PERSONALITY

Personality is a concept that we use continuously in our day-to-day routine, when dealing with people. We talk about people as having a good personality or a bad personality or arrogant and aggressive personality. Personality can be reflected in a persons temperament and is a key factor influencing individual behaviour in organizations. Often the wrong type of personality of a superior proves disastrous in terms of worker unrest and protests. alvatore !addi has defined personality as" #Personality is a stable set of characteristics and tendencies that determine those commonalities and differences in the psychological behaviour $thoughts, feelings and actions% of people that have continuity in time and that may not be easily understood as the sole result of the social and biological pressures of the moment.& 'here are several aspects of this definition that need to be considered. 'he first aspect is that or relative stability of characteristics. 'hese characteristics account for #consistent patterns& of behaviour. 'he second aspect is the #commonalities and differences& in the behaviour of people. We are interested in understanding as to what an individual has in common with others as well as what sets that individual apart from others. (very person is in certain aspects, )ike all other people )ike some other people )ike no other person

Personality Types 'here are two types of individual personality 'ype * and 'ype +. * person e,hibiting 'ype * behaviour is generally restless, impatient with a desire for -uick achievement and perfectionism. 'ype + is much more easy going rela,ed about time pressure, less competitive and more philosophical in nature. ome of the characteristics of 'ype * personality are given below. .s restless, so that he always moves, walks and eats rapidly. .s impatient with the pace of things, dislikes waiting and is impatient with those who are not impatient. /oes several things at once. 'ries to schedule more and more in less and less time, irrespective of whether everything is done or not. 0sually does not complete one thing before starting on another. 0ses nervous gestures such as clenched fist and banging on table. /oes not have time to rela, and en1oy life.

'ype + behaviour is 1ust the opposite and is more rela,ed, sociable and has a balanced outlook on life. 'ype * behaviour profile tends to be obsessive and managers with such behaviour are hard driving, detailed-oriented people with high performance standards. Five personality traits related to job performance (,traversion *greeableness (motional stability Openness to e,perience. Factors ontrib!tin" to Personality *ccording to !aier, #knowledge, skill and language are obviously ac-uired and represent important modifications of behaviour. )earned modifications in behaviour are not passed on to children, they must be ac-uired by them through their own personal e,perience.&

'he probable consensus is that heredity and environment 1ointly affect personality development. 'he full potential of a person may or may not be achieved due to environmental constraints and re-uirements, but the potential for development, both physically and psychologically is determined by the comple, set of genes. 'he factors affecting personality development are illustrated as follows" 2eredity 3ulture 4amily (nvironment Personality ocial ituational

Personality #imensions ome of the more important dimensions of personality that are closely linked with interpersonal and organizational behaviour are discussed as follows" A!t$oritarianism% *uthoritarianism refers to blind acceptance of authority. *uthoritarian people believe in obedience and respect for authority. +ecause of their beliefs in hierarchical order, they make good followers5 work better under directive supervision and more productive within authoritarian organizational structure. * closely related term to authoritarians is #dogmatism& which refers to the rigidity of a persons beliefs. &!rea!cratic Personality% * bureaucratic persons respect for authority is not total and blind, but is based upon respect for organizational rules and regulations. * bureaucratic person values subordination, rules, conformity, orderly processes in the organization and impersonal and formal relationships. 'ac$iavellianism" !achiavellianism is a term associated with 6iccola !achiavelli, a si,teenth century author who identified personality profiles of noble men. 'his personality merges in manipulating others for purely personal gains and gaining and keeping control of others. People with !achiavellianims have high self-confidence and high self-esteem. 'hey are cool and calculating and have no hesitation in using others or taking advantages of others in order to serve their own goals. Problem Solvin" Style% .ndividuals have their own style of making decisions and this style reflects their personality in certain ways. ome people are very through, meticulous and detail oriented. Others are impulsive and become easily swayed by what seems to be obvious. 'he problem solving style has two dimensions. One is the information gathering and the second dimension is evaluation of data and taking of decisions. 4urther, there are two styles involved in information gathering. One is known as ensation and the second style known as intuitive style, 'he evaluation style also has two dimensions. One style involves more emphasis on feeling while the other involves more emphasis on thinking. When the two dimensions of information gathering and the two dimensions of evaluation are combined, it results in four problem-solving styles. 'hese are" 7. Sensation(feelin" style. 'hese people are dependable, friendly, social and approach facts with human concerns. 'hey are pragmatic, methodical and like 1obs that involve human contact and public relations. ome suitable areas of 1obs include teaching customer relations, social workers, and sales people. 8. Sensation(t$in)in" style. 'hey are practical, logical, decisive, and sensitive to details they also prefer bureaucratic type organizations. 'hey are not highly skilled in interpersonal relations and are more suited to such technical 1obs as those of production, accounting, engineering and computer programming.

9. Int!ition(feelin" style. 'hese people are enthusiastic, people oriented, charismatic and helpful. ome of the professions suitable for this style are public relations, advertising, politics and personnel. :. Int!ition(t$in)in" style. 'hese people are creative, energetic, ingenious, and like 1obs that are challenging in terms of design and analysis such as system design, law, research and development, top management and so on. Loc!s of ontrol )ocus of control is the e,tent to which the individuals believes that" 'hey control their own lives, or (,ternal forces control their lives, which are beyond their control. * person with a strong #internal locus of control& believes that he controls events concerning his own life and that his internal traits determine what happens in given situation. * person with a strong #e,ternal locus of control& feels that outside forces are affecting the events in his life and he is at the mercy of destiny, chance or other people. 2e believes that #whatever will be, will be& and everything happens by the will of ;od. Introvert and E*trovert Personalities .ntrovert persons are basically shy, they prefer to be alone and have difficulty in communicating. (,troverts are outgoing, ob1ective, and aggressive they also relate well with people. Self(esteem elf-esteem is the degree of respect a person has for himself. elf-esteem is a measure of self-confidence and respect for ones abilities and motivation. .t is also a higher level need in !aslows model of hierarchical needs. elf-esteem is positively related to assertiveness, independence and creativity. T$e sociali+ation process a% Organizational socialization < values, norms, behavior pattern. b, $aracteristics of or"ani+ational sociali+ation of employees 3hange of attitude, values and behaviour. 3ontinuity of socialization over time. *d1ustment to new 1obs, work groups and organizational practices. !utual influence between new recruits and managers. 3riticality of early socialization period. Sociali+in" ne- employees 0se of mentor or role model Orientation and training program. =eward system. 3areer planning. S!ccessf!l or"ani+ational sociali+ation incl!des Provide a challenging first 1ob Provide relevant training. Provide timely and consistent feedback. elect a good first supervisor to be in change of socialization. /esign a rela,ed orientation program. Place new recruits in work groups with high morals Emp$asis on different c$aracteristics. *dministrative skills Work motivation .nterpersonal skill 3reativity ocial dominance

!aturity .ndependence

Propositions / $ris Ar"yris .. 'here is lack of congruency between the needs of healthy individuals and the demands of the formal organization. ... 'he resultant of this disturbance are frustration, failre, short < time perspective and conflict. .... 0nder certain conditions the degree of frustration, failure, short < time perspective and conflict will tend to increase. .>. 'he nature of the formal principles of the organization cause the subordinate, at any given level, to e,perience competition, rivalry, inter < subordinate hostility and to develop a focus toward the parts rather than the whole. >. 'he employee adaptive behaviour maintains self < integration and impedes integration with the formal organization. >.. 'he adaptive behaviour of the employees has a cumulative effect, feedback into the organization and reinforces itself. >... 3ertain management reactions tend to increase the antagonisms underlying the adaptive behaviour. >.... Other management actions can decrease the degree of incongruence between the individual and formal organization. .?. @ob or role enlargement and employee < centred leadership will not tend to work to the e,tent that the adaptive behaviour $propositions ..., .>, > and >.% has embedded in organisational culture and the self < concept of the individual. ?. 'he difficulties involved in proposition .? may be minimized by the use of reality oriented leadership. Personality T$eories 'here are several theories but the more prominent among them are" $i% type, $ii% trait, $iii% psychoanalytic, $iv% social learning and $v% humanistic. Type T$eories 'ype theories place personalities into clearly identifiable categories. Aretschmer and heldon are credited with this classification. .n type theories relationship was sought to be established between features of face or body and personality. 'hus, a short, plumb person $endomorph% was said to be sociable, rela,ed, and even tempered5 a tall, thin person $ectomorph% was characterized as restrained, self conscious, and fond of solitude5 a heavy set muscular individual $mesomorph% was described as noisy, callous, and found of physical activity. *lthough a persons physi-ue may have some influence on personality, the relationship is much more subtle than this sort of classification implies. 'hus classification of personalities on body basis is sub1ective. 'he second basis to type personalities is psychological factors. 3arl @ung, divided all personalities into introverts and e*troverts. 'hese terms are normally associated with an individuals sociability and interpersonal orientation. (,troverts are gregarious, sociable individuals, while introverts are shy, -uiet and retiring. Trait T$eories 'rait theorists assume that a personality can be described by its position on a number of continuous dimensions or scales, each of which represents a trait. 'hus, we could rate an individual on a scale of intelligence, emotional stability, aggressiveness, creativeness, or any of a number of other dimensions. Psychologists working in a area of trait theory are concerned with $a% determining the basic traits that provide a meaningful description of personality, and $b% finding some way to measure them. Psychoanalytic theory is based on the in-depth study of individual personalities. Social Learnin" T$eory 'here are two ways of learning " )earning through reinforcement < direct e,perience and learning by observing others, also called vicarious learning. 4or social learning theorists reinforcement is not always necessary for learning. 'hey believe that since an individual can make use of comple, symbolic processes to code and store his observations in memory, he can learn by observing the actions of others and by noting the conse-uences of those actions. ome of the person variables that determine what an individual will do in a particular situation include the following " 3ompetencies

