production. Also involved with the Werkbund was Carl Benscheidt Sr., a client of Fagus, a shoe last company, in Alfeld an der Rhein. They had already had a reinforced daylight concrete factory built by the English agricultural engineer Ernest Ransome9 and had already started to design the main body of a new factory with the architect Eduard Werner10. They asked Gropius in the spring of 1911 to add modern exterior elevations to promote a progressive image. The result was that Gropius imbued a strong delineation to the facade, marked by an emphatic two-storey brick entrance with its apparently floating staircase (figure 2.16). Possibly the first use of glass in this way, Gropius emphasised the glazing and apparently structural innovation of the pier free corners seemingly throwing away all means of support.

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Therefore, in some cases, a tradition of expressionist architecture had been able to develop in Germany before the war by virtue of patronage by industrialists. It was able to grow in the interwar years through the work of the Bauhaus11 and le Corbusier and later was to influence a generation of architects in Germany, USA and eventually Britain.

Within the hierarchy of decorum, industrial structures, warehouses, mills or foundries rated low. I n effect they were the Third Estate of

the architectural world; not for them the finery of the parliament house or the regal residence. As Fairbairn recollected, in this pioneering phase: mill architecture was out of the question ... and the architecture of the country was confined to churches, public buildings and the mansions of the barons or lords of the soil. ), Edgar Jones , Industrial Architecture in Britain 1750-1939, London, 1985, page23.
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AEG (Allgemeine Elektricitts Gesellschaft) was established in Berlin in 1883 by Mr. Rathenau, who had obtained the Edison system

patent for producing incandescent lamps in Germany. The first AEG factory therefore produced lamps, which meant that it entered the same sector as Siemens and the American company General Electric. The development of electronics and market requests pushed AEG to develop in other sectors such as small, and subsequently big, motors. Circuit Breakers Electro technical Devices Relays Aeg Electro technology Electrical Devices
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Peter Behrens (b. Hamburg, Germany 1868; d. Berlin, Germany 1940) Peter Behrens was born in Hamburg in 1868. Originally trained

as a painter, Behrens eventually abandoned painting in favour of graphic and applied arts. In 1899, he was invited to the Artists' Colony at Darmstadt where he maintained a leadership position. Afterwards he worked as the Director of the Kunstgewerkeschule in Dusseldorf. Behrenss interim there stimulated a new geometric abstraction in his work. From 1907 to 1914, Behrens worked as an artistic adviser to the AEG in Berlin. While with AEG, he created the world's first corporate image. Most of his architectural designs for the AEG borrowed from industry in terms of both form and material. The Turbine Factory in Berlin-Moabit most successfully displays the industrial nature of most of his buildings. Behrens can be considered a key figure in the transition from Jugendstil to Industrial Classicism. He played a central role in the evolution of German Modernism. Behrens died in Berlin in 1940 .Peter Behrens - Great Buildings Online
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John Winter. Industrial Architecture, London, 1970, page69 Walter Gropius (b. Berlin, Germany 1883; d. Boston, Massachusetts 1969) Walter Gropius was born in Berlin in 1883. The son of an

architect, he studied at the Technical Universities in Munich and Berlin. He joined the office of Peter Behrens in 1910 and three years later established a practice with Adolph Meyer. For his early commissions he borrowed from the Industrial Classicism introduced by Behrens. After serving in the war, Gropius became involved with several groups of radical artists that sprang up in Berlin in the winter of 1918. In March 1919, he was elected chairman of the Working Council for Art and a month later was appointed Director of the Bauhaus. As war became eminent, Gropius left the Bauhaus and resumed private practice in Berlin. Eventually, he was forced to leave Germany for the United States, where he became a professor at Harvard University. From 1938 to 1941, he worked on a series of houses with Marcel Breuer and in 1945; he founded "The Architect's Collaborative", a design team that embodied his belief in the value of teamwork. Gropius created innovative designs that borrowed materials and methods of construction from modern technology. This advocacy of industrialized building carried with it a belief in teamwork and an acceptance of standardization and prefabrication. Using technology as a basis, he transformed building into a science of precise mathematical calculations. An important theorist and teacher, Gropius introduced a screen wall system that utilized a structural steel frame to support the floors and which allowed the external glass walls to continue without interruption. Gropius died in Boston, Massachusetts in 1969. Walter Gropius - Great Buildings Online
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Ludwig Mies van der Rohe (b. Aachen, Germany 1886; d. Chicago, Illinois 1969) Ludwig Mies Van der Rohe was born in Aachen,

Germany in 1886. He worked in the family stone-carving business before he joined the office of Bruno Paul in Berlin. He entered the studio of Peter Behrens in 1908 and remained until 1912. Under Behrens' influence, Mies developed a design approach based on advanced structural techniques and Prussian Classicism. He also developed sympathy for the aesthetic credos of both Russian Constructivism and

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the Dutch De Stijl group. He borrowed from the post and lintel construction of Karl Friedrich Schinkel for his designs in steel and glass. Mies worked with the magazine G that started in July 1923. He made major contributions to the architectural philosophies of the late 1920s and 1930s as artistic director of the Werkbund-sponsored Weissenhof project and as Director of the Bauhaus. Famous for his dictum 'Less is more', Mies attempted to create contemplative, neutral spaces through an architecture based on material honesty and structural integrity. Over the last twenty years of his life, Mies achieved his vision of a monumental 'skin and bone' architecture. His later works provide a fitting denouement to a life dedicated to the idea of a universal, simplified architecture Mies died in Chicago, Illinois in 1969. Ludwig Mies van der Rohe - Great Buildings Online
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Le Corbusier (b. La Chaux de Fonds, Switzerland; d. Cap Martin, France 1965) Charles-Edouard Jeanneret-Gris was born in La Chaux

de Fonds, Switzerland, 1887. Trained as an artist, he travelled extensively through Germany and the East. In Paris, he studied under Auguste Perret and absorbed the cultural and artistic life of the city. During this period, he developed a keen interest in the synthesis of the various arts. Jeanneret-Gris adopted the name Le Corbusier in the early 1920s. Le Corbusier's early work was related to nature, but as his ideas matured, he developed the Maison-Domino, a basic building prototype for mass production with freestanding pillars and rigid floors. In 1917 he settled in Paris where he issued his book Vers une architecture [Towards a New Architecture], based on his earlier articles in L'Esprit Nouveau. From 1922, Le Corbusier worked with his cousin Pierre Jeanneret. During this time, Le Corbusier's ideas began to take physical form, mainly as houses which he created as "a machine for living in" and which incorporated his trademark five points of architecture. During World War II, Le Corbusier produced little beyond some theories on his utopian ideals and on his modular building scale. In 1947, he started his Unite d'habitation. Although relieved with sculptural rooflines and highly coloured walls, these massive post-war dwelling blocks received justifiable criticism. Le Corbusier's post-war buildings rejected his earlier industrial forms and utilized vernacular materials, brute concrete and articulated structure. Near the end of his career, he worked on several projects in India, which utilized brutal materials and sculptural forms. In these buildings, he readopted the recessed structural column, the expressive staircase, and the flat undecorated plane of his celebrated five points of architecture. Le Corbusier did not fare well in international competition, but he produced town-planning schemes for many parts of the world, often as an adjunct to a lecture tour. In these schemes, the vehicular and pedestrian zones and the functional zones of the settlements were always emphasized. Le Corbusier - Great Buildings Online
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Deutsche Werkbund. German association of architects, designers and industrialists. It was active from 1907 to 1934 and then from

1950. It was founded in Munich, prompted by the artistic success of the third Deutsche Kunstgewerbeausstellung, held in Dresden in 1906, and by the then current, very acrimonious debate about the goals of applied art in Germany. Its founder members included Hermann Muthesius, Peter Behrens, Heinrich Tessenow, Fritz Schumacher and Theodor Fischer, who served as its first president.. Deutscher Werkbund
9

Ransomes agricultural engineers. Originally from Ipswich Suffolk often known for their lawn mowers.

OASI - The Ransomes connection

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Eduard Werner (1847-1923), was a colleague of Carl Benscheidt Sr., a client for Fagus whom Gropius knew from an earlier

renovation of the Behrenss factory. Fagus Factory 11

BAUHAUS 1919-1933 || The Bauhaus occupies a place of its own in the history of 20th century culture, architecture, design, art and

new media. One of the first colleges of design, it brought together a number of the most outstanding contemporary architects and artists and was not only an innovative training centre but also a place of production and a focus of international debate. At a time when industrial society was in the grip of a crisis, the Bauhaus stood almost alone in asking how the modernization process could be mastered by means of design. || Founded in Weimar in 1919, the Bauhaus rallied masters and students who sought to reverse the split between art and production by returning to the crafts as the foundation of all artistic activity and developing exemplary designs for objects and spaces that were to form part of a more humane future society. bauhaus Dessau

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Fig 2.17 GEC Witton 1918-22

Fig 2.18 Orly Airship Hangar 1921

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2.5.

Britain in the interwar years; reluctance to roadside showmanship.

The First World War had provided a hiatus for some in the field of architecture; others had seized the opportunity to express the use of new materials and economic design. Industrial buildings were designed through necessity and economy, the availability of reinforced concrete had provided a means for this. The Kahn designed daylight factory may have proved an efficient, opportune and economic means of building in this period. Some may have appreciated the new Concrete Aesthetic brought in by these massive unadorned and concrete frames, but in Britain it was felt perhaps to be too austere for our tastes and would benefit from a little adornment. This may be the reason that Truscon sought out Wallis Gilbert and Partners 1 to collaborate with in this country. Thomas Wallis had spotted the need for efficient factory design during the war and beyond. Collaboration with Truscon would provide the leads needed. By the end of 1916, Wallis had designed three factories with Truscon, only one being built 2 but all were used for advertising purposes. In the post war years, manufacturers and builders realised the benefits and economies of these standard systems such as the daylight factory could be reconciled with the freedom of choice that volume production of a standard unit that could be customised to suit individual customers needs gave them. Wallis realised this too and devised a system of compositional features and decorative elements to soften the Truscon system for the British customer. An example of this includes the General Electric Company 3, (G.E.C), Witton works near Birmingham (1918-22), (figure 2.17). This building had a basic Truscon superstructure with muted Wallis style added Egyptian style4 adornment to the facade. Although expressionism had its foothold in mainland Europe, it was not necessarily enjoyed here by the British, who at this time had a reserved opinion of the new ideas from Europe5. There was a debate between the traditionalist and the modernist camps. The former felt that the new era was best represented in Britain by an updating of traditional forms, perhaps of classical origin, without being imitative or revivalist. It was strongly supported by the continuation of British Values and could be described as nationalistic 6. The modernists advanced an argument for uniformity, a style of architecture that could be adapted to any building type, be socially unifying, and be more representative of the new age , the technological age. It seemed likely that British architects would take a middle line using elements of both movements. While concrete, glass and steel were arguably celebrated in Europe and the USA for example with Eugene Freysinnets7 Orly airport hangar 8(1921), (figure 2.18) where he demonstrated with the catenary arch9 the 23

Fig 2.19 Van Nelle 1928-30

Fig 2.20 Fromm Rubber 1930

Fig 2.20 Empire Exhibition 1924

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impressive dimensions that reinforced concrete could achieve in the hands of war-experienced engineers and with the concrete shell work of the Mexican based architect Felix Candela. 10 With the new construction techniques that followed on from Gropius in Europe which allowed glass to be used to full effect in the example of the Van Nelle Factory in Rotterdam (1928-30)
11

(figure 2.19) and with the expression of exposed

steel frame that was celebrated in the Fromm Rubber factory, Berlin (1930)12 (Figure 2.20). Although , perhaps , through the necessity of war requirements the British had embraced to some degree the concrete idea, its buildings could still effect a heavy overly substantial appearance. This was partly due to the delay in changing building regulations post 1918, and partly to the assumed contemporary notions that industrial buildings had to be solid and large areas of glass or slender concrete members could appear flimsy. It took another early employee of Truscon, Sir E Owen Williams 13to bring forward the ideas of expressionism and extended possibilities of the use of concrete to Britain. After Truscon, he set up his own company Williams Concrete Structures ltd to market his own patent Fabricrete14. He used his wartime experience to success when he was appointed chief engineer of the British Empire Exhibition of 1924 15, (figure 2.21) and gaining a knighthood for his efforts in building large-scale quickly constructed buildings. The now demolished Wembley football stadium16 being a notable example. However, it was an American company, namely Jesse Boots 17, who commissioned him to build possibly his most noted factory, the Boots Wets18 building (1932) (figure 2.22) in Beeston, near Nottingham. It was a green field site and he was working to a precise brief with production flow lines and required accommodation for precise operations and the links between these operations. The result was a highly glazed building set around two immense atria within which the production processes revolved. It was an immense four-storey slab structure building , set upon mushroom columns set back to allow the outer glass and steel curtain walling to sit uninterrupted, the production floor being lit from an vast span of bulls eye glazing panels (figure 2.23). As yet, nothing had been seen like it in Britain and it could only be compared with the Van Nelle Factory in Rotterdam (1928-30). Both buildings, it should be noted, display no form of outward decoration. Possibly the only other U.K building of this genre was the factory built for the Viyella company (1932) 19, coincidentally also in Nottingham (figure 2.24). The use of flat slab and mushroom column construction allowed here the use of a curtain of glass on all four sides, therefore allowing maximum penetration of natural light. This building does display a small amount of decoration with a stylised artificial stone entrance surround.

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Fig 2.21 Boots Wets factory 1932

Fig 2.22 Boots Wets interior 1932

Fig 2.23 Viyella Nottingham 1932

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Running concurrently with the developments above, there was a move to use the factory as a commercial asset. Manufacturers in the 1920s and 1930s were operating in a fiercely competitive market trying to attract an increasing domestic demand. Many factories were located near and were visible to potential customers, either near the railways or adjacent to the increasing trunk road network. A new industry, advertising was coming of age and it was now time to put this and the factory together by using the building itself as a potentially promotional device. Before this period, styling had been largely for fun or as a dressing. Advertising was limited to putting the companys name on the chimney or tower, usually in white brick, as there was a limited audience for the advertising. The period between the wars saw a change in attitude as companies, at first mainly subsidiaries of American ones, with nationally known brands, sought prominent sites on the new roads around London. Good examples are Firestone tyres (1928)20 ( figure 2.25) on the Great West road, Hoover in Perivale (1931-35)21 (figure 2.26) both by Wallis Gilbert and partners, Smiths potato Crisps in Cricklewood 22, and Currys (then a cycle and radio manufacturer) also on the Great West road. Here again, although these buildings displayed highly decorated frontages to attract public attention, stuccoed in white Snowcrete 23 cement and with brightly coloured faience, the plant behind usually consisting of a stark simple Kahn type building. In Fact the most striking part of these buildings was their use of colour, green window framing and red faience24 with Hoover, and coloured tiles on the Pseudo-Egyptian style tiles at Firestone, all emphasised by spotlighting at night. Walliss buildings, now often described as Art Deco25, or at the time often described as Fancy, took a lot of professional criticism by his professional peers but were liked by the public who admired their colourful facades designed to look more like a contemporary cinema rather than a dull factory. Later buildings in the same London area such as the Gillette building, Isleworth (1936)26 (figure 2.27), and the Guinness Brewery (1933-36)27, (figure 2.28) took on a more muted form with plain English brick and pared down classical ornamental elements. To conclude this section it is worth noting that although British factory architecture in the interwar period did not immediately embrace expressionism, there became a widespread use of reinforced concrete and steel construction, if only encouraged by firms and ideas from abroad. The blend of newer technologies and dressing up by British architects to adapt designs for their market produced a muted effect, although such examples as

27

Fig 2.24 Firestone Factory 1928

Fig 2.25 Hoover Works 1931-35

Fig 2.26 Gillette Factory 1936

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the Boots and Viyella factories pointed the way forward. Greater thought was given to the arrangement of plant to aid production, to increase the social welfare and well-being of the workforce. The emergence of newer industries surrounding the automobile28, electrical29 and chemical30 industries meant a shift from the now declining textile base of the north to the newly created estates 31 in the midlands and south, especially around London. This gave firms such as Wallis and Gilbert the chance to create their innovative designs. We can also witness the move from the pure use of engineers as factory designers to the emergence of the architect engineer and the architect alone.

Fig 2.27 Guinness Brewery 1933-36

Fig 2.28 Guinness Brewery 1933-36

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Wallis, Gilbert & Partners. The practice had been founded by Thomas Wallis (1872-I953), who in 1914 was approached by

Kahncrete, the American engineering company that specialized in reinforced-concrete structures for industry and had developed its interests in the UK through a subsidiary, the Trussed Concrete Steel company (Truscon). Wallis was to have worked with Kahncrete in partnership with an American architect, Gilbert, and set up a firm styled Wallis, Gilbert & Partners the latter being Frank Cox and, later, Wallis son, Douglas. The name was retained despite the fact that Gilbert never came to Britain to join the practice. Edgar Jones, Industrial Architecture In Britain !750-1939, p. 213
2

J. Taylor and son ltd. New Southgate, London. Joan Skinner Form and Fancy, Liverpool, 1997, page 15. G.E.C Company. In 1876, Ohio born Thomas Alva Edison opened a new laboratory in Menlo Park New Jersey, USA. Out of the

laboratory came the invention a practical incandescent electric lamp. By 1890, Edison had organized his various businesses into the Edison General Electric light Company or GEC. The company established a very large engineering works in Witton, Birmingham, in 1891.The General Electric Company acquired land at Witton in 1899, and in 1901 began building its large factory together with houses for its workers. At one time, the company was employing 18,000 people on the site. . Witton, West Midlands -

Egyptian style: It was the discovery of the tomb of Tutankhamen in 1922 which gave a tremendous stimulus to the interest in

Egyptian styling. Tutankhamens treasure was of such superb design and quality that its contents became models for future Egy ptian designing. The finding and opening of the tomb and the removal of the treasure was of great public interest. The style of Art Deco, much influenced by elements of Egyptian designs, came on to the scene in 1925. The Hoover building in London of 1931-32 is the most impressive example of an Art Deco factory with an Egyptian centrepiece, which is still standing. A surviving cinema is the Carleton at Islington, now a bingo hall, which had a multi-coloured Egyptian design on a white faience background. There were quite a few other Egyptianised cinemas from this period whose features included torcheres resembling slender palm shafts, an organ decorated with a Pharaohs head and a ladies rest room decorated with an Egyptian maiden bathing in a lotus pond Design Influence 1

Joan Skinner Form and Fancy, Liverpool, 1997, p. 41 Examples of traditional buildings Edgar Jones, Industrial Architecture in Britain 1750-1939, London, 1985, page 212. Eugene Freyssinet (b. Correze, France 1879; d. Saint-Martin-Vesubie, France 1962). Eugene Freyssinet was born in Corneze, France in

1879. He studied at the Ecole Polytechnique in Paris and the Ecole Nationale des Ponts et Chaussees in Paris before he was apprenticed to the engineer Rabut. He served as an engineer in the French Army from 1904 to 1907 and again from 1914 to 1918. Between his two stints in the army he worked as a road engineer for local authorities in Central France. From 1918 until 1928 he worked as Director for the Societe des Enterprises Limousin in Paris after which he established his own practice. Freyssinet created innovative architecture using reinforced concrete as his main material. More an engineer than an architect, Freyssinet still managed to introduce several collaborative architectural works. His projects generally revolved around an experimental search for a common language. His designs allowed for a free expression of materials and spaces while working within the limits of technology. Considered the "father of pre-stressed concrete", Freyssinet died in Saint-Martin-Vesubie, France in 1962. Eugene Freyssinet - Great Buildings Online
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Airship Hanger, at Orly (near Paris), France, 1916 (destroyed during WWII) Eugene Freyssinet - Great Buildings Online

Catenary Arch. In physics the catenary is the shape of a hanging flexible chain or cable when supported at its ends and acted upon by a

uniform gravitational force (its own weight). The chain is steepest near the points of suspension because this part of the chain has the most weight pulling down on it. Toward the bottom, the slope of the chain decreases because the chain is supporting less weight. Catenary -

10

Felix Candela (b. Madrid, Spain 1910) Felix Candela was born in Madrid in 1910. He entered Madrid's Escuela Superior de

Arquitrectura in 1927 and graduated in 1935. Sidetracked by his political struggle against Franco, he did not practice architecture until he immigrated to Mexico in 1939. Candella believed that strength should come from form not mass. This belief led to an extensive

30

exploration of tensile shell structures. His nickname became "The Shell Builder" because of this structural favouritism. Frequently forced to act as architect, structural engineer and contractor in order to further his work, Candella sees architects as engineers who possess the ability to design both great cathedrals and low cost housing. Felix Candela - Great Buildings Online
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The Van Nelle Factory and Brinkman and Van der Vlugt. The Van Nelle tobacco and cocoa factory was built in Rotterdam

between 1928 and 1930 by the Dutch architects, Brinkman and Van der Vlugt, and their assistant, Mart Stam. The main block can be seen as the culmination of the multi-storey framed factory, which had steadily developed without fundamental change since the Derby Silk Mill. The owners statement that no kind of decoration is used anywhere, as it is held to have an adverse effect upon the workers shows the mood of the time, and how owner and architect shared a common viewpoint. Architecturally magnificent, it followed only three years after the Bauhaus building and carried through a complex programme with originality and total architectural consistency. John Winter. Industrial Architecture, London, 1970, page73.