3ognitive strategies Outcome e,pectations ub1ective value outcome elf regulatory systems and plans

T$e 0!manistic Approac$ 'he humanistic approach to the study of personality includes number of theories, although different in some respects, share a common emphasis on mans potential for self direction and freedom of choice. 3arl =ogers and *braham !aslow are credited with the humanistic theory of personality. Ro"ers1 Self T$eory =ogers approach to personality is described as phenomenological. 4or =ogers, behaviour is utterly dependent upon how one perceives the world < that is, behaviour is the result of immediate events as they are actually perceived and interpreted by the individual. uch an approach to personality emphasizes the self and its characteristics. .ndeed, this theory is often, referred to as self theory of personality because the best vantage point for understanding behaviour is from the internal frame of reference of the individual himself. 'aslo-1s Self(Act!alisation T$eory *braham !aslow is regarded as the spiritual father of humanism in *merican psychology. 2umanistic psychology of !aslow radically differs from psychoanalytic and learning or behaviouristic theories. 2umanistic psychology of !aslow, on the other hand, postulates man as self actualiser. +y self-actualisation !aslow meant the development of full individually, with all parts of the personality in harmony. (,istential philosophy is concerned with man as an individual and each person alone is responsible for his own e,istence. 'his drive of man which is inherent in him, is called self(act!alisation. 2 Also refer to 3Personality T$eories / 4ie"ler5 for Fre!d1s Personality t$eory Assertiveness 'eanin" of Assertiveness Webster defines #assert& as #to state positively with great confidence&. .t is the e,tent of forcefulness a person $or leader% uses with a view to e,press himself. *ssertiveness is a term meant to describe the e,tent of control5 the leader tries to e,ercise over both the followers as well as the situation. .t means e,pressing what you think or feel without endangering the ego of others. .t is saying what you mean and having self-respect and respect for others. *ssertiveness is a skill you can ac-uire < not a personality trait. .t is an essential skill for a leader. T$e Assertive Personality *ccording to Websters 'hird .nternational /ictionary, the verb #assert& means #to state or affirm positively, assuredly, plainly or strongly.& 'he assertive person possesses four characteristics" 7. 0e feels free to reveal $imself. 'hrough words and actions he makes the statement #'his is me. 'his is what . feel, think and want.& 8. 0e can comm!nicate -it$ people on all levels < with strangers, friends and family. 'his communication is open, direct, honest and appropriate. 9. 0e $as an active orientation to life. 2e pursues what he desires. .n contrast to the passive person who waits for things to happen, he attempts to make things happen. :. 0e acts in a -ay t$at $e respects $imself. *ware that he cannot always win, he accepts his limitations. 2owever, he always strives to make the good try so that win, lose or draw, he maintains his self-respect. $aracteristics of Assertive &e$avio!r When we are assertive, we tell people what we want, need, or would prefer. We state our preference clearly and confidently, without belittling others, or ourselves without being threatening or putting other people down. *ssertive

people can initiate conversation, can compliment others and receive compliments gracefully, can cope with 1ustified criticism < and can give it too. .t is a positive way of behaving, that doesnt involve violating the rights of other people. *bove all, assertive behaviour is appropriate behaviour. 'his can mean that it is appropriate on occasions to be angry, or it can mean choosing not to be assertive in a particular situation or with a particular person. 6. Promotes e7!ality in $!man relations$ip .t keeps both parties in all situations on an e-ual footing. .t confers personal power and restores balance of power. .t promotes win - win situations in dyadic relationships.

8. Enablin" !s to act in o!r o-n best interests .t assists us to " !ake decisions about career, relationships, lifestyles, time schedule. 'ake initiative in starting conversations, activities, groups 'rust our own 1udgment et own goals and work to achieve them *sk help from others Participate socially 9. To stand !p for o!rselves -it$o!t !nd!e an*iety aying #6o& etting limits on time and energy =esponding to criticism, put-downs, anger (,pressing, supporting or defending an opinion :. ;. To e*press $onest feelin"s 'o disagree 'o show anger, affection, friendship 'o admit fear or an,iety 'o e,press agreement or support To e*ercise personal ri"$ts. 3ompetency as citizen, consumer, member of an organisation, company, school, workgroup. *s participant in public events to e,press opinions 'o work for change 'o respond appropriately to violations of own or others rights.

<. =it$o!t denyin" ot$ers1 ri"$ts. 'o accomplish the above without unfair criticism of others without hurtful behaviour towards others, without namecalling, intimidation, manipulation and controlling. Assertiveness% Principles Whatever your problem, there are certain basic principles for being assertive" =eveal as much of your personal self as is appropriate to the situation and the relationship. trive to e,press all feelings, whether angry or tender. *ct in ways that increase your liking and respect for yourself. (,amine your own behaviour and determine areas where you would like to become more assertive. Pay attention to what you can do differently rather than how the world can be different. /o not confuse aggression with assertion. *ggressiveness is an act against others. *ssertion is appropriate standing up for yourself. =ealize you may be unassertive in one area, like business, and assertive in another area, like marriage. *pply the techni-ues you use successfully in one area to the other. Practice speaking up with trivia. .f you can say #;o to the end of the line& to a woman at the supermarket, you can eventually announce #6o . dont want to do that& to your spouse.

/o not confuse glib, manipulatory behaviour with true assertion. 0nderstand assertion is not a permanent state. *s you change, life situations change, and you face new challenges and need new skills.

Assertive &e$avio!rs *ssertiveness is a set of congruent behaviours one can learn through persistence and practice. 6. T$in) and tal) abo!t yo!rself in a positive -ay .t may help you take time to compile a list of your -ualities, gifts, and strengths. 8. Feel comfortable e*pressin" $onest compliments Bou surely appreciate certain things about other people - something they do, they wear, the way they work, what that say. 9. Accept compliments -it$o!t embarrassment Others too appreciate certain things about you, and it is good that they e,press their appreciation through honest compliments. :. E*press yo!rself directly and spontaneo!sly 'he feelings you actually e,perience, and the thoughts you think worth e,pressing both positive, as well as negative, with due respect for the other person. ;. As) for -$at yo! -ant 3larify yourself about what you want and e,press it appropriately either as a suggestion or a re-uest or a command, depending on the situation <. State $onest disa"reement -it$ ease When you disagree with what someone says, stick to the issue without attacking the person. .f you are deficient in this behaviour, you may begin with small issues and gradually move on to bigger ones. >. &e able to say 3No5 pecially so if you honestly think others take advantage of you. .n saying C6o there is no need to be rude, neither is it necessary to give many e,planations. !ake it clear that you are saying C6o to the re-uest, not to the person, and be ready to be misunderstood. ?. Insist on fair treatment 'his will often involve you and a person Cin charge. (,plore your alternatives" voicing your dissatisfaction in polite, firm terms may be enough5 if it is not, then increase the forcefulness of your e,pression. Whatever the outcome youll feel better for having stood up for your rights. *nd recognise the limitations of the situation, that is, when you have done all you can, learn to live peacefully with the results. @. Aeep in to!c$ -it$ friends >aluable friendships often decline because neither party acts to keep it going. Waiting for the other to take the initiative does not always have the desired effect. 6B. Ta)e t$e first step in formin" ne- friends$ips 4riendships are important. o a reasonable thing to do is to take the first step when you meet someone you would like to know better. .f you wait for them to act, you assume they are capable of taking risks. =isks are risks no matter who takes them. *sk no more of others than you ask of yourself. omponents of Assertive &e$avio!r Bou will recognize the following components of assertiveness" ;iving information eeking information (,pressing feelings *ccepting feelings

3hange desired $in self or other%

*ssertiveness is a balance between being passive and aggressive. 2owever, there are different types of assertion5 different ways of e,pressing your own rights assertively" State < Yo!r ri"$ts" * straightforward statement that stands up for your rights by clearly and reasonably stating your needs, wants, beliefs, opinions or feelings. As) / T$e ot$er person" * -uestion or -uestions designed to clarify where the other person stands5 what are his D her needs, wants, opinions and feelings. Empat$i+e / &ot$ parties" 'his is a behaviour that contains an element of understanding for the other person as well as a statement of your own needs and thoughts. Level / &ot$ parties" * statement that openly e,plains the adverse effect a persons behaviour is having on you. 'his is the strongest form of assertion and should only be used when the other types have been tried. Assertive &e$avio!r at =or) *ssertive behaviour in the workplace gives everyone a better chance of influencing the system and participating in changes. =elationships are more open and working climates are more genuine. Overtly aggressive or manipulative behaviour can bring immediate results, but credibility and integrity are put at risk. When people feel defensive and have to use their energy for political maneuvering, everyone in the organisation suffers. People behaving assertively make good line mangers. 'hey will say clearly what they want, but e-ually be supportive of staff and take the needs of others into account. 'hey can compromise and negotiate. 'he introduction of assertive behaviour into the workplace, whether it is a school, an office or shop floor, will probably involve an intense transition period. (,pressing negative feelings or standing up for your rights can be interpreted as Cout of order or Cinsubordinate. Often, unassertive people are Cinstitutionalized and need a great deal of support before they can Ccome out from under and begin to value their role and appreciate that their participation is sought. *ssertive behaviour is so important to self-esteem and proactive behaviour that it needs to be particularly supported and endorsed in young workers or school children and students. Advanta"es of Assertive &e$avio!r lose -or)in" relations$ips" *ssertion tends to breed assertion, so people work more happily with us than against us. We are then, with their help, more likely to achieve our ob1ectives in a conflict situation. Creater confidence in yo!rself" We develop a strong regard for ourselves and a high level of self esteem, reducing the chance of boastfulness $aggression% and hopelessness $passive%. Creater confidence in ot$ers" We have a healthy recognition of the capabilities and limitations of others as opposed to seeing them as inferior $aggression% or superior $passive%. Increased self responsibility" We take responsibility for ourselves, our wants, opinions, needs etc. rather than blaming others $aggression% or e,cusing ourselves $passive% Increased self(control" We can channel our thoughts and feelings to produce the behaviour we want, rather than being controlled by outside events or people, or inner emotions. Savin"s in time and ener"y" We can take decisions more swiftly based on their individual merit and save time when handling disputes. * lot of time and energy is wasted on worrying and scheming. .f we are not worried about upsetting people $passive% or scheming how not to miss out $aggression% then we can save ourselves a lot of stress. An increased c$an"e of everyone -innin" " *ssertiveness increases the likelihood that all parties will see their needs met, their ideas and opinions heard and considered and their abilities put to good use.

&loc)s Of Assertive &e$avio!r Follo-in" are some of t$e bloc)s in t$e personality t$at are faced by t$e individ!al in bein" assertive% T$e timid so!l. Bou allow yourself to be pushed around, cannot speak up, and remain passive in all situations. .f someone steps on your foot, you say, #.m sorry.& 6o matter how great your timidity and irresolution, there is always a point from which you can start to change.

T$e person -it$ comm!nication diffic!lties. *ssertion processes four behavioral characteristics. Openness and directness, honesty and appropriateness. Bou may be deficient in any or all three of these areas, but often you lack assertion in 1ust one" - Indirect omm!nication. Bou tend to be wordy, a characteristic often accompanied by shallowness of feeling, lack of clear-cut desires, and difficulty with close relationships. - #is$onest or pse!do assertive comm!nication. Bou seem to be open and honest, generally appropriate, often e,troverted, but this seeming assertiveness hides a basic lack of honesty. - Inappropriate comm!nication. 0naware about the realities of social relations, you say what you think is the right thing at the wrong time. T$e split assertive. People may fail at one area of assertiveness and succeed at another. Bou can be able to openly e,press your tender feelings and yet not be able to show your angry feelings < and vice versa. * man can be the epitome of passivity at the office, and behave like a tyrant at home. 'he range for split assertive behaviour can be very narrow. Bou may be assertive in a one-to-one relationship, but not in groups. .n general, the narrower the area, the easier it is to change with *ssertiveness 'raining. T$e person -it$ be$avioral deficits. Bou cant make eye contact or small talk, handle a confrontation, or start a conversation. 'hese assertive skills can be learned. T$e person -it$ specific bloc)s. Bou know what you should do, and have the skill to accomplish it, but your fears of re1ection, anger, scrutiny, criticism, closeness, tenderness, inhibit you from carrying out the action. Yo! possess incorrect ideas. Bou dont comprehend the difference between aggression and assertion. Bou know what and how of what has to be done, but -uestion your right to do it. Yo! $ave a -ron" concept of social reality. Bou dont understand that different kinds of relationships e,ist with different people. Bou think youre supposed to treat a stranger as a friend. .t never occurs to you to treat the stranger as a stranger and the friend as a friend. Yo! $ave an erroneo!s idea of psyc$olo"ical reality. Bou worry about worrying, become an,ious about being an,ious, not realizing that the life situation provides problems where an,iety is the appropriate reaction. Yo! don1t "rant independence to ot$er people. Bou think as long as youre being reasonable, the other person should go along with you. +ut very often, the other person, because of his own needs, feelings, and hang-ups, 1ust wont. Bou feel that as long as you do the right things, you should win them all. .f you dont theres something wrong with you. =eality doesnt work that way. Bou can demand a raise and deserve it, but the economic state of your firm may prohibit a salary increase.

Assertiveness Tec$ni7!es 'he 'hree techni-ues for *ssertiveness are" !ental *i-Ai-/o .nformation +uilding (choing 'ental Ai(Ai(#o 'his techni-ue can help you to accept criticism comfortably without becoming defensive. *i-Ai /o is a martial art. >isualize a man holding up his hand in front of you. 2e asks that you to hit his upheld hand with your fist. With all your force, you hit his hand. ince he did not move his hand when you hit it, he stops the forward motion of your swing. *gain you are asked to hit his hand with your fist. 'his time, in a split second before youre about to punch him, his fingers wrap around your fist. 2e then backs his hand away, while still holding on to yours controlling the force you 1ust threw. 2e accomplishes two things. 4irst, by offering no resistance to your 1ob, he feels no pain. econd, by directing the momentum of your punch, he is in control of whats happening. 0se mental *i-Ai-/o $control% when any negative feedback $mental fist% comes your way. /o not fight the feedback. .nstead, accept the feedback by allowing it to come to you. tay in control by deciding whether you agree to what is said. 'hen you use your focused listening skills. 'ry your best to stay even < tempered. Once you e,plode or hide, you start to lose control by giving in to the force. Information &!ildin"