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Fromm Rubber and Arthur Korn. The Fagus factory was built largely of brick, Fiat and Van Nelle of reinforced concrete, and in

terms of the development of light machine-made structures, these buildings were a retrogressive step from the Sheerness Boathouse. The development of the metal frame was taken up enthusiastic ally by Arthur Korn who, with S. Weitzmann, de a factory in 1930 which was a celebration of the steel frame and went far beyond the Boathouse. The three-storey-high part of this Berlin rubber factory was supported on a steel frame, clearly expressed and painted bright red: infill was of white glazed brick and steel windows imported from England. The rectangular bays of the clearly expressed frame give the building its character, and this imagery was developed by Mies van der Rohe in Chicago a decade later. John Winter. Industrial Architecture, London, 1970, page73

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Sir Owen Williams (b. London, England 1890; d. London 1969) Evan Owen Williams was born in London in 1890. He studied

engineering at London University, after which he was articled to the Electrical Tramways Co. in London. In 1912, Williams assumed a position as engineer and designer with the Trussed Concrete Company. Seven years later, he started a consulting firm. Appointed chief consulting civil engineer to the British Empire Exhibition in 1923, he received a knighthood for his services. Williams designed his buildings as functional structures sheathed with decorative facades. More an engineer than an architect, Williams produced a series of reinforced concrete buildings during the period between the wars. After World War II, he worked on developing the first plan for Britain's motorway system. Williams died in London in 1969. Sir Owen Williams - Great Buildings Online
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Fabricrete. Various projects using 'Fabricrete' including .T. Wallis & Sons factory and power station, Acton, London. Henry Boston &

Sons tannery, Runcorn, Cheshire. Patent Fuel Factory, Port Talbot, West Glamorgan. British Window Glass Works, Queensborough, Cheshire. Blackstones Tractor Factory, Stamford, London. Ice factory, Grimsby, Humberside. Mappin & Webb factory, Sheffield. Fuel stages, Swansea. Fairie & Company Sugar Refinery, Liverpool. Bush House foundations, Aldwych, London. Engineering Timelines - biography - Owen Williams - selected works

15

The British Empire Exhibition opened on 23rd April 1924 and was intended to be a reassuring display of the strength of the Empire

after WW1. Pavilions were built for each colony and Great Britain was represented by three major buildings plus Wembley (formerly Empire) Stadium. The exhibition covered a 216 acre site. The three major buildings were the palaces of Industry, Engineering and Arts. All were intended to be temporary. However, the Palace of Engineering wasn't demolished until the 1970s. The facade of the Palace of Art and the whole of the Palace of Industry still stand. The original stadium, with its distinctive towers, was demolished in 2002. Reinforced concrete seems to have been chosen as the main construction material for four reasons: cost, speed of construction, appropriateness for temporary buildings (though this seems odd today) and to show the advanced state of British concrete technology. At the time of opening, the Palace of Engineering was the world's largest reinforced concrete structure, enclosing half a million sq ft. The ten-acre Palace of Industry is slightly smaller. It consists of a series of halls with glazed pitched roofs. The columns and knees of the portal frames are cast in situ, with precast open web rafters. For the larger spans, the columns support steel lattice girders. The facades of the building are by Maxwell Ayrton, the architect of the whole exhibition complex. Other items of interest include part of the reinforced concrete elevated track for the screw-driven 'Neverstop' railway that took visitors around the site, which can be seen adjacent to

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Wembley Park Station -- itself another element of the exhibitions' construction programme. In 1933, the site owners commissioned Owen Williams to design the Empire Pool, one of the largest in the world at 200ft by 60ft. It was built on the site of the exhibition's artificial lake. The building that housed it also enclosed 4,000 spectators. William's concrete frames spanned 236ft clear and were exposed on the outside of the building. This building is now known as Wembley Arena. Owen Williams was knighted for his work on this site. He was 34 years old at the time. Engineering Timelines - explore ... where
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17

Jesse Boots firm was owned by the United Drugs company. Wets, applies to the type of pharmaceutical product involved, i.e. liquid forms rather than solids e.g. tablets and powders. Viyella is now part of the Coats Viyella /Tootal group. Coat Viyella is the largest textile company in the UK. It consists of two divisions,

18

19

Coats is the world's leading manufacturer of sewing thread with annual turnover of GBP 1 billion. Its multinational network is made up of manufacturing units in 60 countries. Coats Viyella/Tootal
20

Firestone Tyre & Rubber Co. built in Brentford established a formula that was to be exploited successfully elsewhere on the Great

West Road, and for Hoover on Western Avenue. Long office blocks, punctuated by massive pseudo-Egyptian columns, adorned with coloured tiles and entered through splendid doorways, fronted the factory sheds behind. The Firestone example was all the more remarkable when it is considered that the works had been designed in twenty-one days and a mere eighteen weeks had elapsed between the start of construction and the manufacture of the first lyre. The two-storey administration building and the four-storey warehouse were of reinforced concrete (the general contractors being Sir Robert McAlpine & Sons and the reinforced steel supplied by the Trussed Concrete Steel Co., while the single-storey factory situated between them was steel framed. The layout, arranged to accommodate the flow of mass-production pro cesses, the growing emphasis on the workforces welfare and the buildings dramatic appearance led The Architect to comment that: both in design and planning, British factories are noticeably improving. In design the improvement is due to the increasing realization that nothing made for human use is unworthy of the attention of the designer; and in planning to the pressure of competition necessitating efficiency both in lay-out and in detail. Edgar Jones, Industrial Architecture in Britain! 750-1939, p. 213.

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The Hoover Factory, opened in 1932, advanced the Firestone composition further by the addition of two futuristic staircase towers.

TI Egyptian columns, false pediment and ornate entrance were all present but more vigorously interpreted. In 1935 , to raise the plants manufacturing capacity, a four-storey extension was added by the architects. This steel-framed building (rendered in white cement) was designed to provide clear floor space for machinery, any necessary planning being carried out by means of movable glazed steel partitioning. The canteen, erected in 1938, featured generous areas o externally hung glass, some of the windows curving aro und to form the striking entrance. Edgar Jones, Industrial Architecture in Britain, 1750-1939, p. 214.

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Smiths Crisps Company. The first person to manufacture crisps in the UK was a gentleman called Frank Smith of Smith's crisps in

the 1920's. Frank Smith opened his first factory in Cricklewood, London. Potato Crisps Potato Crisps (Interesting Facts about Potato Crisps)

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Snowcrete. This is the trade name for an Ordinary Portland Cement where the raw materials are selected for good colour, and the

clinker is ground with ceramic balls, not iron as for OPC. It can be tinted with pigments; so, should you want strawberry pink concrete this is possible. Cement, mortar and concrete FAQ

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Faience: earthenware decorated with coloured opaque metallic glazes. MSN Encarta - Search Results faience Art deco: Style of architecture, interior design, and jewellery most popular in the 1930s that used geometrical designs bold colours and

25

outlines.

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26

The Gillette Building :(Architect Bannister Fletcher) on the Great West Road is described in The Buildings of England as of a 'very

incongruous, timidly modernistic grandeur"; In 1936 Gillette Isleworth building was constructed and officially opened on the 6th January 1937 by Sir George Broardbridge, then, The Lord Mayor of London .Sir Banister Fletcher's A History of Architecture

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The Guinness Brewery (Architect Sir Giles Gilbert Scott) at Park Royal was constructed on a landscaped open site in 1933-36 by

the consulting engineers Sir Alexander Gibb & Partners, who brought in Sir Giles Gilbert Scott as architect. Scott, fresh from his acclaimed triumph at Battersea Power Station, designed and detailed the brick exteriors of the reinforced-concrete brewery blocks. The result was a powerful monumental group, vast and yet approachable and friendly. The Twentieth Century Society
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Automotive industries: Ford Motor Company, Dagenham, Essex, 1930. Firestone Tyre Company, q.v note 63 above. Edgar Jones,

Industrial Architecture in Britain, 1750-1939, p. 209.

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Electrical industries: Hoover q.v note 62 above, Belling lee company, Radio and electrical components, Great West Cambridge road,

Enfield , 1932.Local History Industry in Enfield A History - Enfield Council Website

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Chemical industries: Pyrene company, London 1930, Joan Skinner Form and Fancy, Liverpool, 1997, pp 134-137 Examples include Slough industrial estate 1920 and Team valley estate 1937.

31

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Fig 2.29 Willow Run Plant 1940

Fig 2.30 Sigmund Pump Factory 1948

Fig 2.31 Brynmawr Rubber Factory 1951

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2.6.

Clouds of war to regeneration.

The autumn of 1939 witnessed the outbreak of the Second World War. As in the previous war, this affected the way industrial buildings were designed. At first buildings were rushed up everywhere to meet the demand of armaments and equipment supply. In the USA, some factories were built of great size such as the steel mills at Fontana, California to make steel for Liberty ships or the ford bomber plant at Willow run 1, in 1940 (figure 2.29). The U.S Navy commissioned Ernest Kump to build the monumental Ordnance and Optical shop in the San Francisco Naval base. Its slender steel frame allowed maximum use of glazing which flooded light in to the interior to aid the delicate operations within. Many especially in the U.K factories were converted to differing uses, from cars to ambulances 2, from textiles to mortar bombs3, their pre-war flexible designs allowing this change of operations. In The UK, demand for essential materials in the war effort encouraged the use of quickly constructed buildings, using lightweight steel structural elements, asbestos-cement cladding and with north light roofing, often blacked out or painted in camouflage. These corrugated asbestos-clad factories set the scene of many industrial estates for decades beyond. In the USA by mid 1942, stocks of traditional materials had been exhausted by military demands. Economics and necessity meant that lightweight pre-stressed reinforced concrete and the new use of laminated timber for columns and roof structures came in to their own although at first nervously received by the builders. Newly developed resin glues and synthetic materials joined these materials in the goal of finding alternatives to traditional materials. In the USA, also, the blackout gave a boost to the windowless factory for a while as electrical lighting and improved ventilation alleviated problems potentially created in this environment. In some of the wartime buildings quality was not a high priority, but post war standards began to rise and optimism encouraged some new design built factories. One notable example in the U.K is the Sigmund Pump Factory on the Team Valley estate, Gateshead (1948) (figure 2.30). The architects Yorke, Rosenberg and Mardell set out a horizontal emphasised building with a generously glazed office and works block, complete with Kahn style monitor4glazing in the roof. Another notable building being the ill-fated5 Brynmawr Rubber Factory (1951), South Wales, (figure 2.31). This was the brainchild of Lord Verulam, who wished to inject life into a depressed area by creating a building embodying the highest ideals and optimism. He employed a group of recently demobbed architects, Architects Cooperative Partnership, and Ove Arup 6 as engineer to create a

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Fig 2.32 Corbusier Usine 1945

Fig 2.33 Corbusier Usine 1945

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building roofed with nine thin shell reinforced concrete domes, leaving the main floor space completely uncluttered and illuminated by its elegant top light glazing set within the parabolic vaults.

In The USA post war surplus of capacity meant that some armaments factories were converted for the production of pre fabricated industrial buildings and housing, feeding on the now over supply of aluminium and steel. The firm Skidmore, Owings and Merrill (SOM), used their expertise in improved quality lightweight steel sections to produce a prefabricated sophisticated exposed grid steel frame shed, which they started to export to Europe. In mainland Europe, regenerating after the war, notable events include such projects as possibly Le Corbusiers only foray into factory design. During 1945 in the war battered town of St. Die in the Vosges region of France, he rebuilt a mill for Jacques Duval. Corbusier stated Architecture is the correct magnificent play of forms under the light and he employed this dictum in the functional problems of a concrete framed five storey mill by the use of Brise-soliel7 , painted ceilings, a roof garden and some of the main production space put workers on a gallery.

1
2

Cars to ambulances, The firm of Charles H. Roe Ltd, at Cross Gates Carriage works in Austhorpe Road, converted the chassis of

hundreds of private cars to ambulances and mobile canteens; private individuals in the city and abroad donating many of the cars to the war effort.
3

Textiles to Mortar barrels. A company that adapted its production lines for the war effort was Fairbairn, Lawson, Combe, Barbour

Ltd. Leeds. Originally, a manufacturer of textile machinery, during the Second World War their predominantly female workforce made mortar barrels and other munitions at the Wellington Street Plant. VE Day 60 Years: Leeds - A Manufacturing City During Wartime Leeds City Guide local history
4

Monitor Lighting Box style roof window light to give diffused illumination to floors below. Brynmawr Rubber factory demolished 2001. Designed between 1946 and 1951 by the Architects' Co-Partnership and the engineer

Ove Arup, the building was the vision of Lord James Forrester who propagated an idealistic concept, seeking to make a building of both social and architectural significance. The programme involved the regeneration of Brynmawr socially, economically and physically. Measures were taken to ensure the provision of a pleasant yet functional working environment for the local workforce who had suffered terribly following the collapse of the South Wales coal industry in the 1920s and 30s. Described as a 'masterpiece of the modern age' the design's extraordinary structural solution incorporated innovative shell concrete construction first developed in Germany. The completed project featured in European and American journals and was visited by two of the greatest architects of the twentieth century: Le Corbusier was taken to see the project during a short stay in Britain and Frank Lloyd Wright made a special visit when he arrived in Wales on a tour of his ancestral homeland. Difficulties in securing a sufficient number of production contracts plagued the factory from an early stage and, by January 1982, it was forced to cease production permanently. In May 1986, despite its closure, the scheme became the first post-war building to be listed. Unfortunately the Grade II* listing did not save it and, after a lengthy conservation battle, the factory was demolished in 2001. The design of the Rubber Factory was highly imaginative and its social gestures well-judged but, in the end, the building proved too large and too ill-planned, economically speaking, to adapt to the changing needs of its locality. Century Society The Twentieth

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Ove Arup/Arup Associates :( Established 1963) Sir Ove Arup was born in Newcastle upon Tyne in 1895. Generally considered the

foremost engineer of his era, he created the firm Arup and Partners in 1946 as a team of structural consultants. The complex level of design considerations that the partnership encountered led to the creation of Arup Associates in 1963. Arup Associates originally developed as a partnership between engineer Ove Arup and architect Philip Downson. It existed as a multi-disciplinary office that provided architectural, surveying, and engineering services. The firm's overall success was mainly due to Ove Arup, who believed in practical architecture, in which design fulfils social and public needs. With Arup Associates and, later, with such research and design groups as the Modern Architecture Research Group (MARS) and the Tecton Group, Arup successfully broke the narrow confines of architecture as a single profession by creating a core organization of several specialties. Arup died in London in 1988.Arup Associates - Great Buildings Online
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Brise soleil. A system of passive solar shading to reduce solar heat gains to buildings whilst maintaining levels of diffused light Brise

Soleil

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Fig 2.34 Eiermann Mill Blumberg 1952

Fig 2.35 Dynamometer Building GMC 1952

Fig 2.36 H J Heinz Factory 1952

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2.7.

The Cool box, the functional tradition and the arrival of High tech.

In 1951, Francis Wylie in his published talk entitled Industrial buildings stated, factory building is no longer the Cinderella of the drawing office, it has become industrial architecture. In 1952 two such designed buildings were widely publicised, the handkerchief mill in Blumberg Germany, by Egon Eiermann1, (figure 2.32) and the Dynamometer building at the General Motors research building in Detroit by Eero Saarinen 2 (figure 2.33). Both displayed an exposed black painted steel frame with high levels of glazing, their streamlined aesthetic derived from the work of Mies van der Rohe3. In the USA, the firm of Skidmore, Owings and Merrill took up this new cool box style and demonstrated it with several buildings4 in the 1950s including a building for H. J .Heinz 5 &Co Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania (figure 2.34) where they used the exposed black steel frame glazed with blue glass framed in aluminium. This style arrived in Britain with the Processing building for Cooper Taber at Witham, Essex (1955) 6(figure 2.35). This building too had an exposed steel frame painted black, slender in appearance, with all other space apart from the services on the roof taken up with glass. This exposed, and possibly celebrated the machinery seen within. Was this the natural descendant of the Sheerness boathouse with its early-unrecognised exposure of the structural frame? This generation of factory buildings and later ones benefited from the cross pollination of technologies from other industries. They could achieve this high level of glazing using new sealants derived from the car industry, and for the frames , the use of corrosion resistant Cor Ten 7 steel developed for railway freight wagons and heavy plant machinery. Further developments in reflective glazing and pre-cast concrete elements proved useful for 1960s buildings, and the advances in aluminium cladding profiled steel sections and plastic sealants encouraged these boxes to become even lighter. In 1958, James Richards published The Functional tradition8. In it, he expressed the fact that the prototype buildings of the nineteenth century had also prepared modern taste for their successors. He celebrated the efforts of the pioneer efforts of the engineers and the more ortho dox builders of that time who served the needs of the trades and businesses. Now seeking consolidation after innovation, he felt that the latest generation of architects might aim at such a vernacular by perhaps emphasising the functional precedents. This intended new vernacular turned out to be mainly imported, mostly from the USA. The Architects journal described them as prestige pancakes. These elegant sleek buildings, usually based on the Saarinen 40

Fig 2.37 Cooper Taber 1955

Fig 2.38 Cummins Diesels 1966

Fig 2.39 Reliance Electronics 1968

41

ideal were set in green field sites, usually landscaped, as in his original General Motors model. Often the companies were American as in the Cummins Diesel engine Company 9 who commissioned one of these sleek boxes in Darlington, Co. Durham (1966), (figure 2.36). Architects Kevin Roche and John Dinkledoo, inheritors of the Saarinen practice used a blend of Cor-ten steel and neoprene10 gaskets (the first time in the world) to create this sleek single storey highly glazed pancake. It sat amongst landscaped grounds, and internally physical demarcations were dissolved between factory floor and offices, a pioneering change for British industry. The factory had gone full circle, from country mill, to town and city factory and back to countryside again. Contemporary with Cummins, building features such as masts, cables, bracing and exposed air-conditioning plant, often painted in bright colours became apparent. This style was to become known as High tech. Some architect-designed industrial buildings lent themselves to architectural engineering, i.e. structural elements being used more for effect rather than reality. The Reliance Controls building Swindon (1965) 11 was such a factory (figure 2.37). Designed by Norman Fosters Team 412 architect practice, it was a cheap and flexible shed for an American electronics company. It was noted by its exposed crisp cross bracing between the bays of the external steel frame, which sat in front of corrugated cladding or glazing panels. The architects admitted it was "just for visual effect only". The late 1960s in Britain also saw two other factories of note. The first one designed by Yorke, Rosenberg and Mardell partnership, (of Sigmund pumps, 1948), was the new factory for The Bath Cabinetmakers Company
13

(1968) (figure 2.38) in the south west of England. Here they exploited a lightweight tubular steel space

frame14 to support the roof, enabling long spans and free floor space without heavy steel members. The other building, also in Bath was a new factory for Rotark controls (1968) 15 (figure 2.39). Here again use of the space frame enabled uncluttered floor space, but it was taken a step further by being carried through at roof level to give form to the exterior. The inclusion of glazing around the edge gave subtle lighting to the interior (figure 2.40) .The other point of note is that the entire roof frame was at first assembled on the floor and then lifted up into position. In the 1980s, factories that took the notion of exposed structural members, both for visual and practical effect to further heights include. Firstly, Richard Rogers Fleetguard manufacturing centre at Quimper, Brittany (197981) for the Cummins Diesel Company where external masts and bracing rods .painted in bright red, created a structure free interior and gave the image of the structure almost holding the build up in mid air (figure 2.41).