'his techni-ue will help you initiate and build relationships by sharing information about yourself. One of the ways trust is built between associates is by the amount of knowledge that is shared by and about each other. Providing information about yourself first will encourage others to share their thoughts and feelings with you. Bou do not have to discuss something of mutual interest. 6or should you restrict sharing information 1ust because the other person has not disclosed much during your conversation. =emember, building relationships takes time. +efore meeting with someone, plan what kind of information would be appropriate to share. *fter sharing your thoughts and feelings, use humor and open-ended, non-leading -uestions to elicit feedback and to keep the conversation rela,ed and flowing. /epending upon how well you know the person and your own comfort level, start out with general information and work up to sensitive, need-to-know information. Ec$oin" 'his techni-ue will strengthen your ability to say #no& respectfully without regrets. 0se this techni-ue only after e,hausting these strategies" - .nform whoever is re-uesting your services that you are unable to do the 1ob as it is not into your priorities. uggest a more suitable person to take on the assignment. - .f appropriate, offer some assistance or time to help with part of the pro1ect or task. !ention other possible ways to complete the work. .f these strategies do not work, and you are still being ordered or intimidated to handle a re-uest, then use the echoing techni-ue. 'he techni-ue is similar to an echo because you repeat what you desire. tay composed and state over and over again what you want5 in the process, you will teach others that you are serious and determined. ome people feel this techni-ue is a rude one because it re-uires you to be domineering. 'he techni-ue certainly is used to get your way, but it should not be used e,clusively. When it is inappropriate for you to budge on a certain point, the echoing techni-ue will help you hold your ground with an associate, peer, supervisor, vendor, and even an irate and unreasonable customer. E*pressin" One1s Feelin"s T$e follo-in" are some of t$e points t$at are ta)en into consideration -$ile e*pressin" assertive feelin"s 7. Ano- =$at Yo! =ant To Say% Bou wont appear confident if you are unsure of what you want. Bou could appear foolish by asking of something that you eventually realize is not what you want. 8. Say It% /ont hesitate or beat about the bush, come right out with itE Practise before you say it and check for appropriateness. 9. &e Specific% ay e,actly what you want or do not want, so that there can be no confusion. +egin with the word #.&. 6o long e,planations are necessary. :. Say It as Soon as Possible% /o not let too much time pass, as this builds up apprehension. On the other hand, do not say it at the peak of your anger. Wait for that to pass. F. Loo) t$e Person in t$e Eye% People feel more comfortable if you look directly at them. .f you simply look shifty and cannot look them in the eye, you certainly will not come across as someone who knows what they want. G. Loo) Rela*ed% Boull convey an,iety by shifting from one foot to another, waving your arms around, or conversely being too rigid. Practise looking rela,ed in a mirror < its not as contradictory as it soundsE H. Avoid La!"$in" Nervo!sly% mile if its appropriate, but if you giggle or laugh you wont look as if you mean what you say. 'his will confuse the person you are speaking to. I. #on1t =$ine or be Sarcastic% +e direct and honest. Whining and pleading can either annoy the person or make them feel guilty. .t is being manipulative. +eing sarcastic, on the other hand, communicates hostility as you put the other person down.

PER EPTION 3If everyone perceived everyt$in" t$e same -ayD t$in"s -o!ld be a lot simpler5 ('oor$ead E Criffin

.n its simple sense perception is understood as the act of seeing what is there to be seen. +ut the perceiver, the ob1ect, and the environment influence what is seen. 'he meaning of perception will be complete when all the three aspects are stressed. * few definitions of perception are given below" #Perception can be defined as a process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environments.& #Perception includes all those processes by which an individual receives information about his environment < seeing, hearing, feeling, tasting, and smelling. 'he study of these perceptional processes shows that their functioning is affected by three classes of variables < the ob1ects or events being perceived, the environment in which perception occurs, and the individuals doing the perceiving.& Percept!al Process Perception, as revealed by the definitions, is composed of si, processes, viz., receiving, selecting, organizing, interpreting, checking, and reacting to stimuli. 'hese processes are influenced by the perceived and the situation. Process of Receivin" Stim!li 'he human organism is structured with five sensory organs, viz., vision, hearing, smell, touch and tasting. 'here is the si,th sense about which much is speculated and nothing is known. We receive stimuli through the organs. econdary organs receive not only physical ob1ects5 they receive events or ob1ects that have been repressed. We may not be able to report the e,istence of certain stimuli but our behaviour reveals that we are often sub1ect to their influence. imilarly, stimuli need not be e,ternal to us. 'hey may be inside also. Process of Selectin" Stim!li !yriads of stimuli seemingly clamour for our attention at any given time. We need to filter or screen out most of them so that we may deal with the important or relevant ones. 'wo sets of factors govern the selection of stimuli" e,ternal and internal. E*ternal Factors Infl!encin" Selection 'he e,ternal factors influencing selection are" Nat!re" +y nature we mean, whether the ob1ect is visual or auditory, and whether it involves pictures, people or animals. Location" 'he best location of a visual stimulus for attracting attention is directly in the front of the eyes in the center of a page. When this location is not possible in a newspaper or a magazine, a position in the upper portion of a page in more favourable than one in the lower portions, and the left hand side receives more attention than the right hand side. Intensity" timuli of higher intensity are perceived more than the ob1ects with low intensity. * loud noise, strong odour, or bright light will be noticed more than a soft sound, weak odour, or dim light. Si+e" ;enerally ob1ects of larger size attract more attention than the smaller ones. 'he maintenance engineering staff may pay more attention to a big machine than to a small one, even though the smaller one costs as much and as important to the operation. ontrast" 'he contrast principle states that e,ternal stimuli which stand out against the background, or which are not what people are e,pecting, will receive their attention. 'ovement" 'he principle of motion states that a moving ob1ect receives more attention than an ob1ect that is standing still. Repetition" 'he repetition principle states that a repeated e,ternal stimulus is more attention drawing than a single one. Novelty and Familiarity" 'he novelty and familiarity principle states that either a novel or a familiar e,ternal situation can serve as an attention getter. 6ew ob1ects in familiar settings or familiar ob1ects in new setting will draw the attention of the perceiver. Internal Factors Infl!encin" Selection .nternal factors influencing selection of stimuli include learning, psychological needs, age differences, interests, ambivalence, and paranoid perception. 'hese factors relate to oneself.

Learnin"" )earning, a cognitive factor, has considerable influence on perception. .t creates e,pectancy in people. People tend to perceive what they want to perceive. Psyc$olo"ical Needs" 6eeds play a significant role in perceptual selectivity. 0nreal things often look real because of deprived needs. A"e #ifference" Older senior e,ecutives complain about the inability of the new young to take tough decisions concerning terminating or resigning people and paying attention to details and paper work. 'he young managers in turn complain about the #old guards& resisting change and using paper and rules as ends in themselves. /ifferent perceptions of old and young e,ecutives are due to their age differences perceptions. Interest" 'he interests of the perceiver unconsciously influence perception. *n architect will notice many details of buildings that he passes only once. .t has been argued that, in their influence on perception, interests cannot be distinguished from needs. 'hat is, the person with a particular interest has a need to involve himself in activities pertaining to it. Bet there is some value in conceiving the two as distinct. Once they have been satisfied, most needs no longer influence perception. +ut if the person has a special interest, his perception is likely to be selective at any time. Ambivalence" *nother factor in perceptual selection is ambivalence or mi,ed feelings about a situation. Paranoid Perception" When the persons perception is so selective that he can find little common ground for communication with others, he is likely to be paranoid. T$e Or"ani+in" Process 'he perceptual selection related to the discussion of e,ternal and .nternal factors which helped gain the perceivers attention. 'his aspect of forming bits of information into meaningful wholes is called the perceptual organization. 'here are three dimensions to the perceptual organization, viz., figure ground, perceptual grouping, and perceptual constancy. Fi"!re Cro!nd% 4igure ground is considered to be the most basic form of perceptual organization. 'he figure ground principle states that the relationship of a target to its background influences perception. .n other words, according to the principle, perceived ob1ects stand out as separable from their general background. Percept!al Cro!pin"" 'he principles of grouping first defined by gestalt psychologists include similarity, pro,imity, closure, and continuity. Percept!al onstancy" * more subtle part of perceptual organization is constancy, our ability to perceive certain characteristics of an ob1ect as remaining constant, despite variations in the stimuli that provide us with our information. uch constancy amidst changing stimuli is indispensable if we are to ad1ust to our world. 'here are several aspects of constancy such as shape, size, colour. T$e Process of Interpretin" *fter the data have been received and organized, the perceiver interprets or assigns meaning to the information. .n fact, perception is said to have taken place only after the data have been interpreted. everal factors contribute towards what has been interpreted. !ore important amongst them are Percept!al Set Previously held beliefs about ob1ects influence an individuals perceptions of similar ob1ects. 'his is called perceptual set. Attrib!tion *ttribution refers to the process by which the individual assigns causes to the behaviour he conceives. 'here are critics who argue that perceptual distortion occurs because of attribution. *s too much credit or blame for behaviour is placed on persons rather than on environment. 4actors such as status, intentions, and conse-uences influence the attribution process. Stereotypin" tereotyping is the tendency for a persons perceptions of another to be influenced by the social group to which the others belong. .n perceiving another, a person is likely to categories the other according to some silent characteristic

such as se,, race, religion, nationality, occupation, or organizational affiliation. 'he individuals e,periences with others in the category in which he has placed them lead him to believe that they have certain traits in common. 'hus, he is ready to perceive the other as possessing the same trait. 0alo Effect 'he halo effect refers to the tendency of perceiving people in terms of good and bad, and ascribing all good -ualities to one who is liked and all bad -ualities to another who is disliked. Percept!al onte*t 'he conte,t in which an ob1ect is placed influences perception. 'he visual stimuli by themselves are meaningless. Only when the doodles are placed in a verbal conte,t do they take on meaning and value to the perceiver. Percept!al #efence *ccording to the principle of perceptual defence, an individual is likely to put a defence when confronted with conflicting, unacceptable or threatening stimuli. 'he defence mechanisms put up by the perceiver may assume any of the four forms" outright denial, modification of the data received, change in perception but refusal to change, and change in perception itself. Implicit Personality T$eory .n 1udging and making inferences about others, an individuals perceptions are influenced by his belief that certain human traits are associated, with one another. Projection 0nder certain conditions, people tend to see in another person traits that they themselves posses. 'hat is, they pro1ect their own feelings, tendencies, or motives into their 1udgement of others. 'his may be particularly true regarding undesirable traits, which the perceiver possesses but fails to recognize himself. T$e Process of $ec)in" *fter data have been received and interpreted, the perceiver tends to check whether his interpretations are right or wrong. One way of checking is for the person himself to indulge in introspection. 2e will put a series of -uestions to himself and the answers will confirm whether his perception about an individual or ob1ect is correct or not. *nother way is to check the veracity about the interpretation with others. T$e Process of Reactin" 'he last phase in perception is the reaction. 'he perceiver shall indulge in some action in relation to his perception. 'he action depends on whether the perception is favorable or unfavorable. 'he action is positive when the perception is favourable. .t is negative when the perception is unfavourable. Factors Infl!encin" Perception 'he perceiver, the perceived and situation are some of the factors that influence perception. $aracteristics of t$e Perceiver * perceiver needs to have, past e,perience, habits, personality, values, and attitudes, which may influence the perception process. 2e should be someone with a strong need for ego satisfaction. $aracteristics of t$e Perceived 'he physical attributes, appearance, and behaviour of persons in the situation also influence how a situation is perceived. We tend to notice the physical attributes of a person in terms of age, se,, height, and weight. $aracteristics of t$e Sit!ation 'he physical, social and organizational settings of the situation or event in -uestion can influence perceptions. Perception and Or"anisational &e$avio!r .n an interview for the selection of a candidate, the interviewers 1udgement about the suitability or otherwise of a candidate depends on how his behaviour is perceived by them. * re1ected applicant might feel that he was wronged by the interview though he deserved selection. +ut the fact is that interviewers generally form an early impression that becomes -uickly entrenched. .f the inade-uacies of the candidate are e,posed early, they weigh against him in the final selection

Specific applications in or"ani+ation (mployment interview Performance e,pectations Performance evaluation (mployee effort (mployee loyalty 'ana"in" t$e Perception Process 2ave a high level of self-awareness. eek information from various sources to confirm or disconfirm personal impressions of a decision situation. +e empathetic < that is, be able to see a situation, as others perceive it. .nfluence of perceptions of other people when they are drawing incorrect or incomplete impressions of events in the work setting. *void common perceptual distortions that biased in our view of people and situations. *void inappropriate attributions.

Five reasons -$y a person misperceives / 4al)ind and ostello Bou are influenced by cues below your own threshold i.e., the cues you dont know you perceived Bou respond to irrelevant cues to arrive at a 1udgment. Bou are influenced by emotional factors, i.e., what is liked is perceived as correct. Bou weigh perceptual evidence heavily if it comes from respectable sources. Bou are not able to identify all factors, i.e., not realizing how much weight is given to a single item.

LEARNINC 3 Yo! cannot teac$ a man anyt$in". Yo! can only $elp $im discover it -it$in $imself.5 ( Calileo )earning can be defined as a #relatively permanent change in behaviour or potential behaviour as a result of direct or indirect e,perience&. 'here are two primary elements in this definition that must both be present in order to identify the process of learning. 4irst is the element that the change must be relatively permanent. 'his means that after #learning& our behaviour must be different, either better or worse as compared to our behaviour prior to this e,perience of learning. 'he second aspect of the definition is that this change must occur due to some kind of e,perience or practice. 'his learning is not caused by biological maturation. T$eories of Learnin" 'here are four general approaches to learning < classical conditioning, operant conditioning, cognitive learning and social learning. lassical onditionin" 'he most well known e,periments on classical conditioning were undoubtedly conducted by ..P. Pavlov with dogs, and he established a timulus-=esponse $ -=% connection. 'his means that certain responses can be predicted which continuously result from certain induced stimuli. 3lassical conditioning introduces a simple cause-and-effect relationship between one stimulus and one response. .t also makes the response refle,ive or involuntary after the stimulus-response relationship has been established. 'his leaves no ground for making choices, which differentiates human beings from dogs. 0nder certain situations classical conditioning does e,plain human behaviour.

Operant onditionin" Operant conditioning induces a voluntary change in behaviour and learning occurs as a #conse-uence& of such change. .t is also known as reinforcement theory and it suggests that behaviour is a function of its conse-uences. .t is based upon the premise that behaviour or 1ob performance is not a function of inner thoughts, feelings, emotions or perceptions but is keyed to the nature of the outcome of such behaviour. 'his relationship is built around two principles. 4irst, that behaviour which results in positive rewards tends to be repeated and behaviour with negative conse-uences tends not to be repeated. econd, based upon such conse-uences, the behviour can be predicted and controlled. 2ence, certain types of conse-uences can be used to increase the occurrence of a desired behaviour and other types of conse-uences can be used to decrease the occurrence of undesired behaviour. 4rom an organizational point of view, any stimulus from the work environment will elicit a response. o"nitive Learnin" )earning is considered as the outcome of deliberate thinking about the problem or situation both intuitively and based upon known facts and responding in an ob1ective and goal oriented manner. 3ognition, in fact, is the act of knowing an item of information and this knowledge affects the behaviour of the person so that the information provides cognitive cues towards the e,pected goal. Social Learnin" .t is recognized that learning does not take place only because of environmental stimuli $classical and operant conditioning% or of individual determinism $cognitive approach% but is a blend of both views. .t also emphasizes that people ac-uire new behaviour by observing or imitating others in a social setting. .n addition learning can also be gained by discipline and self-control and an inner desire to ac-uire knowledge or skills irrespective of the e,ternal rewards or conse-uences. 'his process of self-control is also partially a reflection of societal and cultural influences on the development and growth of human beings. Transfer of Learnin" +erelson and teiner suggested that learning can be transferred from one situation to another and the e,tent of such transfer is a function of the e,tent of similarity in the stimulus or response. .f a person e,periences a similar situation that he dealt with before, then some of his previous e,perience would be transferred to the new situation and his learning time in the new situation would be considerably decreased. 'here are two concepts that help in e,plaining the transfer of learning. 'hese are as follows" Cenerali+ation 6o two situations are e,actly alike. 2owever, responses to certain situations can be applied to similar but different situations. +ecause of the principle of generalization, the individual can ad1ust to new learning situations more smoothly because of the previous learning e,periences. #iscrimination While generalization is a reaction to #similarities& of stimuli or responses, discrimination is the ability to differentiate between relatively similar stimuli where generalization would yield negative conse-uences. Principle of Reinforcement =einforcement is the process by which certain types of behaviours are strengthened. 'hus a #reinforcer& is any stimulus that causes certain behaviour to be repeated or inhibited. ome reinforcers work by their application to a situation, while other reinforcers work by their removal from the situation. 'hus these reinforcers work as behaviour modifiers. Positive Reinforcement

* positive reinforcement is a reward for a desired behaviour. 'he reward should be sufficiently powerful and durable so that it increases the probability of occurrence of desirable behaviour. !oney is probably the most powerful reinforcement for positive behaviour, since money can be used for a number of other resources too. Ne"ative Reinforcement *lso known as #escape conditioning& or #avoidance learning&, it is also a method of strengthening desired behaviour. 2owever, unlike the positive reinforcement where an employee works hard to gain financial and other rewards, under avoidance conditioning, the employee works hard to avoid repercussion, reprimand and other negative aspects of the organizational environment. E*tinction 'his type of reinforcement is applied to reduce undesirable Cbehaviour, especially when such behaviours were previously rewarded. 'his means that if rewards were removed from behaviours that were previously reinforced, then such behaviours would become less fre-uent and eventually die out. 'he method involved is a suitable form of punishment in the form of withholding the positive enforcement or simply ignoring the undesirable behaviour.