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Fig 2.40 Bath Cabinet Makers 1968

Fig 2.41 Rotark Controls 1968

Fig 2.42 Rotark Interior 1968

43

Fig 2.43 Fleetguard Centre 1979-81

Fig 2.44 Renault Swindon 1983

Fig 2.45 IBM Building 1977

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Also by Rogers, the Renault depot at Swindon (1983) (figure 2.42) displayed overt Meccano like external structural members painted in vivid yellow, its cabling and pierced metal web acting out the form of a tent. In the early 1970s and 1980s, clean lines and lightweight cladding materials became the usual face of industry. Earlier cool box examples expressing the face of corporate modernity were the IBM assembly plant (figure 2.43) and the Horizon (John Player) factory; both by Arup associates16 (figure 2.44). This model became the norm for many industrial estates and business parks. By now, the sophisticated shed was becoming a standardised item. The architects, Michael Hopkins and partners were commissioned to draw up a prototype small factory unit, named Paterae (figure 2.44), a steel framed box with standard glazing that potentially could be bought of the shelf straight from the assembly line like a car. The Automobile industry that had spawned the dawn of standard factories could now be housed in units that were created like their own product. Gillian Darley states in her book factory17, By the 1980s Design magazine considered that the innovatory period of the sixties and seventies is coming to an end. Today kits of parts buildings designed by one time young lions are, if not commonplace, certainly part of current conventional wisdom. The attraction of an easy building formula meant that as Darley states legions of disciples have adopted the same approach, not always with happy results. Was it on the one hand becoming an architectural clich or a popular modern vernacular? We should have to look to the ranks of industrial estates and business parks around the country to formulate our own opinion.

45

Fig 2.46 Horizon Cigarette Factory

Fig 2.47 Paterae System 1980

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' Egon Eiermann'' (born September 29th Neuendorf Germany, died July 20 1970) was one of Germany's most prominent architects in

the second half of the 20th century. Eiermann studied at the Technical University of Berlin. He worked for the Karlstad building department for a time, and before World War II had an office with fellow architect Fritz Jaenecke. He joined the faculty of the university in Karlsruhe in 1947, working there on developing steel frame construction methods. A functionalist, his major works include: the textile mill at Blumberg (1951); the West German pavilion at the Brussels World Exhibition (with Sep Ruf, 1958); the West German embassy in (1958-1964); a building for the German Parliament (Bundestag) in Bonn (1965-1969); the IBM-Germany Headquarters in Stuttgart (19671972); and, the Olivetti building in Frankfurt (1968-1972). By far his most famous work is the new church on the site of the Kaiser Wilhelm Memorial Church in Berlin (1959-1963).In depth - Egon Eiermann
2

Eero Saarinen (b. Kirkkonummi, Finland 1910; d. Ann Arbor, Michigan 1961) Eero Saarinen was born in Kirkkonummi, Finland in 1910.

He studied in Paris and at Yale University, after which he joined his father's practice. Eero initially pursued sculpture as his art of choice. After a year in art school, he decided to become an architect instead. Much of his work shows a relation to sculpture. Saarinen developed a remarkable range which depended on colour, form and materials. Saarinen showed a marked dependence on innovative structures and sculptural forms, but not at the cost of pragmatic considerations. He easily moved back and forth between the International Style and Expressionism, utilizing a vocabulary of curves and cantilevered forms. Eero Saarinen died in Ann Arbor, Michigan in 1961. Eero Saarinen Great Buildings Online

Ludwig Mies van der Rohe (b. Aachen, Germany 1886; d. Chicago, Illinois 1969) Ludwig Mies Van der Rohe was born in Aachen,

Germany in 1886. He worked in the family stone-carving business before he joined the office of Bruno Paul in Berlin. He entered the studio of Peter Behrens in 1908 and remained until 1912. Under Behrens' influence, Mies developed a design approach based on advanced structural techniques and Prussian Classicism. He also developed sympathy for the aesthetic credos of both Russian Constructivism and the Dutch De Stijl group. He borrowed from the post and lintel construction of Karl Friedrich Schinkel for his designs in steel and glass. Mies worked with the magazine G which started in July 1923. He made major contributions to the architectural philosophies of the late 1920s and 1930s as artistic director of the Werkbund-sponsored Weissenhof project and as Director of the Bauhaus. Famous for his dictum 'Less is More', Mies attempted to create contemplative, neutral spaces through an architecture based on material honesty and structural integrity. Over the last twenty years of his life, Mies achieved his vision of a monumental 'skin and bone' architecture. His later works provide a fitting denouement to a life dedicated to the idea of a universal, simplified architecture Mies died in Chicago, Illinois in 1969. Ludwig Mies van der Rohe - Great Buildings Online
4

Skidmore Owings and Merrill (SOM), (Established Chicago 1936) Louis Skidmore and Nathaniel Owings established an office in

Chicago in 1936 and opened a branch in New York in 1937. The practice became Skidmore, Owings, & Merrill (SOM) in 1939 when John Merrill joined the partnership. From the beginning, the firm stressed the importance of teamwork and individual responsibility among its employees. The firm's early years were spent creating a multi-disciplinary office, which could effectively handle corporate and commercial clients. In 1952, Gordon Bunshaft pushed SOM toward a new level of architectural recognition with his design for the Lever House. This curtain-walled office block built in the International Style, demonstrated SOM's capabilities and led to a series of similar developments. Due to the large scale of the buildings designed by SOM, structural innovation makes up a large part of the office's design efforts. Skidmore Owings & Merrill operates as a successful large practice, with offices in many cities, although none of its original principals remain with the firm. Skidmore Owings and Merrill (SOM) - Great Buildings Online
5

Henry John Heinz first opened Heinz in 1869, his first product was a horseradish packaged in a clear see though bottle. This was so

that his customers could see that their horseradish was of good quality and standard. It was popular at the time for producers to use a filler so they got the most of their own horseradish i.e. leaves, wood fibre and turnip filler. Work and History of Companies
6

Architects, Chamberlin, Powell and Bon. Cor-Ten Steel is a type of steel, which oxidizes naturally over time, giving it an orange-brown colour and a rough texture. It has a very

high tensile strength, and in spite of its rusted appearance, it is actually more resistant to damaging corrosion than standard forms of carbon steel. Definition of the facade material Cor-Ten steel

47

In 1958 J M Richards published The Functional Tradition in Early Industrial Buildings. It was fully illustrated with Eric de Mare's photographs

(often cropped to focus on the relevant detail). Richards began his foreword: "This is primarily a picture book, and is, therefore, more Eric de Mare's creation than mine". The 'functional tradition' was defined by Richards and de Mare as that style of design which, though dominated by functional considerations, is remarkable for the wide range and subtlety of its aesthetic effects. It runs through all periods of English architecture, but comes out most strongly in the industrial architecture of the late 18th and early 19th centuries . The purpose of Richards' book was to educate readers to appreciate a range of buildings the architectural merits of which had not at that date been recognised, and also to illustrate a tradition of functional design in English architecture. De Mare was himself keen to demonstrate that functional design was not invented in the 1930s, and had a long and honourable history in English architecture. Although the tradition can be traced back into the medieval period, the book deliberately focused on the early industrial revolution. image resource for England's history. Story Introduction
9

The incorporation of Cummins Engine Company on February 3, 1919, brought together uncommon resources. William Glanton

"W.G." Irwin a successful Columbus banker-investor who supported several local entrepreneurssupplied the starting capital. The new companys namesake, Clessie Lyle Cummins, was a self-taught mechanic-inventor. The Irwins hired him in 1908 to drive and maintain their car, and later set him up in business as an auto mechanic. During World War I, Clessie operated a machine shop that thrived on government contracts. By then, he was convinced that an engine technology invented by Rudolph Diesel in the 1890swhile still unproven commerciallyheld great promise for its fuel economy and durability. To enter the business, Cummins secured manufacturing rights from a Dutch diesel licensor named Hvid. http://www.cummins.com/eu/pages/en/whoweare/cumminshistory.cfm
10

Neoprene: A synthetic material resembling rubber that does not perish as quickly as rubber and is more resistant to oil, used in the

manufacture of equipment for which waterproofing is important. MSN Encarta : Online Encyclopaedia, Dictionary, Atlas, and Homework
11

Reliance controls demolished 1991 (replaced by PC world) Rogers associates first entirely prefabricated building was the Reliance

Controls Electronic Factory, Swindon, Wilts (1967), a simple rectangular building clad in steel decking with an elegantly detailed, crossbraced external steel structure. Richard Rogers: Biography and Much More from Answers.com
12

Norman Foster initially studied architecture at Manchester but it was winning a scholarship to Yale that provided the most decisive

influences. One of his teachers was Paul Rudolph, an architect who found expressive power within a modernist language long after most of America had turned to Post Modernism. Like many other young British architects in the early 1960s, he came under the spell of the Case Study houses in Los Angeles, profound images of a relaxed modern lifestyle, achieved on relatively low budgets with common industrial materials, designed by architects like Charles and Rae Eames. He overlapped with another young Briton, Richard Rogers, with whom he would later found Team 4 . Norman Foster RA - Architects - Royal Academicians - Royal Academy of Arts
13 14 15

Now owned by the Herman miller furniture group, Herman Miller - United States - Home Page Space frames: are simply trusses or other elements deployed three-dimensionally. MSN Encarta - Architecture Architects, Leonard Manasseh and partners, Arup Associates (Arup b. Newcastle upon Tyne 1895; d. 1988) (Established 1963) Sir Ove Arup was born in Newcastle upon Tyne in

16

1895. Generally considered the foremost engineer of his era, he created the firm Arup and Partners in 1946 as a team of structural consultants. The complex level of design considerations that the partnership encountered led to the creation of Arup Associates in 1963. Arup Associates originally developed as a partnership between engineer Ove Arup and architect Philip Downson. It existed as a multidisciplinary office that provided architectural, surveying, and engineering services. The firm's overall success was mainly due to Ove Arup, who believed in practical architecture, in which design fulfils social and public needs. With Arup Associates and, later, with such research and design groups as the Modern Architecture Research Group (MARS) and the Tecton Group, Arup successfully broke the narrow confines of architecture as a single profession by creating a core organization of several specialties. Arup died in London in 1988. Arup Associates - Great Buildings Online
17

Gillian Darley, Factory , London 2002, page 103

48

Fig 2.48 Vitra Building 1987

Fig 2.49 Igus Plastics 1992

Fig 2.50 Motorola Swindon 1998

49

2.8.

End of a century and the Millennium

Moving towards the 21st century, there have been a number of signature buildings with overt exterior architectural features following on from the Renault building. The Vitra 1 building by Frank Gehry2 9 Figure 2.48) started in 1987 as a factory but now a museum displays its disjointed elements as floating blocks, the Igus factory (1992)3,(figure 2.49) a slick shed with its demountable office pods and ventilation domes sitting under the two large yellow painted masts as the factory itself lies apparently suspended below. We should also note the Motorola factory, Swindon, (1998)4, (figure 2.50), with its cigar shaped roof covering an internal street where staff can socialise, infamous for its part in one of the James Bond movies, and also an extreme showpiece such as the Volkswagen transparent factory in Dresden (1999 -2000)5. Other recent factories have taken the route of blending into the surroundings. James Dysons6 now defunct Malmesbury vacuum cleaner plant (1998) (figure 2.51), takes a more self-effacing stance, with its undulating roofline rippling through the landscape and its glass walls reflecting the landscape. When David Mellor 7 built his cutlery factory near Sheffield, (figure 2.52) away from his trades traditional industrial setting, in an area of outstanding natural beauty, he used natural materials and trees to blend the conical shaped building in to its surroundings. Ercol8, the furniture firm use a similar woodland setting to hide their sliver of a building, and when Nicolas Grimshaw9 (ex Eden10 project) chose the site for the new BMW owned Rolls Royce 11 plant, (figure 2.53) he planted it in old gravel workings, set low, almost invisible with its living green roof from the surrounding Downs countryside. The recent Adnams Brewery12 distribution centre snuggles just on the outskirts of Southwold in Suffolk, again sporting a natural living roof Although we could look at the emerging new materials, resins, fibres, metals and plastics, some sandwiched together to insulate, seal, and increase strength, they are for now just adaptations of what has been, their worth is yet to be evaluated. The real innovations are now on the shop floor, with robotics emptying the workspace of people, and the deployment of modern ergonomics and special planning. Where humans are still part of the process, innovations are shown with the introduction of theory that workers are not there just to perform tasks as part of a well-oiled machine, but are part of a larger integrated social structure. Ideas such as group technology where teams of workers take control of processes to help control the boredom of the production line. 13 Flexibility is the new mantra and the ability of the workforce to adapt for change could be just as important as merely having a flexible building structure. 50

Fig 2.51 Dyson Malmesbury

Fig 2.52 Rolls Royce Goodwood

Fig 2.53 David Mellor Factory

51

Vitra Design company statement, Vitra designs the places where people work - be in the office, at home, or on the road. The goal: to

make the place of work as appealing, productive and healthy as possible. Our furniture is to be found in countless successful companies and organizations, as well as in the homes of many private individuals with a feel for design. Active internationally, we work together with the major designers of the day. For over 50 years now we have been manufacturing the furniture created by the famous US designers, Charles and Ray Eames.vitra.com | Vitra the company
2

Frank Gehry (b. Toronto, Ontario, Canada 1929) Frank Gehry was born in Toronto, Ontario, Canada in 1929. He studied at the

Universities of Southern California and Harvard, before he established his first practice, Frank O. Gehry and Associates in 1963. In 1979, this practice was succeeded by the firm Gehry & Krueger Inc. Over the years, Gehry has moved away from a conventional commercial practice to an artistically directed atelier. His deconstructed architectural style began to emerge in the late 1970s when Gehry, directed by a personal vision of architecture, created collage-like compositions out of found materials. Instead of creating buildings, Gehry creates adhoc pieces of functional sculpture. Gehry's architecture has undergone a marked evolution from the plywood and corrugated-metal vernacular of his early works to the distorted but pristine concrete of his later works. However, the works retain a deconstructed aesthetic that fits well with the increasingly disjointed culture to which they belong. In the large-scale public commissions he has received since he converted to a deconstructive aesthetic, Gehry has explored the classical architecture themes. In these works, he melds formal compositions with an exploded aesthetic. Most recently, Gehry has combined sensuous curving forms with complex deconstructive massing, achieving significant new results. Frank Gehry - Great Buildings Online
3

Igus, plastics technology company, Gnter Blase began Igus back in 1964 in a double garage in Cologne. For the first 20 years, the

company worked as a supplier of complex technical polymer components. Between 1985 and 2006, Igus has grown from 40 to more than 1,350 employees distributed between the head office in Germany and 26 subsidiary companies around the world. Igus also has representative partners in more than 21 other countries. Igus will continue to invest in expansion in the coming years, thanks to the opportunities for growth provided by modern materials. Igus
4

Architect Sheppard Robson,An award winning architectural, planning, urban design and interior design practice which was

established in 1938. With 250 people, including 14 partners, based in London and Manchester, Architect Search: Sheppard Robson: Practice Profile
5

Henn architects, Prof. Dr. Gunter Henn (TU Dresden & Henn architects) Gunter Henn was born in 1947 in Dresden, Germany.

He studied architecture and engineering in Munich, Berlin, and Zurich. He earned his doctorate at the Technical University, Munich. Since 1978, he has his own offices, Henn Architekten, in Munich and Berlin. He is currently a visiting professor at the MIT Sloan School of MIT's Sloan School of Management and Professor at the Technical University in Dresden. He has been responsible for many innovative building designs, including the BMW Research and Innovation Centre, the Automobile City in Wolfsburg for Volkswagen, as well as the Transparent Factory in Dresden, a novel auto-assembly plant for Skoda in the Czech Republic and the Faculty for Mechanical Engineering for the Technical University in Munich. Speakers
6

Sir James Dyson (born Cromer, Norfolk, England, 2 May 1947) is a British designer. He is best known as the inventor of the Dual Cyclone bag less vacuum cleaner, which works on the principle of cyclonic separation. His net worth is said to be just over 1 billion James Dyson -

David Mellor, David Mellor Cutlery is manufactured in a purpose -designed modern factory in the Peak National Park. The Round

Building, designed by Sir Michael Hopkins, has won numerous architectural awards. The David Mellor shop in Sloane Square, London, and the factory at Hathersage in Derbyshire, sells a professional collection of kitchenware and tableware. David Mellor Cutlery and Kitchenware
8

Ercol company heritage statement, In 1920 a young designer called Lucian Ercolani started his own business in High Wycombe, the

chair making capital of England. Here he perfected the technique of steam-bending wood in large quantities to form the famous Windsor Bow, and discovered how to 'tame' elm; a beautifully grained hardwood other furniture makers considered impossible to work with. Ercol - The Company

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Grimshaw, Nicholas, Thomas English architect. His work has developed al ong distinctly high tech lines, for example his Financial

Times printing works, London (1988), an uncompromisingly industrial building that exposes machinery to view through a glass outer wall. Later works include the Continental Train Platform at Waterloo Station, London (1993), the Ecological Centre Project (home of the Eden Project) at St Austell, Cornwall (2001), and Folly Bridge in Oxford (2002). Grimshaws British Pavilion for Expo 92 in Sevil le, created in similar vein to his Financial Times printing works, and addressed problems of climatic control, incorporating a huge wall of water in its facade and sail-like mechanisms on the roof. Grimshaw, Nicholas Thomas
10

The Eden Project is one of the UK's top Landmark Millennium projects created to tell the fascinating story of man's relationship with

plants. It is a non-profit making charitable scientific organisation for the 21st century with a commitment to communicate with the public through entertainment, education and involvement press release by Eden Project - About
11

Rolls Royce plant text and pictures at, BBC NEWS | Business | Rolls-Royce: Technology and craftsmanship Adnams brewery. Located in Southwold Suffolk. The distribution centre lies just outside this sea side town. Nissan, the Japanese car makers, introduced group working into their factory in Sunderland.