P!nis$ment Punishment is the most controversial method of behaviour modification and involves delivering an unpleasant conse-uence contingent upon the occurrence of an undesirable behaviour. 'he punishment process is similar to the e,tinction process in that both have the effect of decreasing and eliminating the undesirable behaviour, but technically there is a difference. .n the e,tinction process, we withhold rewards for behaviour that has previously been rewarded because the behaviour was not undesirable previously. 'he punishment process, on the other hand consists of #application& of an undesirable conse-uence or #withdrawal& of a desirable conse-uence for an undesirable behaviour, which has never been associated with the reward before. Sc$ed!le of Reinforcement While it is necessary to know as to which type of reinforcement would be most effective in a given situation, it is e-ually important to e,amine the various ways or #schedules& of administering these techni-ues of reinforcement. 'he various ways by which the reinforcement can be administered can be categorized into two groups. 'hese are continuous and partial reinforcement schedules. ontin!o!s Sc$ed!le * continuous schedule is the one in which the desirable behaviour is reinforced every time it occurs and the reinforcement is immediate. 'his results in fast ac-uisition of the desired response and the learning is rapid. 2owever the behaviour learned by continuous reinforcement strategy tends not to persist for which such reinforcement is applied less fre-uently. Partial Reinforcement Sc$ed!le * partial reinforcement schedule rewards desirable behaviour at specific intervals. .t is believed that #behaviour tends to be persistent when it is learned under conditions of partial and delayed reinforcement. 'here are four kinds of partial reinforcement schedules. 'here are" 6. Fi*ed Interval Sc$ed!le .n this type of schedule, a response is reinforced at fi,ed intervals of time. 8. Fariable Interval Sc$ed!le .n this type of schedule, the reinforcement is administered at random times that cannot be predicted by the employee. 9. Fi*ed(ratio Sc$ed!les

.n a fi,ed-ratio schedule, the reinforcement is administered only upon the completion of a given number of desirable responses. :. Fariable(ratio Sc$ed!le .t is similar to fi,ed-ratio schedule e,cept that the number of responses re-uired before reinforcement is determined, are not fi,ed but vary from situation to situation. Limitations of &e$avio!r 'odification While in general, some of the behavioural modification techni-ues, as discussed previously are effective in eliciting desirable behaviours from employees in work situations, there are some limitations that make these techni-ues ineffective in certain situations. 7% +ehaviour modification is an overall structure and ignores individual differences., 8% +ehaviour modification programs assume that e,trinsic rewards are the key factors in behaviour modification and they ignore the fact that employees can be intrinsically motivated. 9% +ehaviour modification is that it ignores prevailing work-group norms. .t is important for the management to recognize the power of work-group norms. T$e simple r!les of leanin" are% 7. 'he capacities of learners are important in determining what can be learned and how long will it take to learn it. 8. 'e order of presentation of materials to be learned is very important. 9. howing errors is how to do something can lead to increase in learning. :. 'he rate of forgetting tends to be very rapid immediately after learning. F. =epetition of identical materials is often as effective in getting things remembered as repeating the same story but with variations. G. Anowledge of results leads to increase in learning. H. )earning is aided by active practice rather than passive reception I. * passage is more easily learned and accepted if it does not interfere with earlier habits. J. 'he mere repetition of a situation does not necessarily lead to learning. 'wo things are necessary < #belongingness& and #satisfaction&. 7K. )earning something new can interfere with the remembering of something learned earlier.

FALGESD ATTITG#ES AN# INTEREST #When you prevent me from doing anything . want to do, that is persecution5 but when . prevent you from doing anything you want to do, that is law, order and morals.& - ;eorge +ernard haw Fal!es .s capital punishment right or wrongL 'he answer to this -uestion is value laden. ome might argue, for e,ample, that capital punishment is right because it is an appropriate retribution for crimes like murder or treason. 2owever, others may argue, 1ust as strongly, that no government has the right to take anyones life. >alues represent basic convictions that #a specific mode of conduct or end-state of e,istence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state of e,istence.& 'hey contain a moral flavor in that they carry an individuals ideas as to what is right, good, or desirable. >alue systems represent a prioritizing of individual values in relation to their relative importance. .n other words, we all have a set of values that form a value system. 'his system is identified by the relative importance we assign to such values as freedom, pleasure, self-respect, honesty, obedience, e-uality, and so forth. We all have values and, as you will see, what we think is important influences our attitudes and our behaviour. Importance of Fal!es

>alues are important to the study of organizational behaviour because they lay the foundation for the understanding of attitudes, perceptions, personality, and motivations. .ndividuals enter an organization with preconceived notions of what #ought& and what #ought not& to be. Of course, these notions are not value-free. On the contrary, they contain interpretations of right and wrong. 4urther, they imply that certain behaviours or outcomes are preferred over others. Types of Fal!es 'he most important early work in categorizing values was done by *ll-port and his associates. 'hey identified si, types of values" 7. 8. 9. :. F. G. 'heoretical < Places high importance on the discovery of truth through a critical and rational approach. (conomic < (mphasizes the usefulness and practicality of the situation. *esthetic < .t places the highest value on form and harmony. ocial < 2ere the highest value is given to the love of people. Political < .t places emphasis on ac-uisition of power and influence. =eligious < .t is concerned with the unity of e,perience and understanding of the cosmos as a whole.

!ore recent research suggests that there is a hierarchy of levels that are descriptive of personal values and life-styles. One such study identified seven levels. Level 6. Reactive. 'hese individuals are unaware of themselves or others as human beings and react to basic physiological needs. 'his is most descriptive of newborn babies. Level 8. Tribalistic. 'hese individuals are characterized by high dependence. 'hey are strongly influenced by tradition and the power e,erted by authority figures. Level 9. E"ocentrism. 'hese persons believe in rugged individualism. 'hey are aggressive and selfish. 'hey respond primarily to power. Level :. onformity. 'hese individuals have a low tolerance for ambiguity, have difficulty in accepting people whose values differ from their own, and desire that others accept their values. Level ;. 'anip!lative. 'hese individuals are characterized by striving to achieve their goals by manipulating things and people. 'hey are materialistic and actively seek higher status and recognition. Level <. Sociocentric. 'hese individuals are characterized by striving to achieve their goals by manipulating things and people. 'hey are materialistic and actively seek higher status and recognition. Level >. E*istential. 'hese individuals have a high tolerance for ambiguity and people with differing values. 'hey are outspoken on infle,ible systems, restrictive policies, status symbols, and arbitrary use of authority. Attit!des *ttitudes are evaluative statements < either favourable or unfavourable < concerning ob1ects, people, or events. 'hey reflect how one feels about something. When . say #. like my 1ob,& . am e,pressing my attitude about work. *ttitudes are not the same as values. >alues are the broader and more encompassing concept. o attitudes are more specific than values. >alues also contain a moral flavor of rightness or desirability. 'he statement that #discrimination is bad& reflects ones values. #. favor the implementation of an affirmative action program to recruit and develop women for managerial positions in our organization& is an attitude. So!rce of Attit!des *ttitudes, like values, are ac-uired from parents, teachers, and peer group members. .n our early years, we begin modeling our attitudes after those we admire, respect or may be even fear. We observe the way family and friends behave and we shape our attitudes and behaviour to align with theirs. People imitate the attitudes of popular individuals or those they admire and respect. .n organizations, attitudes are important because they affect 1ob behaviour.

Type of Attit!des +ut O+ focuses our attention on a very limited number of 1ob-related attitudes. 'hese 1ob-related attitudes tap positive or negative evaluations that employees hold about aspects of their work environment. 'ypically, there are three primary attitudes that are of concerned to us i.e. 1ob satisfaction, 1ob involvement, and organizational commitment. Hob satisfaction refers to an individuals general attitudes toward his or her 1ob. * person with a high level of 1ob satisfaction holds positive attitudes toward the 1ob, while a person who is dissatisfied with his or her 1ob holds negative attitudes about the 1ob. When people speak of employee attitudes, more often then they mean 1ob satisfaction. .n fact, the two are fre-uently used interchangeably. 'he term 3job involvement5 states that 1ob involvement measures the degree to which a person identifies with his 1ob, actively participates in it, and considers his performance important to his self-worth. Or"ani+ational commitment e,presses an individuals orientation toward the organization by tapping his or her loyalty to, identification with, and involvement in the organization. .ndividuals who e,press high commitment see their identity as closely attached to that of the organizations. Attit!des and onsistency People seek consistency among their attitudes and between their attitudes and behaviour. 'his means that individuals seek to reconcile divergent attitudes and align their attitudes and behaviour so they appear rational and consistent. When there is an inconsistency, forces are initiated to return the individual to an e-uilibrium state where attitudes and behaviour are again consistent. $an"in" attit!des% Some basic tec$ni7!es a% Persuasive messages" 2earing sometimes is believing i, om!nicator1s $aracteristics *ttractiveness tyle 3redibility ii, ontent of pers!asive messa"e =eceivers characteristics .ntelligence elf < esteemD confidence iii, En$ance pers!asion +uild personal attractiveness (nhance credibility 0se social pressure /esign appeal with care =epetition can always help b% /issonance% when attitude and behaviour dont match c% Providing new information d% 0se of fear e% .nfluence of family, friends and peers f% +arriers to changing attitudes Interest Bou are driving your automobile, and the continued roar it makes does not hold or divert or attract your attention. +ut presently a new element, perhaps of relatively low intensity, enters into the comple, stimulation, and your attention is at once attracted5 you notice the new sound and begin to wonder what it means5 while your friend by your side, who perhaps is a familiar with the roar as yourself, fails to notice the new element, even when you ask him to direct his attention to it. 'he difference between you $manifested in the fact that your attention is drawn to the sound, while his is not% is that you are #interested& in the sounds made by the automobile and he is not.

.t is sometimes alleged that #interest& in any ob1ect or topic depends upon, or consists in, the possession of appropriate knowledge or $in terms of the #idea& theory% of mass or system of #ideas& related to the ob1ect or topic. We are interested only in those things that evoke in us one or other $or several% of the instinctive impulses. We ac-uire a great variety of new interests through the building up of sentiments for a great variety of ob1ects. #.nterest,& being essentially conative, is a matter of the enduring setting of our conative tendencies or impulses, and is therefore determined by our instincts and our sentiments. Anowledge about an ob1ect is not in itself a condition of #interest&5 though such knowledge favours thus sustaining attention" without such knowledge our attention to any ob1ect, determined by conative interest, soon wanes5 because we -uickly e,haust upon it our limited power of discriminative perception. 'hus a naturalist and a layman may discover some strange plant or animal5 it e,cites the curiosity of both, and both are interested in it5 but the attention of the naturalist is more sustained, as well as more effective5 for he has the knowledge, or cognitive mental structure, that enables him to e,amine it systematically and in detail, noticing a hundred features which entirely escape his companies. 'hat #interest& is conative rather than cognitive5 that it depends upon the strength of the conative tendencies e,cited, rather than upon the e,tent and variety and systematic organization of the cognitive systems of the mind $ knowledge%. 'o have an #interest& in any ob1ect is, then, to be ready to pay attention to it. .nterest is latent attention5 and attention is interest in action. 'he essential condition of both interest in and attention to any ob1ect is that the mind shall be so organized, either natively or through e,perience, that is can think of the ob1ect, and that such thinking shall evoke some impulse or desire which maintains a train of activity in relation to the ob1ect.

'OTIFATION #!otivation is getting people to do what you want them to do because they want to do it& - #-i"$t #. Eisen$o-er 'oday, virtually all people including lay people and scholars have their own definition of motivation. 0sually one or more of the following words are included in the definition" #desires,& #wants,& #wishes,& #goals,& #needs,& #drives,& #motives,& and #incentives.& 'echnically, the term motivation can be traced to the )atin word movere, which means, #to move.& 'his meaning is evident in the following comprehensive definition" #* motive is an inner state that energizes, activates, or moves and that directs or channels behaviour toward goals. 'he key to understand motivation, it appears, lies in the meaning of, and relationship between, needs, drives, and goals. Needs $/eprivation% #rives $/eprivation with direction% Coals $=eduction of drives%

.n a systems sense, motivation consists of three interacting and interdependent elements" needs, drives and goals. 7. Needs. 'he best one-word definition of a need is deficiency. .n the homeostatic sense, needs are created whenever there is a physiological or psychological imbalance. 8. #rives. With a few e,ceptions drives or motives are set up to alleviate needs. * drive can be simply defined as a deficiency with direction. /rives are action-oriented and provide an energizing thrust toward goal accomplishment. 'hey are at the very heart of the motivational process.

9. Coals. *t the end of the motivation cycle is the goal. * goal in the motivation cycle can be defined as anything, which will alleviate a need and reduce a drive. 'hus, attaining a goal will tend to restore physiological or psychological balance and will reduce or cut off the drive. Primary 'otives Physiologists do not totally agree on how to classify the various human motives, but they would acknowledge that some motivates are unlearned and physiologically based. uch motives are variously called physiological, biological, unlearned, or primary. 'he last term is used here because it is more comprehensive than the others. 'he use of the term primary does not imply that this group of motives always takes precedence over the general and secondary motives. Ceneral 'otives * separate classification for general motives is not always given. Bet such a category seems necessary because there are a number of motives, which lie in the gray area between the primary and secondary classifications. 'o be included in the general category, a motive must be unlearned but not physiologically based. *lthough not all psychologists would agree, the motives of competence, curiosity, manipulation, activity, and affection seem best to meet the criteria for this classification. *n understanding of these general motives is important to the study of human behaviour < especially in organizations. 'hey are more relevant to organizational behaviour than the primary motives. T$e ompetence 'otives While proposed a new conceptualization based upon the assumption that all organisms, animal and human, have a capacity to interact effectively with their environment. 2e called from activities which, though playful and e,ploratory in character, at the same time show direction, selectivity, and persistence in interacting with the environment.& 'hus defined, the competence motive is the most inclusive general drive. 'he other general drives of curiosity, manipulation, and activity can be considered more specific competence drives. T$e !riosity 'anip!lationD and Activity 'otives .t is generally recognized that human curiosity, manipulation, and activity drives are -uite intense5 anyone who has reared or been around small children will -uickly support this generalization. *lthough these drives often get the small child into trouble, curiosity, manipulation, and activity, when stifled or inhibited, the total society might become very stagnant. T$e Affection 'otives )ove or affection is a very comple, form of general drive. Part of the comple,ity stems from the fact that in many ways love resembles the primary drives and in other ways it is similar to the secondary drives. 4or this reason, affection is sometimes placed in all three categories of motives, Secondary 'otives Whereas the general drives seem relatively more important than the primary ones to the study of human behaviour in organizations, the secondary drives are un-uestionably the most important. *s a human society develops economically and becomes more comple,, the primary drives, and to a lesser degree the general drives, give way to the learned secondary drives in motivating behaviour. With some glaring e,ceptions that have yet to be eradicated, the motives of hunger and thirst are not dominant among people living in the economically developed Western world. .n particular, the learning principle of reinforcement is conceptually and practically related to motivation. 'he relationship is obvious when reinforcement is divided into primary and secondary categories and is portrayed as incentives. ome writers regards reinforcement and motivation as e-uivalent. Once again, however, it should be emphasized that although the various behavioural concepts can be separated for study and analysis, in reality concepts like reinforcement and motivation do not operate as separate entities in producing human behaviour. 'he interactive effects are always present. * motive must be learned in order to be included in the secondary classification. 6umerous important human motives meet this criterion. ome of the more important ones are power, achievement, and affiliation, or as they are commonly referred to today, n *ch, and n *ff. .n addition, especially in reference to organizational behaviour, security and status are also important secondary motives. T$e Po-er 'otives .t is the need to manipulate other or the drive for superiority over others < *dler developed the concepts of inferiority comple, and compensation.

T$e Ac$ievement 'otive $aracteristic of $i"$ ac$ievers. 7. 'oderate ris) ta)in". 'aking moderate risks is probably the single most descriptive characteristic of the person possessing high n *ch. 8. Need for immediate feedbac). 3losely connected to high achievers taking moderate risks is their desire for immediate feedback. 9. Satisfaction -it$ accomplis$ment . 2igh achievers find accomplishing a task intrinsically satisfying in and of itself, or they do not e,pect or necessarily want the accompanying material rewards. * good illustration of this characteristic involves money, but not for the usual reasons of wanting money for its own sake or for the material benefits that it can buy. :. Preocc!pation -it$ t$e tas). Once high achievers select a goal, they tend to be totally preoccupied with the task until it is successfully completed. T$e Affiliation 'otive *ffiliation plays a very comple, but vital role in human behaviour. ometimes affiliation is e-uated with social motives and D or group dynamics. *s presented here, the affiliation motive is neither as broad as is implied by the definition of social motives nor as comprehensive or comple, as is implied by the definition of group dynamics. T$e Sec!rity 'otive One the surface, security appears to be much simpler than other secondary motives, for it is based largely on fear and is avoidance-oriented. .n reality, security is much more comple, than it appears on the surface. ;ellerman notes that this special drive for security is largely unconscious but that it greatly influences the behaviour of many people. T$e Stat!s 'otive tatus can be simply defined as the relative ranking that a person holds in a group, organization, or society. T$ree )ey areas of responsibility *. Performance definition $ et Ob1ectives% ;oals !easures *ssessment +. Performance facilitation $provide resources% (limination of roadblocks to performance Providing means and ade-uate resources for performance $finance, material, infrastructure, 2= etc.% 3arefully selecting personnel 3. Performance encouragement $Provide timely rewards% >alues of rewards *mount of rewards 'iming of rewards )ikelihood of rewards 4airness of rewards Fario!s approac$es to job desi"n *ppropriately designed 1ob < higher employee satisfaction and -uality of performance a. b. c. Hob enric$ment / making 1obs more meaningful, interesting and challenging. Hob enlar"ement / adding more tasks to the 1ob for variety. Hob rotation / doing different 1obs for variety.