12

13

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Fig 2.54 Magna Centre

Fig 2.55 BMW Leipzig 2005

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2.9.

The current scene, a new era?

We have come a long way since the first forays into mill building; mock Palladian mansions have turned into signature architectural icons or bland sheds. The story as far as this essay is concerned lies around structure and physical aspects of factories. There has been fleeting mentions of working practices; social, representational, and political issues are left for another work. The story has been one of innovation, in materials and technologies, adaptation, of buildings and processes, and reaction to changing architectural styles and influences. Factories have been glittering show pieces, secreted away into the landscape, or just taken for granted as rows of uniform boxes within the local trading estate. We have also witnessed dereliction, of individual buildings, and complete areas as political, market, or individual business demands change. Posterity shall mourn some, such as Firestone, Brynmawr or Reliance factories; others have a welcome departure from the lives of people who were fated to exist as virtual machines within their walls or lived near their ugly countenance. Some have learnt to adapt, their basic forms being suitable to a whole range of industrial uses, others, including the giant Lister mills at Bradford1, have gained a reprieve from destruction, by becoming part of the trend for regeneration and conversion to other uses such as housing, commercial or office space. Others, such as the Magna ex-steel works at Rotherham2 (figure 2.54) or the Iron Bridge gorge museum, Shropshire, have become part of the heritage and education industry itself, teaching the latest generations how their fore fathers lived and worked. Industrial architecture so often the Cinderella of architectural theory writings maybe deserves a closer look. What can we say about the cladded sheds or boxes that we experience on a daily basis; those inscrutable envelopes of human activity3 as Gillian Darley states. Although whether icon or humble, they all have a story, a feature, an effect upon us in some way. Tom Dyckhof of the Times has recently discussed newly completed BMW car factory in Leipzig (2005)4 (figure 2.55) along with mentions of other earlier factories such as Fords Kahn designed works, The AEG building and others such as Rogers efforts in Swindon. In the article he mused of the times when people romanticised about mass production, when the production line was fantasised about as a thing of beauty and liberation, not oppression, and when the sight of a well oiled machine could wring a tear from the eye of the grandest of industrial magnates. Maybe this iconic factory by Zaha Hadid5 has finally taken Cinderella to the ball.

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Lister Mills dominates the Bradford skyline. It is a glorious reminder of Bradfords Victorian past and its once legendary industrial

prowess. When built The Times proclaimed that the Mills were as breathtaking as Versailles - to this day it still manages to take your breath away. Press release by Urban Splash, property developers who have redeveloped Lister Mills. URBAN SPLASH
2 3

Magna Science and education centre, more details here, Magna Science Adventure Centre Gillian Darley, Factory, London, 2002, page7. Tom Dyckhof, Talking about a revolution, Times T2 magazine, 14,06,2005, pp10-11. Zaha Hadid. The first woman to win the Pritzker Prize for Architecture in its 26 year history, has defined a radically new approach to

architecture by creating buildings, such as the Rosenthal Centre for Contemporary Art in Cincinnati, with multiple perspective points and fragmented geometry to evoke the chaos of modern life. Zaha Hadid / Zaha Hadid Architecture and Design : Architect (1950-) Design/Designer Information

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3. Translation and realisation the approach to furniture design.

3.1.

Taking in the scenery, the journey continues.

The previous section considered the physical aspect of the industrial building by viewing briefly the development in the context of twentieth century factory architecture. This knowledge base informs the next section of this written piece which will involve the analysis of these physical aspects as well as the introduction of more metaphorical aspects and attempt to translate to the reader how they have been converted into tangible furniture designs. Alongside this debate of the history of the British factory there also stood the collation of an image bank1 database of related primary and secondary research images of industry and its contexts which fed into the design units2. The ideas discovered in both these resources were intended to provide an overall picture and a sound basis for the extraction of key areas that could be potentially viable for interpretation in the design units.

Briefly, the conclusion in the earlier design units stated that the theme of the factory is a potentially viable source and two main foci were identified as pathways for the study in this unit. To Quote,

The first focus being, the factory as a literal, physical, visual source, which briefly is looking at the historical contexts and images and extracting suitable design elements from the physical, structural, architectural aspects of a particular building or building style. The second focus is to treat the factory as a metaphorical and emotive source which will draw inspiration from both mine and potentially others experience of what a factory or industry means, the ambience, social backgrounds, representational, perhaps symbiotic contexts, including aspects of my own experience within such environments. The two foci at certain points will no doubt cross over; some literal aspects may have a metaphorical interpretation. 3 I intend to use the foci above to continue the evaluation with the addition of references to actual designs from my portfolio. The first part of the following text will consider how these two foci were translated into furniture designs, and the latter part will consider how the initial designs were evaluated, culled, and then honed into the final project designs and realisations. The first design units were split into selected areas to illustrate the designs.

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Fig3.1 Daylight range

Fig3.2 Turbine hall range

Fig3.3 The Hoover style

Fig3.4 Fagus range

Fig3.10 View from a train style

Fig3.5 Coolbox
Fig3.1 Daylight range

range

Fig3.8 Oxford style

Fig3.1 Daylight range

Fig3.7 Herman Miller style

Fig3.1 Daylight range

range

range

Fig3.6 Norman Foster style

Fig3.1 Daylight range

Fig3.11 Swindon style

range

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Fig3.1 Daylight range

range

3.2.

Factory as a Detail. The look of the factory.

Here I considered not only particular buildings and their architectural style or detail but also the general look or atmosphere of the factory. This could range from an overall impression as with the Daylight 4 or Cool Box series, an impression of the structure, as in the Herman Miller or the Swindon series through to concentrating on a particular detail as in the View from a train or Cummins ideas.

Factory as a detail was divided into twelve sub sections as follows to help more detailed analysis. Follow the references to view a detailed description.

a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. k. l.

The Albert Kahn daylight style5( figure 3.1) The Behrens style6 (figure3.2) The Wallis Gilbert or Hoover style7 (figure 3.3) The Fagus style8 (figure 3.4) The Cool box style9 (figure 3.5 The Norman Foster or Sainsbury style10 (figure 3.6) The Herman Miller or Grimshaw style11 (figure 3.7) The Oxford style12 (figure 3.8) The Block in frame style13 (figure 3.9) The View from a train style14 (figure 3.10) The Swindon or Reliance style15 (figure 3.11) The Girder look or Cummins style16 (figure 3.12)

Fig3.12 Cummins style Fig3.9 Block in frame style

Fig3.1 Daylight range Fig3.1 Daylight range

range

range

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3.3.

Factory as a Structure

In the second section, I looked at the basic building blocks of the factory as a physical building rather than a design per se. Unlike the previous section there may not have been any particular building involved as the elements could and often do belong to many buildings. However, where deemed appropriate, pertinent examples of building examples were referred to. As previously this section was split into sub sections to help clarify the descriptions. They were as follows.
a. Structure style, structure exposed17, and structure suggested18. Briefly the structure refers to the structures within a building, the girders, the roof trusses, the links that hold a building together. b. Surface style19. The Surface refers to the wall and panels, the glazing and the areas between, outside of or surrounded by the structures. c. Frame style20. The Frame refers to the typical frame structures as found in a factory including structural elements as well as glazing and machine frames. (figure 3.13/3.14) d. Combination style21. The combination style includes references to ideas that can sit in any of the above.

Fig3.13 frame style

Fig3.1 Daylight range

range

Fig3.14 frame style

Fig3.1 Daylight range

range

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3.4.

Factory as an Environment22

This section considered not any particular components of structure or building detail but the factory as a whole, as a unit within the environment and as a memory from my experiences. It also considered the internal aspects as in the services of a factory such as the ducting tanks, containers etc. (figures 3.15/3.16). The designs here include the concept as the traditional factory with the Northern light or Saw tooth roof line as a feature of the whole factory scene. This image often portrayed in film with smoke towering above and as a distinct memory of mine, is often displayed in a symbiotic form to suggest a factory building.

Fig3.15 ducting style

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Fig3.16 tank style

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3.5.

Factory as a symbol 23

In this, section the symbols and iconic imagery of factories are used and manipulated to provide a design key. Unlike the previous sections, the designs included in here will almost certainly remain as ideas and remain a purely experimental look at the idea of the factory.(figures 3.17/3.18)

Fig3.17 factory as a symbol

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Fig3.18 Factory as a Symbol

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3.6.

Summary of this design stage

As can be seen in this brief prcis of the earlier unit the concentration for my design direction was towards the more literal side of the factory as a theme. Using the contextual study conceptual ideas flowed out into the cad design package without any necessary conscious idea of practical or commercial possibilities. The architectural elements of the factory definitely lend themselves to conversion into factory design, however the temptation is to become too derivative and create straight conversions of ideas as in the northern light. The danger here is to produce little models of industrial building than perhaps may be sat on or eaten at. Alluding to the journey metaphor again if I may perhaps this is the first exiting stage where you may be travelling through an industrial estate. The influences here loom all around you providing perhaps an overkill of ideas.

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4. By ways, diversion and reflection

4.1.

Navigation and realisation, the final pieces.

It was a moody holiday, and I followed the roads: some of them lead me aright and some astray. The first were the most useful: the others were the most interesting. H.V Morton24 Armed with this body of study, the contextual background, the image database and the design unit, yet now actually letting the bulk of imagery taking a back seat, I took the journey forward away from the influences to let intuition guide me down some byways. The byways would allow me to evaluate the information and hone my ideas into the condensed design portfolio that I need for the major project. The industrial buildings would still remain in the distance but would not overpower me now. The first task came at the end of an earlier unit. This was to condense the designs and produce a smaller choice for evaluation25. The imperative was to decide what designs could actually be converted into aesthetically pleasing designs yet also be able to be successfully made and hopefully be commercially viable to an audience outside the academic realm. Initial culling brought the design selection down to 16 themes. Then due to time constraint and further evaluation, culling down further to five projects to be realised into practical pieces. I shall now discuss their development in the next section

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Fig4.1 Opposed frame table

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Fig4.2 Console Opposed

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Fig4.3 Coffee Opposed

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Fig4.4 Chair Opposed

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Fig4.5 Side Opposed block

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4.2.

Opposed frame

The opposed frame range came out of the Structure series of designs where the concept of factory framing was considered as a key design element. Its initial ideas were born in a simple sketch where I wanted to create a small table with simple repetitive elements, i.e. in this case four U shaped elements in inverted pairs to create a small table frame. Initial designs displayed a solid top as a strengthening constituent. Further development included a glass top so the frame could be viewed and added to the feeling of lightness. At this stage the sides would be simple flat MDF panels. Other variations were considered such as the triangular version but it was decided to stick with the simple frame design and develop it as such. After more consideration the choice of an angle section frame became the next development, not only to make reference to actual angle section found in many industrial framing, but also to add strength and to facilitate production. The U shapes would be made of three pieces which could be made on a production style basis, also giving reference to its design origins. The mitre joints chosen for the frame due to their neatness and relative ease of manufacture needed strengthening so fillets of wood or ply keys were inserted into the corners to strengthen this joint. The decision was made to leave them proud as a design feature. The reference here being to strengthening fillets often seen in metal frame construction, and also as a detail as often seen in factory brickwork26. I also wanted to display the structure as a feature and they would also provide a means of supporting the glass top and double as feet. From the initial sketch designs I quickly moved on to computer aided design drawings of the proposed table design. This gave me an easy medium to manipulate the design to look at differing materials, colours, scale and details. The key detail was added at this stage to provide strength and decoration. The double layer of glass was also considered as a compliment to this whilst also allowing the structure itself to remain exposed. Manipulation of scale and size of this basic structure enabled a range of pieces to be created while keeping the essence of the original. The versatility of the design allows differing materials and colours to be used in response to site or personal needs as can be seen in the proposed coffee or console tables and even in the creation of a chair design or storage unit. (figures 4.1 4.5) From the ideas created in the computer aided design drawings and after finally deciding on dimensions for an occasional table using working drawings, I constructed a set of three. One from walnut, one from oak and one of particle board sprayed in light blue. They were displayed together at Concept2007 and the walnut example received the best response. This was then displayed at new designers July 2007 alongside the Airscape chair and also at my MA show in August. ( figure 4.6/4.7). Copies of publicity cards are shown on next page (figure 4.6a-4.6b) 67

I feel this design is successful as a table because of its relative simplicity yet also being elegant with attention to detail. The frame, here brought down to its basic level, standard elements are repeated and set in an opposed and inverted form to create the structure which remains exposed and celebrated by addition of the corner key detail. Manipulation of scale and size of this basic structure enables a range of pieces to be created while keeping the essence of the original. The versatility of the design allows differing materials and colours to be used in response to site or personal needs. The Opposed frame table has developed into a versatile and adaptable design suitable for a variety of situations and customer requirements. It uses minimal materials and because of the repetitive elements highly suitable for production methods.

Fig4.6a Opposed frame publicity

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Fig4.6b Opposed frame table and Airscape chair publicity

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Fig4.6 Opposed frame table

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Fig4.7 Opposed frame detail

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Fig4.8 Workscape concept

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Fig4.9 Workscape development

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Fig4.10 Workscape development rear view

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Fig. 4.11 Workscape finished chair

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4.3.

Workscape chair

This chair formed part of a series of designs which reflected on the architecture of the factory in th e landscape. The factory unit in its modern standardized form, can be witnessed in many industrial estates in town and country as an anonymous box. The essence of this chair lies with the relationship of the plane surfaces alongside the use of repetitive geometric elements to create its form. The original inspiration was created in the Sheetblock series of chair designs. Geometric forms set together as in a landscape of factory walls. The play of light on their planes and angles reproducing the atmosphere of factory roofing lines. (figure 4.8-4.10) Structure itself remains hidden; as in the anonymous box, decoration as such remains absent. Relief, if any, from the monolithic panels is displayed by the small bevel detail defining the separate elements. From the original design ideas the new form was honed by attention to ergonomic constraints improving the comfort of the chair. Hollow form box section was used to save weight; all forms of construction are hidden. Colour is used to define the mood of this piece and reflect those of industry. The colour chosen was a light almost icy blue grey. This colour lightens the piece in literal as well as symbolic form. The chair is best viewed in strong lowlight levels where the planes relationships are seen at full effect. The chair has been displayed at two exhibitions now and has had a varied response. Perhaps the stark form is too severe for the casual observer, the icy cold colour not helping perhaps. My second choice of a light khaki could have been a safer bet. However this colour would have deadened the form and made it too anonymous, almost invisible. The addition of upholstered cushions may help to invite visitors to try the chair, which once sat in has often received favorable comments regarding its comfort. (Figure 4.11)

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Fig4.12 Section development

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range Fig4.13 Section block idea

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Fig4.14 Section finals

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Fig4.15 Section Final piece

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4.4.

Section wall unit

This design is intended to be a versatile wall storage unit. The design inspiration for this piece stems out of memory of a particular factory I used to pass by on occasion, namely the Cincinatti Machine tool factory on the Tyburn road Birmingham. Its memory remains of being a large block like building, where the structural elements punctuated the exterior in regular intervals. The essence of this piece extracted from the detail of industrial building architecture such as structural framework. The second part of the inspiration for this piece lies with the attention to detail of factory fittings and services, in this case ducting or fuel tanks. The first design ideas were of small cupboard or boxlike pieces with structural elements surrounding the storage compartment for strength, decoration or providing a leg or support component. Later developments turned the idea into a block of storage cupboards as in a bank of lockers. Again the structural element sat at its exterior providing a frame effect. (figures 4.12-4.14) From this series the final piece developed with the thought that it would be better if the box, storage components could be removable and interchangeable. So now the support part of the unit was developed into a girder style element, the boxes being able to easily fitted or removed from it by means of their rear locating ferrules slotting into the holes on the rear structure The storage boxes display ideas taken from industrial technology and fittings such as reinforced steel tank panels and ducting elements. Two designs have been developed, one with external mock fins as in reinforced sheet metal and ones with swaged panels in low pyramid form as in oil tank or ducting elements. Multiple units can be combined to create a striking effect and colour or material change can be utilised to create differing mood or to suit specific site needs. The exterior colour chosen for the units so far is a pale green/grey khaki colour which successfully emulates the look of concrete. To add warmth to the interior of the boxes and also create a juxtaposition the rear panels are painted a pale violet pink .This change in colour also detracts from perhaps the overt masculinity of these pieces. Changes in colours here could easily affect a mood change, bright colours would be highly suitable for use in a childrens room for example. The final pieces were displayed at New Designers London, July 2007 and the MA design show August 2007, and received a very pleasing response. I will be displaying another version at Furniturelincs exhibition in Lincoln, November 2007(figures 4.15-4.16).

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Fig4.17 Airscape idea

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Fig4.18 Airscape development

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Fig4.19 Airscape finals

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4.5.

Airscape chair

The Airscape chair design stemmed out of a series of chair designs from the Sheetblock series of designs for chairs in which I was reflecting upon the essence of lightweight structures and framework in relation to other industrial architectural features such as rooflines and flat surfaces, planes roofing frames and their interconnecting relationships. Looking at these earlier designs, the actual form of the Airscape is at this stage difficult to recognise as it was honed more in the cad stages. However the ambience remains here in the early drawings where sketches show basic shapes with frames sitting alongside flat panels, both providing structure. The later sketches are the more developed ideas which lead to the finished design The aim was to produce a lightweight looking chair with forward motion poised to spring off the floor. Following on from the initial sketch ideas I quickly moved to cad drawings for ease of manipulation. Looking at the figure provided, you will be able to recognise the variations of the development coming through to a near finished Airscape style. From its boxy beginnings in pure sheet form the design grew its frame organically out of the chair structure. Manipulation of scale, ideas of colour followed and an emphasis was given to forming a light and airy structure. Further development lead to the addition of the side detail with evokes the essence of an industrial space frame roof structure and adds interest to the chair. After the basic shape and ideas of detail were decided, the emphasis turned to honing the design for ergonomic needs and manufacturing ease. Seating angles were set to provide a comfortable posture. The frame size offers a low easy chair design and the frame and seating components were altered to be identical units therefore speeding up construction. This also follows my philosophy of following the Factory idea of adaptability and repetition of elements. (figures 4.17-4.19) For materials I chose a walnut frame to emulate more traditional structures alongside the seat form, made of particle board, which echoes more modern lightweight building features often found within the Factory. As illustrated here in the cad renderings the chair is easily adaptable via colour and material changes to suit the particular client needs or site requirements. The use of repetitive forms within the construction is highly suited for production runs. Following the extensive cad revisions the actual construction of the finished piece proved to be successful and relatively quick. I also used the same software to design the jigs needed to construct the acute angles for the seat boxes. Part of the decision making came with the choice of colour scheme. Mid warm grey for the seats, to compliment the walnut frame, smoke grey acrylic for the side detail and mid pink violet to add warmth and 75

perhaps cuts away a little of the otherwise perceived masculinity of this piece. Walnut was chosen because of its colour, its ease of use and to bring in warmth and a sense of quality that was to some extent, I feel, missing from the Workscape chair. The acrylic glints in the light to catch peoples eye in reference to glazed facades often witnessed on an industrial building, in the right lighting and I feel the whole colour scheme sets the mood I was looking for in this design. As can be seen from the pictures the chair has been shown at two exhibitions, New Designers in July 2007, and MA design show at Lincoln in August. At both events the chair has received encouraging and positive comments. (Figures 4.20-4.21). Copies of publicity cards available at the exhibitions are shown below.(figure 4.20a-4.20b)

Fig4.20a Airscape multiple publicity card

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Fig4.20b Airscape multiple publicity card

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Fig4.20 Airscape final piece

Fig4.21 Airscape detail

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Fig4.22 Northern lightscape

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Fig4.23 Northernlight development

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Fig4.24 Northernlight Airscape table

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4.6.

Northern light table/ Airscape table

The origins of the northern light table stem out of the Factory as an Environment range. The allusion is to the saw tooth or northern light roofing as often seen on industrial building. The idea was to create a piece that was not overtly derivative as in the Factory as a Symbol range but to just use the essence of the roofing shapes. Perhaps this shape could also provide a strengthening constituent as well as a decorative feature. The coffee table was chosen as a suitable vehicle due to its low proportions, scale and its boxy nature would allow the connection to a factory box building shape. First design developments were the realisation of a slight framed coffee table, possibly made from sheet metal in which the saw tooth element stiffened the upper structure (Figure). The design looked as though it was almost stamped out of one piece of steel. A light colour would be used to complete the effect of airiness alongside the use of a glass top which would allow the view of the structure below. Variations of detail were considered including the raised floor section to aid stiffening and later developments brought in another range of ideas from the Office and works series where the addition of a vertical box section at one end could give reference to many small industrial building where the office section is placed at the head of the works section. This addition would also act as an aid to strength and act as a storage area for magazines perhaps. The Airscape chair was completed whilst this table design was in progress and this led to its final design development. I decided to form a melange of the two design series to form a new range. The modification included converting the Saw tooth decoration from a pressed metal element into a decorative frieze inset into a box as in the seating boxes of the Airscape. The essence of the Airscape would be kept with use of materials and colours, somewhat leaving the original Northern light look. A walnut frame, in the same section as the Airscape, would add warmth and add a quality feel. The use of the industrial grey alongside deep pink in the frieze area would complete the atmosphere of the Airscape chair. The acrylic would glint in suitable lighting; the dark pink referring to the atmosphere of heated activity inside a factory building. (figures 4.22-4.24) Using the same components as in the frame section of the Airscape would add to ease of manufacture and compliment my ideas of adaptability and versatility where a mere change of scale in this design could produce other pieces of furniture such as a media unit. The Northern light table has its heritage in the Northern Light range from the Factory as an Environment range. However its heart remains allied to the Airscape chair and they should provide a pleasing accompaniment to each other. At the time of writing the table is still under construction and will have its debut showing at the Furniturelincs exhibition in Lincoln in November 2007.

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4.7.

Summary of the collection as a whole.

The aim of this unit was to utilise the gathered information from the earlier design research unit combined with more developed ideas to produce a small series of realised designs for the major project. At first I began once again due perhaps to the ease of the cad package to create a substantial body of work which would not be able to be realised in the time allowed. Realistically I could only produce in physical form a small selection and so finally only five designs were selected for production. As a collection I feel the choice illustrates a comprehensive summary of my design theories. It also illustrates how in a matter of months the essence of my designs was honed as I was completing the unit. The earlier Workscape chair in some ways now seems a little incongruous next to the Airscape chair although they do ultimately share the same design roots. The opposed frame table however, sits quite comfortably next to the chair and acts as a compliment to it. In fact it has been displayed on two occasions next to the chair and has received positive comments from my audience. This fact and feedback from others actually lead me to modify the look of the northern light table to a more Airscape look in anticipation of its reception. The earlier pieces, the Workscape and the Section unit adhere more closely to my MA study of following the industrial design tenets, and therefore perhaps lack a strong commercial appeal. This could also be because of their colder look perhaps due to their lack of real timber. The latter pieces, the Airscape range for example, use the earlier input but I feel display more sophistication and attention to detail. Their use of coloured panels with the combination of real timber gives them a greater degree of finesse, lets them enter the realm of fine furniture and moves them away from a product look. The latter pieces, I feel, reflect more accurately my future design direction. Although they will have the background of the brief of the Ma study, they will not be bound by it and a leaning to blend my industrial contexts with a more commercial leaning will take precedent.

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1 2 3 4

Image Database for Negotiated unit I Negotiated assignment 2 Introduction to Negotiated assignment 2 Refers to the large amount of fenestration within these factories , both side and top lighting, to allow better working conditions

Albert Kahn Style. In this section, I have studied the buildings and style of the architect Albert Kahn who pioneered in the earlier part

of the 20th century the introduction of large concrete factories both in the U.K and in the U.S.A, with a high degree of fenestration to benefit the workforce. Hence, they were often referred to as the Daylight factories because of the high level of light prov ided to the workforce by the high level windows. Notable examples would include various Ford Motor works, Detroit, U.S.A 5, the Birmingham Small Arms, (B.S.A) factory in Witton Birmingham5, and factories like the Uniroyal tyre factory in Dumfries. For my designs, I have concentrated on the idea of the representation of the fenestration of the original buildings, i.e. either with the introduction of actual glass panels with thin glazing bars within my pieces such as in the coffee table designs piece giving a change in texture depending on setting. In some cases I have included glass panels that are not transparent but retain their where light is transmitted to the interior of the table, or as just the suggestion of these banks of windows as in the Daylight stringing low cupboards. In the latter pieces the panel is suggested by the use of acrylic panels altering the light refraction that strikes the surface of the gloss surface with colour behind to suggest a subtle change in surface texture as in the Daylight Panel cupboards or in the New daylight designs. The essence of original memories of factories I have visited also rest here as examples of when old windows are painted out yet retain the texture of the original glazing. Panels sit towards the top of a piece to reflect the original architectural detail where light was sent down into the workspace, their proportion is in keeping with the original design inspiration. Structure can be celebrated as in the end structure as displayed on the New daylight designs in keeping with the original exposure of the concrete frame within and externally on the original buildings . I have also included a deliberate emphasis for low and horizontal lines in my pieces to reflect the architecture of the original buildings which were often single storey uncluttered building spreading across the country
6

The Behrens or Turbine Hall style. This section refers to inspiration at first gained by the buildings of Peter Behrens who

designed the AEG Turbine hall building6 in Germany at the earlier part of the 20 th century, and to later buildings in a similar style as in the Betteshanger Colliery buildings6 as illustrated in the sample picture. The emphasis here is as in the Daylight buildings of displaying large banks of regular fenestration to let light in to the interior surrounded by the structural elements. However the emphasis changes though in the fact such buildings display a vertical rather than horizontal emphasis. The buildings stand with a surefooted vertical demeanour, often towering and appearing monumental within the landscape. This I have reflected in my Turbine Hall section of designs, with repeated banks of vertical glazing. Window detail may also display glazing set at a slight angle as a tribute to the original and I have emulated this in my ideas as in the Turbine Hall sideboards. The success of these designs lies more in their ability to emulate the original buildings than as practical pieces of furniture due to the difficulties perhaps of the angled glazing. Although they could possibly have a role as display cabinets where this feature may would not necessarily prove a problem. More conventional designs could be develop from the latter Betteshanger style where the relationship of simpler block forms and proportion with a vertical emphasis would provide the basis for a series of designs, yet to be developed
7

Wallis Gilbert and Partners The reference in this section refers to the Buildings of the architects Wallis Gilbert and Partners

who practiced in the U.K in the first half of the 20 th century. They were noted at first for their concrete factories of a similar design to Albert Kahns, with whom they worked, if not on a smaller scale, and later for such noted factories as The Hoover building, an d also the Firestone Tyre factory7, both in London, often known as the fancy factories Like Kahn, their factories displayed a horizontal emphasis with large banks of regular fenestration in the daylight style. The later factories such as Hoover were to become known as th e Fancy factories7 due to the addition of decorative detail in the form of moulded concrete, colour detail and faience. With my design ideas I have considered and concentrated on the horizontal emphasis of the original buildings and converted this into my ideas with the Wallis Gilbert display cupboards. I feel that I need to make a statement by virtue of their siz e and presence and with built in lighting perhaps, as the original Fancy factories did in their original setting, often set alongside major trunk roads o f the time where they were allowed to display their splendour .I have also included the use of pale colours, even white to reflect the ambience of the originals and help them make the statement. I have also tried to emulate the original architectural detail of the framework for the glazing bars within my pieces and to help break up the form into proportioned units.

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Fagus Style refers to a style as seen in the Walter Gropius Fagus Shoe last factory. This series considers the work of the architect

Walter Gropius8 such as the Fagus shoe last factory and similar buildings. Here again the emphasis lies on the existence of large areas of fenestration allowing light into the interior of the building. Unlike the earlier focus on the daylight ideas with an emphasis on top lighting, the Fagus style has its glazing set on a vertical stance as per its original design inspiration. In addition, a feature is made of the lightness and apparent absence of support for the glazing bars and supporting structures, giving an impression of lightness. Vertical and horizontal lines in the glazing and brickwork are finely tuned to give an overall balance to the design. For my design I have attempted to emulate the above in producing a design for a side cupboard with glazed panels, with thin glazing bars, going around the corner of the piece, suggestive of lightness and airiness to the display side of the piece. The emphasised mechanical style hinges add interest to the piece and seek to imitate the horizontal lines of the original factory.
9

Cool Box style with reference to a style of sleek often glass cladded building as in the IBM centre. This section considers the look

and ambience of the post war British factory style known as the Cool box. Notable examples include the IBM factory by Norma n foster9, the Cooper Taber building9 and the Cummins diesel plant by N. Grimshaw and partners. Their look, governed by their low sleek horizontal accent sits often unobtrusively within the landscape. Structure can be displayed, but is not celebrated. Often, covered almost entirely with glazing panels they only reflect the surrounding landscape. Detail is in their form, colour or proportion. Sometimes glimpses are seen of the interior or of the structure holding the building together. They are all low sleek cupboards with little or complete absence of detail. They use glass panel to glimpse at the interior or as a layer over colour to give a depth and sleek appearances in the Glasscoolbox design. The colour of the panels behind the glazing could be changed to eff ect a mood change or to suit setting. The Bolt together design displays through the top glazing panel the way it is constructed and is design to be of Knock down design. Again panels could be changed, and colours changed to suit mood, placement. The cool box with pillars displays a subtle use of the pillar detail to suggest structure and combine this as the hinges for the door to emulate mechanical design.
10

The Norman Foster or Sainsbury style. This theme has considered the works of Norman Foster and partners with special

reference to the Sainsbury centre for the Arts building. Here modern lightweight space frame structures, not necessarily hidden as in the cool boxes but often displayed or even celebrated. The lightweight large span structures provide the ability to create larg e easily erected buildings with uninterrupted floor space. In my designs, I have considered the technology and the look of the Sainsbury centre and used its design keys above to crea te a design for a side cupboard. The cupboard displays dual skin thin material, e.g. MDF, combined with a lattice structure to provide potentially light and relatively strong panels and allow the interior of the design to remain uncluttered. The structural core provides a feature by being visible at the ends of the panels as in the original building. One version of my designs displays the structure through a glass panel top. The insertion of colour behind the lattice panels allows them to be emphasised and could be changed to suit mood. The rest of the piece relies on its form and proportion to balance the design. The scale and proportion of the piece can be altered to suit its use and placement.
11

The Herman Miller or Grimshaw style. This section considers the buildings by Grimshaw and partners such as the Herman

Miller Building (formerly Bath Cabinet makers) In Bath11, U.K. In a similar vein to the Cool boxes, they display low sleek horizontal lines, usually with bands of regular glazing. They are also noted for their use of lightweight roof structures to provide open floor space which is often glimpsed through the top side light panels. Another feature is the display of the frame structure alongside the ranks of bolted panels that could easily be interchanged, added to, or converted into doors etc. With this design project, I found it a challenge to display a piece that would not look too architectural. It might be worth looking at this section again, where more considered evaluation might improve this. It may also be worth looking at the use of the lightweight frame detail and ideas of interchange ability with in a regular structure Herman Miller - United States - Home Page
12

The Oxford style. Buildings in this section derive from such buildings as found on many modern business parks, the Oxford

business park being the example shown in the sample photographs. They often display more attention to detail than the standar d Shed or box on other industrial estates and often attempt to display design features which suggest affluence.

Alongside High tech

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building methods the can display large panels of walls often punctuated by a structural feature, either hidden, displayed, or glimpsed through glazing panels. Structure is not often celebrated but more suggested. For my designs, I have picked a combination of these themes and produced as design for a cupboard as illustrated. Plain panels, punctuated by the angular outcrops that hold the internal structural panels that combine as legs. In some examples, this feature is glimpsed through glazing panels at the sides or as a glass top that also shows the internal structure.

13

The Block in Frame style. This section alludes to no particular building but to a series of buildings constructed with a steel frame

in which the body or the box in this case is sited. The structure therefore is an integral part of the design and its look. Such buildings would include the Wills cigarette building in Bristol13, the Blumberg Handkerchief mill by Eero Saarinen and the H J Heinz building.. The Box or block part could be interchangeable and adds to the buildings adaptability. The emphasis is on the structural frame itself, the panels that fit within act as a accessory and should be easily interchangeable to affect adaptation. Solid or transparent panels could be used to suit the particular design. For this theme, I have developed a design for small item of furniture that could be a side cupboard or bedside table. However due to nature of frame design the scale could be changed quickly into various designs or uses.. The cupboard element sits within the frame set slightly back. In bedside mode, this allows light into the interior. Side glass panels, or a door, added if required adding to the idea of adaptability. The frame element could be altered in size to suit potential use and the internal element could be shelves or a cupboard and changed in material or colour to suit placement or customer needs.
14

The View from a train style. This idea was inspired from a chance glance of a unknown modern factory unit from the train from

Newark to London. The photo examples are of similar details for illustration purposes.The small detail on the building gave the impression of structure disappearing into the roofline of the factory which otherwise sat as an anonymous block. I have emulated this design feature by the creation of a table design, the main body relying on a plain form for its surface and legs. The detail provides the means of bringing relief to the plain form and acts as a support to the glass top.
15

The Swindon or Reliance style. This section refers to the Look of a group of factories built in the 1960s in and around the

southwest of the U.K and in particular the emerging business centre of Swindon. Such buildings include the, sadly now demolished, Reliance Electronics building, the Motorola factory and the Renault factory. The Reliance building was a large shed of lightweight construction and gladly displayed its structural elements, cross form reinforcing bars, on the outside of the building panels alongside a view of the steel framework. The office glazing sat behind the steel frame and the panel elements were interchangeable to suit use. The Motorola building also displays its structure and is built around a cent ral "street with all services stemming from here. The Renault building flamboyantly displays its meccano style structure painted in bright yellow with the rest of the building hanging beneath it. I have concentrated in my design elements on the display of external structures as in the original building, both in actual or suggested form where the structure forms part of the decoration as well as performing a structural function. The use of contrast in colour between the frame and box also reflects the original building. The boxes or cupboard designs I have developed sit within a cross frame that emulates the original. By change of scale or addition and removal of panels, the designs become boxes, cupboard or tables as usage dictates and relate to the adaptability of the original, see Endcross and Exoskeleton designs.
16

The Girder look or Cummins style. This section reflects upon buildings such as the Cummins diesel engine plant built in the

1950s in the north of the U.K, designed by Nicolas Grimshaw and Partners 16. This type of building displays such items as in the cool box style , low and sleek within the landscape and also displays some elements of the previous Swindon style with its set back office panels and glazing. The difference here is that it also displays to good effect an emphasis on the steel frame girders that peek out at intervals along the factory. The ends of the girders form part of the minimal decoration of the building. The inner workings of the factory are visible through to banks of glazing. I have used these design keys to produce two sets of proposed design ideas. The girder motive is used a design element for a simple table design. The girder blends into the tabletop and provides a subtle relief on the top. The design element can be used in both side table and

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coffee of dining table mode. The addition of lightweight structure element under a glass top adds interest and provides a design reference to the original building with glimpses of the interior. The second design idea begins as a simple box with girder elements as supports for the glass top. They can sit on top or blended in to subtly peek out from the sides and add detail to the box form. The punctuation of the box turns it into a potential coffee table design. Contrasting colour adds interest and depth. The last, purely girder-based design is probably the least successful, displaying too much bulk and does not arguably show the elegance of the original building. It has more possibilities in its low and widened form.
17

Structure exposed. This section looks at the way structure can surround a piece, a building or a furniture design. It becomes a vital

element in the coherence of the design and holds the other elements together. The surface or box element becomes secondary. The structure of the piece is celebrated as a detail in itself rather than purely performing a function. This theme for instance, allies itself to the Box and Frame idea mentioned earlier, but has no particular building connecti on. A Hybrid crossover can be seen in the ends of the new Daylight idea where structure is also exposed. The designs displayed, the Cincinnati style, group are a series of small box units. They could be small tables, cupboards small media units. The structural element surrounds the unit and becomes the legs, feet and support for the top, unifying and bringing coherence to the design. The components can easily be adapted, with colour scale and material as use demands. The design here is developed into the Boxshelf idea where the structural element is used as the support unit for the set of boxes.
18

Structure suggested. This section refers to the idea of structure within the piece being suggested rather than as the main element as in

the earlier section. The structure can peek through the surface planes of a piece or just have the suggestion that it performs part of the complete design. In the Box exposed structure design, the structural frame shows through the panels at the top and becomes the legs. The cup board component hangs like a container between the legs. The frame is adaptable in length and multiple elements can be brought together to form a block or bank of units. This alludes to the adaptability production line ethos of the factory. The Structure side series is a design for a cupboard where the structure i s suggested to go through the interior and form the carcass and the legs.. The suggested structure also forms the handles of the cupboard. The Basic coffee frame table as above displays glimpses of the frame through the tabletop. The glass top has folded glass to lock the top onto the frame. Later versions have a girder like frame. The Angle iron corner design has a simple corner element holding the body together. The panels could be changed in size or colour to provide adaptability and suitability for use. Developed versions show external structural elements. The Structure relief idea shows a small cupboard with the suggestion that the square section structure comes through the to p surface of the cupboard. A suggestion of surface structural detail is displayed on later version. The I Beam table alludes to the earlier floor structures of factories with infill between girders. In this case, the box as sumes the role of the building and the glass top takes the place of the concrete floor
19

Surface style. In this section, the idea of the factory surface is used as a design key. The surface would include the roofline the walls

and all elements between and surrounding the structure. The surface can be used as a structural element or as separate component within a separate structure. Where no detail is apparent subtle changes in texture or colour can be introduced to add depth or interest to the surface. Relief panels can suggest the ideas of fenestration or change in materials. The designs in this section include the Relief cabinet where the use of relief panels suggest glazing and allude to the common practice of painting over old windows both external and internal. The Ottoman shows little detail, just the use of form and proportion and the addition of a rear hinge component to suggest a mechanical relationship. The Coloured box design alludes to the bland sheds or boxes that fill our industrial estates and is inspired by a factory unit seen from the A38 near Derby. Here the use of just surface colour lifts the factory from its neighbours. The choice of colours and their relationship adds different ambiences to the small table unit. The following designs are all versions of The sheet chair idea. The concept derives fro the spaces between the structures, especially the roof structures within a factory. The negative space created between the rafters of a lightweight steel structure. This structure is sensed in the ends of the chair and can be emphasised by the use of colour. There are five versions of this idea with differing proportion and detail. Sheet chair mark 4 has cut away panels to allude more closely to the roof structures, again emphasised by the use of contrasting

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colours. The Sheet block chair has a closer relationship to the factory as a structural item and as an item in the landscape. The design is suite to multiple items put together to allude to rows of buildings. The use of inset panels suggests a structure emerging out of the surface plane.
20

Frame style. This section refers to structure again within the factory building. The emphasis in this section is of the lightweight metal

frame rather than the heavier girder or beam sections as in earlier sections. The Opposed frame is the simplest form of two frame elements opposed to each other forming a table unit. Strength is gaine d by the use of angle section of wood or metal. The Frame stool is a design idea to convert a stool in one operation into a chair by the means of a folding mechanism. The Frame table is a simple lightweight table frame with the glass top displaying its structure. The New table frame alludes to the roof structures of small factory units made from lightweight steel section. Elemen ts of the structure are missing to add dynamism to the structure. Glass surfaces allow views of the structure alongside, suggesting the roof lights with in a factory building. The Roof truss frame table starts as a simple exercise in minimal use of materials as in the opposed frame table by the use of simple geometric components to form a stable table base. In modified form, it shows the use of multiple identical components to form the design. This could aid production. The following designs are modifications and versions of others and suggest lightweight roof structures In there form as shown they could prove to be over complicated in manufacture. The Frame chair idea takes the multiple elements of the earlier roof truss tab le and converts it into a chair design. This lightweight design finds its strength by the use of structural geometry. The Frame table design uses a simple diagonally opposed frame design to construct a small table. This is modified to form a cupboard. Multiple elements are the displayed to form adaptable units. The use of the frame motif allows adaptability and easy modification with standard components to form a range of designs.
21

Structure/ Surface/ Frame combination. In this section the elements above come together to form a unified idea of structure,

surface and frame. The design chosen to illustrate this is the Box chair idea. The concept begins in a pure block surface form and develops into exposing its structure into a frame form. It alludes to the Lounge chairs of the pre war era but tries to break away from the heavy atmosphere of these into a lightweight industrial look. The Simple chair uses the relationship of the angle iron frame sturdy on the ground to the lighter panel of the backrest. The Slab chair combines lightweight roofing style frame elements of two opposed triangles with the flat form of the seat and backrest to produce a forward-looking dining chair. The Plane and Frame design displays a lighter atmosphere than the Boxchair by removing the side pla ne components and concentrating on the relationship between the structural frame and the seat plan. Changes in scale provide a bench design The Lounger design combines elements from all above with the emphasis on the lightweight appeal.
22

Factory as an Environment. The design idea Northern light builds around this roofline as a main feature and offers several

versions of a small lounge coffee table. The table of lightweight construction uses the saw tooth roof shape to add to its strength. Glass panels in the roof unit add light to the interior as in the actual buildings. The removal of side panels adds to the light feeling of the design. The Northern lights scape while including the elements from above adds to the above idea by alluding to the in clusion of the office area of a typical factory building. This as shown by a small box area on the design adds strength to the frame and possibly another storage area. In the Office and works idea the theme above is carried on with the use of a lightweig ht frame to provide the support for the table component. The concept is developed further in the Block and frame where an extra box component is added to provide extra s trength and in the final developed versions to suggest such buildings as the Sainsbury centre. Coloured elements here emphasise the structural shape. The Panel tank and Ducting designs consider the look of oil or water tanks and ducting services within the industrial env ironment . The basic shapes are manipulated and converted to potential use for benches or low table units. Components that would fit the ducting units together are displayed as external structural components. Also in this section the shape of a Container is manipulated to provide a structural frame for a table, Boiler tubes provide a decorative detail for a sideboard, a Machine bed idea is converted into a table frame and the Cincinnati wall blocks design alludes to the banks of storage lockers within a factory.
23

Factory as a Symbol In this, section the symbol of a factory as in the previous sections used and manipulated to provide a design

key. Unlike the previous section, the design will most certainly remain as an idea, a flippant look at the idea of the factory by showing rows

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and rows of factory buildings to suggest an estate. The second design idea may prove a more viable theme for a project. Again the use of the northern light roof and works offices is deployed to provide a design element.
24

Morton. H.V, In search of England, London , Methuen, 1946, p.52. Evaluation of unit. Direct quote The aim of this unit was to utilise the gathered information from the earlier design research and

25

history unit combined with the gathered images in the database for the production of suitable ideas for furniture design and production within the following major project. The gathered images proved to be an invaluable source, the essay a sound contextual background. Further study of such buildings in the books as listed in the bibliography and visits to particular factories proved invaluable too. A sketchbook was kept as a constant companion to record thought and ideas as they occurred. Some were quickly dismissed; many were developed and have taken their place within this unit. Copies of the thumbnail sketches that are relevant are included in each section Initially the design keys were taken from actual buildings and architectural features as outlined in the first part of this unit. To an extent success was found at this stage in the development such designs as the Daylight, Wallis Gilbert , Cool box ,Swindon and Cummins ideas. (Details of these can be found in the unit text). Later tangents were explored and reflected upon which were not necessarily direct inspiration from the industrial images. These tangents tend to appear later in the unit in what might be called the post architectural phase, i.e. the sections which deal with the ideas of structure , surfaces, factory environments and their relationships to each other. This later phase proved possibly more fruitful as sometimes the earlier more literal designs could appear as little factories or all looked like boxes rather than provide a varied range o f suitable furniture designs. The later ones could express an idea without appearing too contrived and I felt I had to keep hold of the theme I still felt less restricted with these. Good examples include the various sheet chair designs which derive from the spaces surrounding the s tructures within a factory, and the factory and works designs which derive from my impression of the typical image of the factory within the landscape. The image bank was quite large and conventional means of converting ideas may have been time consuming. I undertook to teach myself a new CAD programme25 on the recommendation of a friend. After a hesitant start with this unfamiliar means to me of drawing, I found after some practise that it would become an indispensable tool for me to communicate my ideas in a clear way to others. With more practise I began to go straight from thumbnail sketch to cad realisation and in some cases design straight in to cad. The nature of my chosen theme and my intended ideas gives rise to quite angular, geometric boxy designs. The drawing programme is highly sui ted to this and so I was able to produce a number of designs with subtle modifications at quite a high speed. Scale and colour variations are executed at the click of a button rather than having to execute a complete new drawing. At a later stage, I created CAD room sets to gain an insight into hoe my designs might look within a simulated environment. I stated in my aims for the unit that I intended to evaluate and express the Metaphorical side of the factory as well as just the physical/architectural side of the factory. This has been carefully considered and evaluated during this unit. Although not necessarily appearing too obvious in my designs, and taking out the designs already mentioned above, it appears in the form of the colours I will use alongside other emotive and suggestive motifs as in the factory and works ideas or as my memory of factory internal rooflines as in the sheet chair series. So where and what to take forward into the major project?. I wish to produce a varied range for my major pieces rather than concentrate on one particular type of furniture. Therefore I intend to pick one piece from the Daylight range, a piece from the Ducting services range, a piece from the Surface/frame combination range, a piece from the Sheet chair range with a table to match, a piece from the surface range and a piece from a Structural range. The chosen designs will then be further evaluated and completed items of furniture will be produced.
26

Warwickshire detail

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5. Travelling companions

5.1.

Introduction

We cannot leave this journey, if you allow me to use the metaphor once again, without reference to further influences on my design practice. The influence of the architectural scene has been dealt with, sometimes overpowering, sometimes sitting on the horizon but now we must consider human influence, my travelling companions perhaps. I have, and must remain the driving force in this odyssey but often have gained influence from others, earlier travellers along this route, or passengers giving advice from the back seat. So, who are these influences? To find out I will take a brief look at how some of the architects mentioned in the historical study earlier, as well as other, so far unmentioned, pertinent designers, that I feel have had an impact on my ethos (philosophy?), and evaluate if their practice has influenced my design direction in more ways than just with respect to architecture itself. Study has so far highlighted that perhaps there is no single person who has taken the same direct route as me, i.e. the route of conversion of industrial building design or atmospheres in to the medium of furniture as I have tackled, but it is still worth taking a look at these designers and their practice and take from it any pertinent keys that I have adhered to in my design philosophy. 5.2.

Early influences, origins, Hoffmann Behrens and the Jugendstil

The roots of my interest in works apart from factory architecture lie in the home of industrial design and craft or furniture design itself. It is worth taking a brief look at the work of early twentieth century makers in Europe as in the work of the Jugendstil1 workshops where some of my early influences have stemmed. Although this movement was to some point concerned with standards of craftsmanship rather than industrial production, with its connections to the art nouveau 2 scene, it became an important stage in the background movement of functionalism3. Whilst the art nouveau movement primarily in France and Italy followed the path of creating sinuous designs with flowing organic forms, in Germany it was to take a different course. In Munich with the work of designers such as Peter Behrens,4 the curvilinear forms took on a more subdued and controlled look, later taking on more formal compositions of geometric elements. This development was 87

Fig5.1 Hoffman tray

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Fig5.2 Red Blue Chair

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further enhanced by such people as Joseph Hoffman 5, known as Right Angle or Quadratl Hoffman, who designed a range of perforated iron sheet artefacts dominated by a rectangular grid (figure 5.1). This type of work has always appealed to me within my practice, its simple geometry born in a time of perhaps extreme opposites with the strong flowing organic lines of such work as in the designs of Henri Van de Velde 6 for example. Van der Velde although he was said to appreciate engineering forms aesthetically 7 he was convinced that art and industry could never mix because art, being alien to the profit motif, would be smothered. I have lent perhaps more towards the thoughts of one of their contemporaries, Herman Muthesius, who thought that function need no artistic cladding, with his Sachlichkiet 8 theories. Behrens later was appointed, as mentioned in the history texts, as artistic adviser to the German electrical giant AEG9. He was, as a designer turned architect, given full reign over the companys visual image from letterheads to buildings, in effect a corporate identity. Beh rens, along with the already in house company designer Michael van Dolivio-Dobrawolsky, worked on a range of new lines with interchangeable parts. The most well known being a range of kettles where the components were produced in three shapes, three sizes, three materials, and three surface finishes. Out of eighty one possibilities, thirty were marketed. This stands alongside my philosophy of work in my practice following the same ethos of interchangeably and adaptability for differing elements of my furniture. As mentioned in earlier texts Behrens was also to produce the design for the AEG Turbine factory of from which I have taken inspiration, and at his time was working in the offices of Walter Gropius, designer of the Fagus Shoe last factory for which I have also taken design keys. 5.3.

A Plastic reality

We can move on now to a later movement that stemmed out of Europe , known as the De Stijl. Examples of notable members are Piet Mondrian10, the artist, and Gerrit Rietvelt11, a trained architect, but more often known for his furniture designs. Their ideas were influenced by the work of the theorist M.J.H. Shoenmackers whose ideas stressed the mathematical order of the universe and formal composition became restricted to the fundamental elements of the horizontal and vertical line alongside the use of primary colours. This movement sought to compose the conflicting elements of line, plane and colour into an image of equilibrium and proportion as a symbol of universal harmony. Mondrian foresaw this universal harmony bringing the end of Art as a thing separated from our surrounding environment which is the actual plastic reality.by the unification of architecture, sculpture and painting, a 89

Fig5.3 Schroder House interior

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Fig5.4 Marcel Breuer chair 1925

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new plastic reality will be created and beauty will have ripened in to a palpable reality A most noted example of this palpable reality from this movement being Rietvelts Red, Blue and Yellow chair (figure 5.2) which he saw as an example of his furniture as condensation of a universal special system.12 The chair made of machined wood section and plywood, screwed together without joints or rebates and painted in primary colours, became a structural re definition of the chair without precedent. His experiments with furniture design and architecture culminated in the creation of the Schrder house at Utrecht in 1924, where he was commissioned to produce a total image for modern living (figure 5.3). Here the functional organisation and formal elements of the house and complete furnishings and fittings were fused into an integrated environment with spatial flow and interplay of lines planes and colours. I do not profess to follow the complete ideal of all of this movement but I recognise and appreciate certain ideals expressed within and adhere to them somewhat in my design philosophy such as the adherence to mathematical proportional13 systems within my designs and also wishing to concentrate on the relationship and interplay of lines, planes, surfaces and the use of colour to express mood and to create ranges of furniture that could provide the look of an integrated environment.

5.4.

Utopia to handlebars

The utopian ideas of the De Stijl group although not necessarily realised in the 1920s, were taken up by the teaching in a new school of design, the Bauhaus 14. Under the leadership of its first director, the aforementioned, Walter Gropius, it revolutionised the training of designers. The students were taught to search, probe, experiment with solutions that would fulfil functional requirements and be a rational result of the tools and material employed. It was here that the future architect, Marcel Breuer experimented with his metal furniture inspired by the handlebars of his bicycle culminating in the production, 1925, of an armchair built with chromium plated steel (figure 5.4), which was perhaps the logical development from Rietvelts earlier example. Like Rietvelt, he emphasised structure in the design, relying on similar parallel and angular forms, but combining the use of lightweight materials, tubular steel and leather instead of upholstery. Marcel Breuers passion for lightness and simplicity for his designs can also be seen in his designs for the interior of the Piscator apartment, Berlin, 1927, where he displays furniture with a clarity and simplicity without superfluous detail (figure 5.5). In 1927, Walter Gropius, displayed perhaps an early look at modular furniture ideal with his designs for the Feder Store in Berlin (figure 5.6). Here he proved that although mass production leads to standardisation, 91

Fig5.5 Piscator apartment interior

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Fig5.6 Feder Store Berlin by Gropius

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variety and interest can be displayed by the provision of a number of units on a modular basis which can be combined in a number of ways, colours, finishes etc., an ethos taken up by many future designers. In 1928 the architect Mies van der Rohe15 brought perhaps this era of lightweight metal furniture to its height with the production of the Barcelona chair (figure 5.7), named after the venue of the exhibition where Mies designed the German pavilion in which the chair was displayed. The chair which is still produced today consists of two crossing curves of steel bar, the single curve of the back crossing the reverse curve of the seat to form an extremely elegant expressive shape. With the designs illustrated in this section, I can again not necessarily take direct inspiration from the contenders, but moreover state the fact that I take on the essence of their ideals. Two of the designers, Gropius and Mies van der Rohe, have direct experience of factory design and clear connections can be seen in their architecture to the furniture design with the use of clean elegant lines, horizontal emphasis to their forms and lightweight atmospheres. In this same period, in many European countries, architects were finding work as designers and finding roles in industry. In Finland Alvar Aalto began working with furniture as a partner in the firm called Artek. His designs such as the chair for the Paimio Sanatorium were a fascinating combination of constructivism and organic ideals (figure 5.8). They were at first glance austere yet their use of the curved forms and real timber added warmth. The use of the then modern plywood enabled lighter sections to be utilised to give the piece a light and airy sense. The experiments with furniture were to provide him with inspiration for his architectural projects. The study of wood allowed him to come closer to a live natural organic material that offered him qualities that he was later to express in brick and stone. I have also taken influence from this group of designers, not necessarily with their use of materials per se, but with their introduction to the ethos of producing minimal, de constructed designs, devoid of superfluous additions. The idea of modularity and interchangeably has also underpinned my efforts. 5.5.

Lsprit Nouveau

In 1925 at the Exposition Internationale des arts Dcoratifs in Paris 16, the architect Le Corbusier17 set up a display based upon his theories, in collaboration with his colleague Ozenfant 18, of his vocabulary of pictorial elements which combined Platonic19 ideals with notions of mechanisation and modernity. These theories were entitled Purism, and they were to be elaborated in a journal founded in 1920 ,Lsprit Nouveau in which was (he) propounded a hierarchy of basic geometric forms and scales of colour based on the Golden 93

Fig5.7 Barcelona Chair 1928

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Fig. 5.8 Aalto chair for Paimio Sanatorium

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section20 ratio which also determined the proportions, that in turn were related to each other by a modular system. The theories also proposed that the object that most completely satisfied human needs were to be designated type Objects and would be the culmination of a process of functional perfection and standardisation. The House setting at the exposition, entitled Pavilion de Lsprit Nouveau (figure 5.9) would be used to illustrate these theories. The setting was a stand representing a small house, intended to make best use of the restricted space available, and by utilising to the fullest possible extent standardised components and fittings to provide an image of the possibilities of modern living. The structural frame, the walls, windows and floors, were all of standardised units. The fitted cupboards and units all corresponded to a modular system which regulated and unified the proportions. Corbusier reduced all furniture to three categories, chairs , tables and open or closed shelves and went on to design standard forms or each category including a multiuse table, standardised sectional table and chairs for various purposes including working, relaxing, ,an easy chair and a fauteuil. This range could then be used in any of his architectural settings and would in fact contribute to its architectonic effect. This unified approach to the same range of furniture suiting many situations contrasted with the earlier furniture design for specific locations as expiated by such architect designers as Charles Rennie Macintosh in the U.K or Frank Lloyd Wright in the USA. Lloyd Wright saw each house as an individual creation and designed the interior furniture and fittings to suit each occasion. Although I may not follow faithfully the ideals of Corbusier I have carried these theories into my design practice. The relationship to ideals of proportional systems have also played a large part in my design ethos alongside the wish to produce furniture based on standard elements which can be easily reproduced to form a coherent look and range. This theory has also sat comfortably with my reference to the factory system and allusion to multiple production units.

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Fig5.9 Corbusier Exposition 1920

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Fig5.10 Adjustable back armchair by Corbusier

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Fig5.11 Chaise long by Corbusier

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5.6.

Remove and subtract to embellish

21

A contemporary of Corbusier was Charlotte Perriand 22 who came to form one part of a trio with Corbusier and Pierre Jeanneret23 and worked together for 10 years from 1927-37. She was to work with them on the Purist Villas24 projects where the noted Fauteuil grand confort , the Fauteuil dossier basculant (figure 5.10) and the Chaise longue basculante were seen for the first time (Fig ure 5.11). It was whilst working in this group that she developed her ideas of the use of clean lines, remove and subtract to embellish, dont add25 in which she displayed in her storage wall cabinet designs (figure 5.12) A later companion of Charlotte Perriand , who although not mentioned in the earlier industrial History texts, is definitely worth a mention here as possibly the closest designer who has followed a similar route to myself, but obviously in a more pronounced way, and has to some point remained as a pertinent influence, is the French architect and designer, Jean Prouv 26. As yet although being connected to Charlotte Perriand and thereby Le Corbusier remains virtually unknown outside of design circles.

Fig5.12 Charlotte Perriand wall units

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Fig5.13 Maison Portiques by Prouv 1939

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Fig5.14 Aero club Roland Garos 1935

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Fig5.15 Standard chair by Prouv 1934

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5.7.

The Poetics of the technical object

Prouvs work as a whole is far too comprehensive for a study of this size; however it is worth mentioning some examples of his work to illustrate their relevance to my design theories. His work as a designer architect ranged from such things as a letter opener, door fittings, lighting furniture, facades for buildings, prefabricated houses, modular building systems and large scale buildings such as exhibition halls. In fact virtually anything that he deemed suited for industrial production. He was one of the early pioneers of series production furniture prefabricated building construction including some industrial buildings. The primary aim of his design and development work was to unite the aspects of utility, material authenticity, and economy via the minimal use of materials and simple construction methods with the sometimes complex requisite of series production. His building work whether for a shed, for example his Maison Portiques 1939 (figure 5.13), or industrial building, as in the Aero club Roland Garos 1935, (figure 5.14) often displayed characteristics of much larger factory details such as girder shapes and obviously bolted together elements to give a knock down impression The modular nature of these buildings allowed both ease of modification and adaptation for change of use. His furniture, often made from metal section and plywood, as in the Standard Chair 1934 (figure 5.15) and classroom table 1936 (figure 5.16) displayed similar details and quite often combined details of or allude to mechanical objects or workings alongside a simplicity and frugality of materials giving them perhaps a naive elegance. His garden furniture (figure 5.17) for the U.A.M (Union of Modern Architects) Pavilion at the Exposition Internationale des Arts Techniques, Paris 1937, displayed an overt homage to industrial building with its perforated steel frame sections accompanying the use of new Rhodoid plastic moulded seating. His most well known chair, still in production today by the Vitra Company in Switzerland, is possibly his most elegant too. The Cit chair (Figure 5.18) 1931 stands with almost an aircrafts stance with its use of a slender frame and low slung seating. This chair, designed for the Cit Universitaire at Nancy, was conceived to use the least possible material expenditure during production giving a lightweight design relatively inexpensive to manufacture. The hollow core seat unit sits relatively low, the armrests are adjustable leather straps. The discovery of Prouvs work arrived late within my design projects so he hasnt had as yet a great influence into my design ethos although with the brief study that I have afforded him he is definitely worth further evaluation to investigate more deeply his design philosophies and working methods. His ideas of using 99

Fig. 5.16 Classroom table by Prouv 1936

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Fig5.17 Garden furniture by Prouv 1937

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Fig5.18 Cite armchair by Prouv 1931

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metaphors and even actual use of industrial imagery is obviously allied to my design work allied to his desire to bring a design down to its minimal, frugal level ,yet at the same time creating a simple elegance, which hopefully, I can aspire to in practice. 5.7.

Crossing borders, the flow of ideas to Britain and beyond.

The flow of ideas started to spread across Europe in the latter part of the interwar years and eventually made their way to Britain. This was partly via exhibition such as the display of Finnish furniture at Fortnum and Masons27 in 1933, mostly by Aalto, and partly by immigration in such cases as Gropius and Breuer who came to the u.k in 1934. Here Breuer worked with the London firm of Isokon 28, where he produced a series of Aalto style bent wood reclining chairs and a set of stacking tables in which he displayed an ingenious solution and economy of materials. This rational approach and international style was later introduced to the USA by such people as Richard Neutra29 and when Gropius and Breuer finally emigrated there in the years approaching the Second World War. During the following years furniture design was influenced by the work of two architects when they won a competition run by the Museum of Modern art in New York for Organic designs in Home furnishings, namely Charles Eames and Eero Saarinen. Their chair designs, the Conversation chair and Lounging shape, (figure 5.19) were revolutionary with their uniting of the seat, backrest and armrests formed in a single shell of veneer and glue laminated with in a mould. The final shell form was covered with foam and then upholstered. This brought to a head the trend of the reduction of parts as developed earlier in Europe. Saarinen and Eames also collaborated in a series of table and cupboard designs for which they also won a prize. The units were based on an eighteen inch module system which made them adaptable for a variety of uses (figure 5.20). The cupboard cases were designed to stand on a series of standard bench elements which could be adapted for other uses therefore adding to the versatility of the range. The approach of war sadly stifled the arrival of these design and they were not perhaps properly appreciated till the return of peace.

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Fig5.19 Conversation chairs by Eames 1940

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Fig5.20 Eames and Saarinen units 1939

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Fig5.21 Plywood chairs with rubber mounts by Eames1946

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Fig5. 22 Moulded fibreglass chairs by Eames 1948

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Fig5.23 Robin Day, Clive Latimer unit 1948

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Fig5.24 Eames storage units

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5.9.

Post war enlightenment, surplus materials

Moving to the emergence of the post war era Eames produced one of his famous chair designs developed from the earlier prize winning versions (figure 5.21). The use of rubber mounts as an innovation added to their comfort and the standard design was available in a variety of finishes to suit setting the idea of versatility and adaptability came to fruition for Eames when in 1948 he won another prize 30 for his new moulded fibreglass chair (figure figure 5.22), the latest development of his and Saarinens original designs of 1940. Adaptability was displayed here again with a variety of bases, legs, pedestals or rockers, of varying heights so that one basic core design could serve a multitude of uses. Here Eames was taking advantage of the newly developed material fibreglass as used by the US Airforce in the Second World War. Two other designers who won first prize at the same competition are worth noting here, Robin day 31 and Clive Latimer32, from England, for their storages cases of moulded plywood hung from metal tubular supports (figure figure 5.23). The cases were interchangeable with either drop flap design or sliding doors adding to their versatility. Eames further developed his ideas of versatility with his range of storage units (figure figure 5.24) built up of standardised parts which could be assembled in a variety of ways for differing purposes. In place of tradition cabinet making methods and jointing, Eames used aluminium section and metal rods to form the frame. Horizontal slabs of plywood slide in to form the shelves to which coloured panels or drawers can be added. All the components come from stock industrial production but are assembled with care and a feeling for proportion that creates a series of units with a sense of style. Once again although Eames as an architect was perhaps not well known for his work in industrial architecture, if any, his domestic architecture had the same atmosphere as some perhaps cool box factory designs as mentioned earlier in this unit. This look was translated in the style of his emerging designs in the 1950s such as the storage units where I have appreciated his ethos regarding the use of standardised components within a piece of furniture to create an adaptable range for a variety of potential uses. His experimentation with new materials and the fact that he did not rely on traditional furniture making techniques has also been an inspiration in my work.

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Fig3.1 Daylight range

Fig5.25 Trans World Airlines terminal 1956-62

Fig3.1 Daylight range

range

Fig5..26 Womb chair by Saarinen 1947-48

Fig3.1 Daylight range

range

Fig.5.27 Tulip chairs by Saarinen 1956

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5.10.

People sit differently today. and the Womb

Saarinen, who worked with Eames, on the other hand is noted for his industrial architecture with buildings that lay in the cool box style of work. Examples such as his Dynamometer building33 mentioned in the contextual study earlier, also the General Motors technical centre34 and his Irwin Miller house35 , stand out in their use of symmetrical square blocks. However in his furniture design he followed on from his competition success with Eames and chose a more organic looking approach as in his architectural style of his Trans World Airlines terminal 1956-62,( figure 5.25). He drew on his experience with Eames and produced what is known as the Womb 36 chair in 1947/8 (figure figure 5.26). A descendant of the prize winning chair in 1940 it is of moulded plastic and rubber with an upholstered cover on a base of metal rods. The idea was to give maximum comfort with minimum weight and bulk. An ottoman was designed to complement the chair and both are still in production today. With the womb chair Saarinen created three dimensional statement of his personal conception of seating for the post war citizen. Comfort, technological innovation, and individual self expression, were the three pillars of his design. People sit differently today than in the Victorian era, he once stated 37. The design was later followed by his 1956 Tulip chair, (figure figure 5.27), an elegant shape composed of a shell of plastic mounted on a single pedestal made of aluminium. The tulip chair sat as a manifestation of his search for an uninterrupted form to fulfil basic functions on the scale of the human body as he stated in his comment I wanted to make the chair all one thing again38. Here was demonstrated an example of the fusion of architecture and furniture design, the Tulip chair and the TWA terminal building shared a similar concept that is the fusion of structural elements into a single self determined form. Saarinen believed he could help to provide a formal unity to the twentieth century environment by the concept of architecture and design as being an integrated activity fashioning artefacts or buildings with the same ethos but of varying scale to suit usage. Saarinen maybe possibly stands a little closer to my ideals with his philosophy rather than his furniture itself. The ethos of attempting to fuse the images and concepts of architecture with those of his furniture to provide an integrated look definitely stands alongside my thoughts and ideals. However the look of his cool box architecture is definitely more akin to my design style than the look of his organic furniture. Although even here, his philosophy of bringing down design to its simplest form, without complication may possibly be compared with examples found within my design direction. 106

Fig5.28 Sand dune furniture by Zaha Hadid

Fig3.1 Daylight range

range

Fig5.29 Rover chair by Ron Arad

Fig3.1 Daylight range

range

Fig5.30 Tom Vac stackable chair by Ron Arad

Fig3.1 Daylight range

range Fig5.31 RTW storage unit by Ron Arad

Fig3.1 Daylight range

range

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5.11.

Rover chairs and sand dunes

We come to the point now, which is perhaps at the end of the nineteen fifties, moving into the sixties where there is less influence on my design practice, possible partly to do with the earlier period being more in keeping with the emergence of my design philosophy. I have delved into the period from the 1960s until approaching the millennium within the historical contexts but only as a completion exercise and to give the fuller picture to my design study. There are pertinent architects from this latter period that have had influence on my design with their building activity, such as Nicolas Grimshaw, Frank Gehry etc39. However at his period there seems to be little evidence as yet to state that they have ventured unlike the earlier period of architect designers into the furniture realm. Further study may enlighten this. There are notable exceptions such as the creator of the BMW factory in Leipzig, Zaha Hadid40 with her organic pieces of moulded furniture based on the inspiration of sand dune shapes 41 (figure 5.28), but with respect to her designs, which I appreciate for their form and interest, they have had no perceivable bearing on my design portfolio, in fact being some ways the anti thesis of my angular work. Similar could be said regarding Ron Arad42 perhaps, the architect designer, his Rover chair (figure 5.29) could perhaps be allied to my use of industrial metaphor perhaps, but with, maybe the exception of this design and perhaps such works as his Tom Vac stackable Chair (figure 5.30) with its use of industrial style corrugated metal seat, and his RTW storage unit (figure 5.31) that has the appearance of a factory ventilation grill, his work has remain in the background of my design work. Norman Foster43 , with his Sainsbury arts centre44 , that I have referenced in earlier design work and many other later works where he has become arguably the master of the space frame has as far as recent research unearthed only delved into one furniture project. His Nomos office furniture system (figure 5.32), for his aforementioned Renault distribution centre in Swindon, where he uses the idea of lightweight metal elements in tension, supporting the work surfaces, echoes his architecture and would be worth further study and evaluation.

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Jugendstijl. German movement, similar to Art Nouveau, literally Youth -Style. Characterized by hard edges and strong relationship

between image and typography, the German style is distinctly different from its foreign counterparts. The style draws heavily from traditional German typography and imagery. 1900-1914, Peter Behrens produces symbolist prints relying on pure, simple, abstraction and reduction of form to create mathematically justified and harmonious compositions that disguise the mark of the artist with an intentionally mechanical feel. Behrens becomes artistic director of German electrical manufacturer AEG. Behrens develops corporate identity campaign and solidifies AEG as a modern corporation by emphasizing design consistency. Design Issues during 1900-1935 2

Art Nouveau (French for 'new art') is an international style of art, architecture and design that peaked in popularity at the beginning of

the 20th century (1880-1914) and is characterized by highly-stylized, flowing, curvilinear designs often incorporating floral and other plantinspired motifs. The name 'Art Nouveau' derived from the name of a shop in Paris, Maison de l'Art Nouveau, at the time run by Siegfried Bing, that showcased objects that followed this approach to design. Art Nouveau, French for new art, was not simply a new style of art and design, but a whole new way of thinking. It was a movement that greatly influenced artists and designers and later, progressed onto the De Stijl movement (from 1880-1905) and the German Bauhaus School (early 1920's-1930's). Art Nouveau 3

Functionalism, in architecture, is the principle that architects should design a building based on the purpose of that building. This

statement is less self-evident than it first appears, and is a matter of confusion and controversy within the profession, particularly in regard to modern architecture .Functionalism (architecture)
4

Peter Behrens (b. Hamburg, Germany 1868; d. Berlin, Germany 1940) Peter Behrens was born in Hamburg in 1868. Originally trained

as a painter, Behrens eventually abandoned painting in favour of graphic and applied arts. In 1899 he was invited to the Artists' Colony at Darmstadt where he maintained a leadership position. Afterwards he worked as the Directore of the Kunstgewerkeschule in Dusseldorf. Behren's interim there stimulated a new geometric abstraction in his work. From 1907 to 1914, Behrens worked as an artistic adviser to the AEG in Berlin. While with AEG he created the world's first corporate image. Most of his architectural designs for the AEG borrowed from industry both in terms of form and material. The Turbine Factory in Berlin-Moabit most successfully displays the industrial nature of most of his buildings. Behrens can be considered a key figure in the transition from Jugendstil to Industrial Classicism. He played a central role in the evolution of German Modernism. Behrens died in Berlin in 1940. Peter Behrens - Great Buildings Online

Josef Hoffmann (b. Pirnitz, Moravia 1870; d. Vienna, Austria 1956) Josef Hoffman was born in Pirnitz, Moravia (now Chechoslovakia) in

1870. He studied architecture at the Academy of Fine Arts in Vienna under Carl von Hasenauer and Otto Wagner, whose theories of a functional, modern architecture profoundly affected his architectural works. He won the Rome prize in 1895 and the following year joined the Wagner's office. Hoffman established his own office in 1898 and taught at the Vienna Kunstgewerbeschule from 1899 until 1936. He was a founding member of the Vienna Secession, a group of revolutionary artists and architects. He actively supported the group by designing its exhibitions and writing for the magazine Ver Sacrum. In 1903 he helped found the Wiener Werkstate. Although Hoffman's earliest works belong to a Secessionist tangent of the Art Nouveau, his later works introduced a vocabulary of regular grids and squares. The functional clarity and abstract purity of his later works mark him as an important precursor of the Modern Movement. A highly individualistic architect and designer, Hoffman's work combined the simplicity of craft production with a refined aesthetic ornament. He died in Vienna in 1956. Josef Hoffmann - Great Buildings Online

Henry van de Velde (b. Antwerp, Belgium 1863; d. Oberagen, Switzerland 1957) Henry Van De Velde was born in Antwerp, Belgium

in 1863. The son of a wealthy chemist, he initially studied painting. Influenced by his admiration for Ruskin, Morris and Voysey, he redirected his efforts as a designer. In 1901 Van de Velde was invited to Weimar as consultant to the craft industries of the Grand Duchy of Saxe-Weimar. Five years later he became director and designer of the new Grand Ducal School of Arts and Crafts which he based on Mackintosh's Glasgow School of Art. Van de Velde adhered to the Utopian idea that architects could reform society through design. He believed that 'Ugliness corrupts not only the eyes, but also the heart and mind'. Borrowing from his own Flemish background and the English Arts & Crafts movement, Van de Velde developed a highly detailed, style. Using concrete as an expressive element, he created ornamental designs and ornate interiors which directly influenced the Art Nouveau movement. Van de Velde left Germany when World War II broke out. He died in Oberagen, Switzerland in 1957. Henry van de Velde - Great Buildings Online

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Book reference

Neue Sachlichkeit. Usually translated as New Objectivity. German modern realist movement of the 1920s, taking its name from the

exhibition Neue Sachlichkeit held in Mannheim in 1923. Part of the phenomenon of the return to order following the First World War. Described by the organiser of the exhibition, GF Hartlaub, as 'new realism bearing a socialist flavour'. The two key artists associated with Neue Sachlichkeit are Otto Dix and George Grosz, two of the greatest realist painters of the twentieth century. In their paintings and drawings they vividly depicted and excoriated the corruption, frantic pleasure seeking and general demoralisation of Germany following its defeat in the war and the ineffectual Weimar Republic which governed until the arrival in power of the Nazi Party in 1933. But their work also constitutes a more universal, savage satire on the human condition. Other artists include Christian Schad and Georg Schrimpf. Tate | Glossary | Neue Sachlichkeit

AEG (Allgemeine Elektrizitts-Gesellschaft, General Electricity Company) was a German producer of electronics and electrical equipment.

AEG was founded in 1883 by Emil Rathenau who had bought some patents from Thomas Edison. AEG -

10

Piet Mondrian Known as "the father of geometric abstraction," Piet Mondrian (1877-1944) was a pivotal figure in the revolution of

Modern Art that began with Cubism in the early 20th century. Piet Mondrian
11

Gerrit Rietveld (b. Utrecht, Netherlands 1888; d. Utrecht, Netherlands 1964) Gerrit Thomas Rietveld was born in Utrecht in the

Netherlands in 1888. After working in his father's joinery business, he apprenticed at a jewellery studio. In 1911 he started his own cabinet-making firm, which he maintained for eight years. In this same period, he studied architecture. Through his studies he became acquainted with several founders of De Stijl. In 1917 Rietveld designed the Red Blue Chair, which signalled a radical change in architectural theory. His unusual furniture designs led to several housing commissions which he invariably designed in a Neo-plastic style. The designs utilized the free and variable use of space and showed a profound understanding of dynamic spatial ideas. In the late 1920s architecture in the Netherlands focused on the idea of "dematerialization". This idea influenced a series of terrace houses with which Rietveld was involved. In 1928 Rietveld acted as a founding member of CIAM. With a few exceptions, the 1930s and 1940s were not particularly productive for Rietveld. Between 1942 and 1948, Rietveld taught at several institutions in the Netherlands. In 1963 he was elected an honorary member of the Bond van Nederlandse Architecten and in 1964 he received an honorary degree from the Technische Hochschule in Delft. Rietveld died in Utrecht in 1964. Gerrit Rietveld - Great Buildings Online

12 13

Book reference Mathematical proportion, such as mathematical progression, 2+2 4+4 etc

14

The Bauhaus is the common term for the Staatliche Bauhaus a school in Germany that combined crafts and the fine arts. It operated

from 1919 to 1933, and for the approach to design that it publicized and taught. The Bauhaus school was founded by Walter Gropius. The name Bauhaus, stems from the German words for "to build" and "house." Ironically, despite its name and the fact its founder was an architect; the Bauhaus did not have an architecture department for the first several years of its existence. Bauhaus style became one of the most influential currents in Modernist architecture and modern design. Bauhaus 15

Ludwig Mies van der Rohe (b. Aachen, Germany 1886; d. Chicago, Illinois 1969) Ludwig Mies Van der Rohe was born in Aachen,

Germany in 1886. He worked in the family stone-carving business before he joined the office of Bruno Paul in Berlin. He entered the studio of Peter Behrens in 1908 and remained until 1912. Under Behrens' influence, Mies developed a design approach based on advanced structural techniques and Prussian Classicism. He also developed sympathy for the aesthetic credos of both Russian Constructivism and the Dutch De Stijl group. He borrowed from the post and lintel construction of Karl Friedrich Schinkel for his designs in steel and glass. Mies worked with the magazine G which started in July 1923. He made major contributions to the architectural philosophies of the late 1920s and 1930s as artistic director of the Werkbund-sponsored Weissenhof project and as Director of the Bauhaus. Famous for his dictum 'Less is more', Mies attempted to create contemplative, neutral spaces through an architecture based on material honesty and

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structural integrity. Over the last twenty years of his life, Mies achieved his vision of a monumental 'skin and bone' architecture. His later works provide a fitting denouement to a life dedicated to the idea of a universal, simplified architecture Mies died in Chicago, Illinois in 1969. Ludwig Mies van der Rohe - Great Buildings Online

16

Exposition Internationale des Arts Dcoratifs et Industriels Modernes , Was dedicated to the display of modern decorative

arts. The exhibition brought together thousands of designs from all over Europe and beyond. With over 16 million visitors, it marked the high point of the first phase of Art Deco. The exhibition was shaped by France's ambitions in the years immediately after the First World War. Its aim was to establish the pre-eminence of French taste and luxury goods. French displays dominated the exhibition and Paris itself was put on show as the most fashionable of cities. V & A - Art Deco - Virtual Tour

17

Le Corbusier (b. La Chaux de Fonds, Switzerland 1887; d. Cap Martin, France 1965) Charles-Edouard Jeanneret-Gris was born in La

Chaux de Fonds, Switzerland, 1887. Trained as an artist, he travelled extensively through Germany and the East. In Paris he studied under Auguste Perret and absorbed the cultural and artistic life of the city. During this period he developed a keen interest in the synthesis of the various arts. Jeanneret-Gris adopted the name Le Corbusier in the early 1920s. Le Corbusier's early work was related to nature, but as his ideas matured, he developed the Maison-Domino, a basic building prototype for mass production with free-standing pillars and rigid floors. In 1917 he settled in Paris where he issued his book Vers une architecture [Towards a New Architecture], based on his earlier articles in Lsprit Nouveau. From 1922 Le Corbusier worked with his cousin Pierre Jeanneret. During this time, Le Corbusier' s ideas began to take physical form, mainly as houses which he created as "a machine for living in" and which incorporated his trademark five points of architecture. During World War II, Le Corbusier produced little beyond some theories on his utopian ideals and on his modular building scale. In 1947, he started his Unite d'habitation. Although relieved with sculptural roof-lines and highly coloured walls, these massive post-war dwelling blocks received justifiable criticism. Le Corbusier's post-war buildings rejected his earlier industrial forms and utilized vernacular materials, brute concrete and articulated structure. Near the end of his career he worked on several projects in India, which utilized brutal materials and sculptural forms. In these buildings he readopted the recessed structural column, the expressive staircase, and the flat undecorated plane of his celebrated five points of architecture. Le Corbusier did not fare well in international competition, but he produced town-planning schemes for many parts of the world, often as an adjunct to a lecture tour. In these schemes the vehicular and pedestrian zones and the functional zones of the settlements were always emphasized. Le Corbusier - Great Buildings Online

18

Amedee Ozenfant born April 15, 1886, Saint-Quentin, France died May 4, 1966, Cannes. French painter and theoretician, who

cofounded the 20th-century art movement known as Purism, Amedee Ozenfant -- Britannica Online Encyclopaedia

19

The Platonic solids, also called the regular solids or regular polyhedra, are convex polyhedra with equivalent faces composed of

congruent convex regular polygons. There are exactly five such solids: the cube, dodecahedron, icosahedron, octahedron, and tetrahedron, as was proved by Euclid in the last proposition of the Elements. The Platonic solids are sometimes also called "cosmic figures although this term is sometimes used to refer collectively to both the Platonic solids and Kepler-Poinsot solids .Platonic Solid
20

Golden Section. The ancient Greeks knew of a rectangle whose sides are in the golden proportion (1: 1.618 which is the same as

0.618: 1). It occurs naturally in some of the proportions of the five platonic Solids. A construction for the golden section point is found in Euclids Elements. The golden rectangle is supposed to appear in many of the proportions of that famous ancient Greek temple, the Parthenon, in the Acropolis in Athens. Fibonacci Numbers and The Golden Section in Art, Architecture and Music
21

Remove and subtract to embellish quote Charlotte Perriand, Elisabeth Vedrenne, page11
Charlotte Perriand (1903-1999) is best known for her extensive work with Le Corbusier. As she tells it in her recently published

22

memoirs, Une vie de cration, she was so inspired by his Towards an Architecture that she sought him out at his studio and invited him to her show at the Paris "Salon d'Automne" in 1927. He came and liked her work enough to establish what would become a lifelong collaborative

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relationship with her. They worked together to create buildings in which there was no disassociation between the interior furnishings and the exterior form. In the 1920s they, along with Pierre Jeanneret, designed a successful group of armchairs and a chaise longue which were later reissued by Cassina. The chairs were produced in chrome plated or matte enamel tubular steel frames with a variety of upholstery choices including pony skin and cowhide. This work, the chaise longue in particular because Perriand was photographed lying in it for an exhibition, has become one of the defining icons of Perriand's career. In honour of her affinity for cowhide, the 1997 Charlotte Perriand exhibit at the Design Museum in London featured a washing machine commissioned by the sponsor, Whirlpool, with an imitation cowhide exterior.
23

Pierre Jeanneret. Architect and furniture designer Pierre Jeanneret was born in Switzerland in 1896. For most of his life he worked

alongside of, and often in the shadow of, his cousin Le Corbusier. In 1926 they published their manifesto "Five Points Towards a New Architecture" which served as the backbone of their architectural aesthetic. The five points describe a building structure that includes a free plan without internal walls, a roof terrace, an expanse of continuous windows, columns to support the house and a simple faade. Their follow-up building, the Villa Savoye (1928-31), was a representation of their outlined ideology. Practically an entire glass building with an almost undivided interior, the elegance was established by the columns, which made it look as though it was floating above the ground. Pierre Jeanneret Biography:

24

Purist villas. Villa Savoye "Unlike the confined urban locations of most of Le Corbusier's earlier houses, the openness of the Poissy

site permitted a freestanding building and the full realization of his five-point program. Essentially the house comprises two contrasting, sharply defined, yet interpenetrating external aspects. The dominant element is the square single-storied box, a pure, sleek, geometric envelope lifted buoyantly above slender pilotis, its taut skin slit for narrow ribbon windows that run unbroken from corner to corner (but not over them, thus preserving the integrity of the sides of the square)." Marvin Trachtenberg and Isabelle Hyman. Architecture: from Prehistory to Post-Modernism. p530. Villa Stein More usually known as the Villa Garches, this building started its life as the Villa de Monzie, according to the name of the original client, de Monize, who, as Minister of Culture, first invited Le Corbusier to design the Pavilion de Lsprit before proceeding to commission him with this villa.... "In retrospect, nothing served to tie Le Corbusi er more firmly to the Humanist tradition of the Renaissance than this villa, realised in 1927, for its from was patently predicated on Palladian types and rhythms." Kenneth Frampton, Modern Architecture 1851-1945, p294. Villa Savoye - Le Corbusier - Great Buildings Online

25 26

Book reference Jean Prouv (8 April 1901 - 23 March 1984) was a French architect and designer. His main achievement was transferring the

manufacturing technology from industry to the architecture, without losing the aesthetic qualities.

27

Fortnum & Mason, often shortened to just "Fortnum's", is a department store situated in Piccadilly, London and established in 1707

by William Fortnum and Hugh Mason. Its fame rests almost entirely on its up market food hall, though only one of its several floors is devoted to food. It is also the location of a celebrated tea shop. Fortnum & Mason - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
28

Isokon The London-based Isokon firm was founded in 1929 to design and construct modernist houses and flats, and subsequently

furniture and fittings for them. Originally called Wells Coates and Partners, the name was changed in 1931 to Isokon, a name derived from Isometric Unit Construction, bearing an allusion to Constructivism. Unusually for a design company, its directors were a bacteriologist Molly Pritchard, a solicitor Frederick Graham Maw, son of the founder of the law firm, Rowe and Maw, Frederick James Maw and an economist Robert S Spicer. In actuality, the company was run by Molly's husband Jack Pritchard whose initial involvement was to handle the economics, publicity and marketing, but who later went on to hire designers and direct the company. However Isokon was never commercially successful. But the end came when World War II began and its supply of plywood was cut off. The Isokon Furniture Company ceased production in 1939.Isokon 29

Richard Neutra. (b. Vienna 1892; d.Wuppertal, Germany 1970) .Richard Neutra was born in Vienna in 1892. He graduated in 1917

from the Technische Hochschule, Vienna, where he had been taught by Adolf Loos, and was influenced by Otto Wagner. He worked for Erich Mendelssohn in 1921-22 and in 1923 emigrated to the U.S. where he worked on several projects with Rudolf N. Schindler before establishing his own practice. Neutra created a modern regionalism for Southern California which combined a light metal frame with a

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stucco finish to create a light effortless appearance. "He specialized in extending architectural space into a carefully arranged landscape. The dramatic images of flat-surfaced, industrialized residential buildings contrasted against nature were popularized by the photography of Julius Shulman." An experienced and outspoken writer and speaker, Neutra worked with a series of successful partners including his wife, Dione, from 1922, his protg, Robert Alexander, from 1949-58 and his son, Dion, from 1965. He adamantly believed that modern architecture must act as a social force in the betterment of mankind. Neutra died in Wuppertal, Germany in 1970. Richard Neutra - Great Buildings Online

30

Museum of Modern Art Organic furniture competition. Together with Eero Saarinen, Eames had first experimented with bent

plywood for a group of prizewinning designs they submitted to the 1940 competition "Organic Design in Home Furnishings," organized by The Museum of Modern Art. These, however, proved difficult to manufacture, and most were upholstered for comfort. Intent on producing highquality objects at economical manufacturing costs, the Eameses devoted the better part of the next five years to refining the technique of moulding plywood to create thin shells with compound curves. The chair was initially manufactured by the Evans Products Company; in 1949 Herman Miller Inc. bought the rights to produce it . MoMA.org | The Collection | Charles Eames and Ray
Eames. Low Side Chair (model LCM). 1946

31

Robin Day is best known for his injection moulded Polyprop stacking chair. This was one of the first pieces of furniture to really use

the mass-manufacturing opportunities that Injection Moulding created. Robin Day graduated from the Royal College of Art in 1938. In 1942 he married the textile designer, Lucienne Conradi. They both opened a design office in 1948 and Day began working as a freelance exhibition, graphic and industrial designer. In 1949 Day entered the 'International Competition for Low-Cost Furniture Design' held at the Museum of Modern Art in New York. Day won first prize with Clive Latimer for his wooden and tubular metal storage units. Day was commissioned by Hills International to design modern furniture for the 1949 'British Industry Fair'. In 1950 Day designed Hill's corporate identity and became the companys chief designer. In 1951 Day was awarded a Gold Medal at the Milan Triennale for his design of his 'Homes and Gardens' pavilion at the Festival of Britain. From 1962 to 1963 Day worked on the Polyprop chair. From 1963 to the present day over 14 million chairs have been sold in twenty three countries. It has been described as one of the most democratic modern designs of the 20th century. Making the Modern World - Robin Day
32

Clive Latimer, see ref 30 for Robin Day. Saarinens dynamometer building. part of General Motors Technical centre (ref 32) was built as a engine test centre, the exhaust

33

stacks form part of the building design itself.

34

Gm technical centre Situated on a square mile of lightly wooded countryside, this extraordinary assemblage of twenty buildings, a

sizable man-made lake complete with fountains, and a handsomely modelled stainless steel-sheathed water tower has been called a coordinated research town and an industrial Versailles. Particularly noteworthy is the use of walls and panels of vivid co lours as enlivening accents inside and out. Sylvia Hart Wright. Sourcebook of Contemporary North American Architecture: From Post-war to Post-modern. p118.
35

Irwin miller house Columbus is a city known for its architecture. J. Irwin Miller, Co-Founder of the Cummins Engine Company, a local

concern manufacturing diesel engines, instituted a program in which Cummins would pay the architects' fee on any building if the client selected a firm from a list they compiled. It was so successful that Miller went on to defray the design costs of fire stations, public housing and other community structures. Columbus has come to have an unusual number of notable public buildings and sculpture, designed by such individuals as Eero Saarinen, I.M. Pei, Robert Venturi, Cesar Pelli, Richard Meier and others. Six of its buildings, built between 1942 and 1965, are National Historic Landmarks, and 60 other buildings sustain the Bartholomew County capital seat's reputation as a showcase of modern architecture. Columbus, Indiana -

36

Womb chair, so called because of its allusion to safety and enclosure of the body.

37 38

ref ref 113

39

Refer to historical contexts. Section 2 Zaha Hadid (b. 1950, Baghdad, Iraq) A leading contemporary woman architect, known for intense, avant-garde, sometimes

40

deconstructivist designs. "Born in Baghdad, she studied at the Architectural Association in London and was a partner in the Office of Metropolitan Architecture with Rem Koolhaas. Over the years, she has taught at Harvard, Yale, and other universities.. She has been made Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Letters, a Fellow of the American Institute of Architecture, and a Commander of the British Empire, 2002."Zaha Hadid - Great Buildings Online
41

Architect Zaha Hadid has designed Dune Formations, a series of furniture inspired by sand dunes. She looked at the changing

shapes that emerge as the wind blows across the desert and crystallized the motion at a certain point. The result is a series of abstracted forms made in to furniture pieces. Hadid designs furniture inspired by sand dunes - Building
42

Ron Arad was born in Tel Aviv in 1951 and studied at the Jerusalem Academy of Art (1971-73 and at the Architectural Association in

London (1974-79). In 1989, he and Caroline Thorman founded 'Ron Arad Associates'. He was professor of Design at the Hochschule in Vienna from 1994 to 1997. His work has been widely featured in books, magazine articles, professional journals, and press world-wide. Ron Arad has exhibited at many major museums and galleries throughout the world and his work is in many public collections including, among others, Centre Georges Pompidou, Paris; Metropolitan Museum of Art, N.Y; Victoria & Albert Museum, London and the Vitra Design Museum, Germany. Royal College of Art
43

Norman foster (b. Manchester, England 1935). He received his architectural training at Manchester University School of Architecture,

which he entered at age 21, and Yale University. He worked with Richard Rogers and Sue Rogers and his wife, Wendy Foster, as a member of "Team 4" until Foster Associates was founded in London in 1967. The "High Tech" vocabulary of Foster Associates shows an uncompromising exploration of technological innovations and forms. The firm's work also shows a dedication to architectural detailing and craftsmanship. Their designs emphasize the repetition of industrialized "modular" units in which prefabricated off-site-manufactured elements are frequently employed. The firm often designs specialist components for individual projects. Foster was awarded the RIBA Royal Gold Medal in 1983, and in 1990 the RIBA Trustees Medal was made for the Willis Faber Dumas building. He was knighted in 1990, and received the Gold Medal of the AIA in 1994. Foster and Partners currently has offices in London, Berlin, and Singapore, with over 500 employees worldwide. Norman Foster - Great Buildings Online
44

Sainsbury arts centre "The Sainsbury Art Centre at the University of East Anglia, Norwich is described as a well-serviced metal-clad

barn. Analogies have been drawn with the simplicity of expression and utility of purpose of Inigo Jones's St. Pauls Church, Covent Garden, London. It is a highly tuned and well-engineered shed for art of considerable sophistication serving as a research institute with public access gallery. It was sponsored by private funds. The white walls and roofs take the form of continuous trusses and all services are housed within the 'outer wall zone'." Dennis Sharp. Twentieth Century Architecture: a Visual History. p339. Sainsbury Centre Norman Foster - Great Buildings Online

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6. Conclusion

6.1.

Summary, happy travellers?

When you have completed ninety five percent of your journey you are only half way there 1

This line from a Japanese proverb is perhaps a valid expression of my journey through this unit and the latter part of my studies. The acquisition of knowledge along the journey can fuel further hunger for ideas along the way, the destination never quite appearing on the horizon. However, we now approach journeys end and must make a brief summary of the travels.

Considering the earlier section in this study it is plain the pure architectural contexts alongside the metaphorical contexts and input from personal experience, have always taken the driving seat in my design philosophy. However consideration must also be given to the valuable input taken from the contexts of the latter section where I consider the work of other architects and designers as well, my companions along the route of my study and practice. Study of the architectural contexts has provided the back bone for my study, reference to these cannot be neglected yet other input is needed from the other design contexts so as not to provide a blinkered look at the road ahead. The blending of the two, I believe, has provided me with a comprehensive package of knowledge to take forward as fuel for my design practice. The main input and adherence to others design philosophies has definitely come from the earlier period, i.e. the interwar years up to and possibly including the 1960s. The atmosphere of this innovative period, punctuated by the clouds of war, forcing in some cases, more innovation has always been the foundation of inspiration for me. The journey is almost at an end now; it has not always been a straightforward one, lost amongst ranks of anonymous factory sheds looking for inspiration and a way forward. However with the help of my contexts and companions I feel I have had a successful journey through my subject and have experienced successful outcomes for my design practice. The destination is in sight now and there is only time to leave you with one last quote. If you see a fork in the road .take it2

Japanese proverb, author unknown, source www.thinkexist.com Lawrence Peter Berra, born 1925, U.S baseball player. www.dontquoteme.com

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7. Bibliography and Web resources

Select Bibliography 1. Darley, J. Jones, E. Factory London, Reaktion books, 2003.

2.

Industrial architecture in Britain,

London,

Batsford,

1985.

3.

Skinner, J. Winter, J,

Form and Fancy; factories and buildings by Wallis , Gilbert and partners 1916-1939, Industrial architecture; a survey of factory building,

Liverpool,

Liverpool University Press, Studio vista,

1997.

4.

London,

1970.

5.

Brockman, H.

The British architect in industry, 1841-1940,

London,

Allen and Unwin,

1974.

6.

Dean, D.

The thirties ,recalling the architectural scene,

London,

Trefoil R.I.B.A,

and

1983.

7.

Harwood, E.

England: a guide to post war listed buildings,

London,

Ellipsis,

2000.

8.

Hitchmough, W. Murray, P. Trombley, S.

Hoover factory; Wallis Gilbert and partners,

London

Phaidon,

1992.

9.

Modern British architecture since 1945,

London,

Muller,

1984.

10.

Strike, J.

Construction into design: the influence of new methods of construction in architectural design 1690-1990

London,

ButterworthHeinemann

1991

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Select web resources 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. http://www.architecture.com/go/Architecture/Home.htmlArchitecture.com. information General architectural

http://www.c20society.org.uk/The Twentieth Century Society Articles on 20th century buildings. http://www.greatbuildings.com/architects/Sir_Owen_Williams.htmlSir Buildings Online Buildings articles and other architects Owen Williams Great

http://www.designmuseum.org/design/index.php?id=61The MARS Group / Architectural Group (19331957) - Design/Designer Information and other designers http://www.localhistory.scit.wlv.ac.uk/Museum/museum.htmMuseum industry links, visual and text. of Industry Black & Edensor : Country Industrial British

http://www.nd.edu/~artslide/architecture/htmls/doordan8.htmlTransportation Architecture I & II</head> http://www.staffs.ac.uk/schools/humanities_and_soc_sciences/te1/index.phpTim Industrial Ruins Photographic resource of industrial sites http://forgottenplaces.fttcorp.com/index_eng.phpForgotten Photographic resource of industrial sites. Places :

English

Introduction

9.

http://www.international.icomos.org/risk/2002/uk2002.htm#Heritage at Kingdom building resources.

Risk 2002-2003: United

10. http://www.savebritainsheritage.org/casework%20November%202003.htmCasework news, November 2003 building resources 11. http://www.designmuseum.org/ Design resources.

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