d. Social tec$nical approac$ / making a group or a team responsible for the 1ob and balancing social and technical aspects of the 1ob. e. Hob en"ineerin" / concentrates on the efficiency of the 1ob through time and motion analysis of person < machine interfaces. f. Coal / settin" / building goals, feedback and incentives into the structure of the 1ob. Hob c$aracteristics approac$ to Hob #esi"n / 0ac)man E Old$am E7!ation !otivating $!P % M kill variety N 'ask identity N 'ask ign , autonomy , feedback Potential score 9 Coal Settin" t$eory 'he cognitive based work was given by locke et. al. 'he theoretical background a. =ole of intention in human behaviour. b. cientific !anagement < 'alyor < forerunner of goal setting. c. .mportance of values or valence and conse-uences. d. (motions or desires are the ways person e,periences values. e. People strive to attain goals in order to satisfy their emotions and desires. f. ;oals provide direction to behaviour. .ntentions or =esponses goals action or Performance 3onse-uences 4eedback or reinforcement

Coal / Settin" t$eory >alues and value (motions and @udgments desires

>alid and practical < useful 6o commitment to work < ;oal setting will not work.

T$eories of 'otivation 'here is no simple formula to motivate people. +ut if you look at the theoretical emphasis of the behavioural scientists who have been studying motivation, there is a surprising degree of agreement. 'aslo0ierarc$y of Needs or #eficient T$eory of 'otivation 6eeds are arranged in a definite se-uence of domination i.e., unless the needs of lower order are reasonably satisfied, those of the higher order do not dominate. )owerDprimary order needs includes basic physiological needs O safety and security. belonging or social needs, esteem and self-actualization needs. elf-actualization (steem +elonging afety Physiological 2igherDsecondary needs are

'c lelland Ac$ievement T$eory of 'otivation We have three basic social needs" affiliation, power O achievement. Need for ac$ievement % 'he drive to e,cel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed.

Need for affiliation % 'he drive for friendly and close interpersonal relationships. Need for po-er % 'he need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise.

0er+ber"1s T-o(Factor T$eory of 'otivation .n the first category are !aintenance or 2ygiene factors, which are necessary to maintain a reasonable level of 1ob satisfaction. *bsence of these factors may dissatisfy the employee but will not demotivate them. .n the Second category are the !otivators since they seem to be effective in motivating people to superior performance. 0y"ieneI'aintenance 3ompany policy O *dm. =elationship with supervisor Working conditions alary =elationship with peers Personal life =elationship with subordinates tatus @ob security 'echnical supervision 'otivators *chievement =ecognition Work =esponsibility *dvancement ;rowth

'cCre"or1s T$eory J and T$eory Y 'heory J emphasizes on discipline, incentive programs, welfare measures, close supervision, pension and other benefit programs. 'heory Y represents the democratic approach and gives to the employees scope for creativity and responsibility. .t stresses mans need for work, responsibility and involvement in serious endeavour5 work force is a reservoir of untapped imagination, intelligence and commitment.

Team &!ildin" 'wenty years ago, the decision of companies to introduce teams into their production processes made news because no one else was doing it. 'oday, its 1ust the opposite. .ts the organisation that doesnt use teams that has become newsworthy.

(vidence suggests that teams typically outperform individuals when the tasks being done re-uire multiple skills, 1udgment, and e,perience. *s organizations have restructured themselves to compete more effectively and efficiently, they have turned to teams as a way to better utilize employee talents. !anagement has found that teams are more fle,ible and responsive to changing events than are traditional departments or other forms of permanent groupings. 'eams have the capability to -uickly assemble, deploy, refocus, and disband. =$y 0ave Teams &ecome So Pop!larK (ffective teams produce outstanding results and succeed in achieving despite difficulties. !embers feel responsible for the output of their team and act to clear difficulties standing in their way. * team, therefore, is more than a collection of individuals. .t is in part an emotional entity, rooted in the feelings as well as the thoughts of its members5 they actively care about their teams well being. #efinition% *n energetic group of people who are committed to achieving common ob1ectives, who work well together and en1oy doing so, and who produce high -uality results. *ccording to the definition, a team consists of individuals who relate directly together to get things done. 'his suggests a practical limitation on size, because rarely in practice can more than nine people function as single team. .t is imperative to take note of the following key terms to understand the definition of a team. InterdependenceD in which each team member makes individual contributions. Other members depend on those contributions and share work information with one another. S$ared responsibility. =esponsibility for teams purpose and goals is shared and understood by all members. All members s$are o!tcomeD acco!ntability for team o!tcomesD which identifies the focus for the teams activities and includes both services and products. 'he tages of 'eam /evelopment When a group of people come together to achieve an ob1ective they will go through a series of stages, leading hopefully to a final Cmature stage that e-uates to effective team functioning. Woodcock presented #/evelopmental model& in his 'eam /evelopment !anual. 'he main stages can be summarized as follows" Sta"e 6 ( T$e Gndeveloped Team% T$e LFormin"1 Sta"e 'he features of this stage are" 4acilitate Cgetting to know you e,ercise, stimulating greater personal knowledge. /emonstrate openness by e,ample. .nvite members to share their concerns and problems. (ncourage consideration of individual strengths and weaknesses. !ake team activities en1oyable. ;ive ma,imum support. Sta"e 8 ( T$e E*perimentin" Team% T$e LStormin"1 Sta"e 'he features of this stage are" (ncourage greater openness. +egin to involve team members in review of team performance. +uild bridges between individuals. *llow conflicts to surface. Puestion decision making and problem solving methods. 4ind opportunities to e,periment. ;ive high level of support. (ncourage individual team members to Cair their grievances. eek common ground. Sta"e 9 ( T$e onsolidatin" Team% T$e LNormin"1 Sta"e 'he features of this stage are" /evelop problem-solving skills.

/evelop decision-making strategies. /evelop individual skills. /evelop a capacity for the team to compensate for individual weaknesses. (ncourage people to share strengths. 3elebrate successes. 3larify ob1ectives. =egularly review performance and plan improvements. ;ive moderate support.

Sta"e : ( T$e 'at!re Team % T$e LPerformin"1 Team 'he features of this stage are" +uild bridges with other teams. (,periment with different forms of leadership *llow leadership to change with the needs of the task. 3larify values. 3onsider the possibilities of enhanced inputs into the organisation. (ncourage informal communications. 4ight insularity. (,pose team functioning to e,ternal scrutiny. ;ive minimal support. Sta"e ; ( T$e #isbandin" Team% T$e L'o!rnin"1 Sta"e 'he features of this stage are" 3ompetence has been established at a high level. 3ommitment may surge or dip. Implications 'here are certain implications of these five stages. Formin"" awareness of the formation process means encouraging discussion on issues such as " Why are we hereL Whats our real purposeL What holds us firmly togetherL What are we prepared to do and 6O' do togetherL What are our rules for working togetherL What do we e,pect from one anotherL 2ow will people outside this group respond to usL Whats the best and worst that could happen if we continue down this route togetherL Stormin"" during this stage, which can be e,citing and difficult, encourage group communication around issues such as" What role is each of us to playL hall we have a formal leader or chairpersonL Who wants to become the leaderL D Whom do we want as leaderL What powers shall we give our formal leaderL 2ow do we resolve conflict if several people want to leadL /o we encourage disagreement and people e,pressing a difference of opinionL 2ow will we resolve differences between us - for e,ample by compromise or formal votingL What happens if someone refuses to conform to the groups wishesL 2ow do we deal with strong feelings - for e,ample making space to air themL Normin"" during this phase contribute to good communications by helping people realize" What are our formal rulesL

What are our usually unspoken rulesL Who has what formal roleL 2ow far can people challenge the group in some wayL 2ow do we deal with differences of opinionL 2ow far can an individual follow his or her own interests at the e,pense of the groupL

Performin"" now you can help the communication process by focusing on What are our specific targets or goalsL 2ow are we setting about achieving themL Who has what detailed responsibilities and do they understand theseL 3an we make being together more rewarding - for e,ample by having fun together, socializing, recognizing one anothers successesL 2ow best can we support people through difficult timesL *re we listening to one another properlyL /oes each speaker build on what the previous person has saidL /o we give each other and the group regular feedbackL Who is showing high or low commitment to group aimsL 'o!rnin"" when the group is ending, help group communication by encouraging attention to issues such as" When do we stop meetingL Who should we tellL What remains to do before the last meetingL Who takes responsibility for post-group matters - for e,ample handling residual assets or remaining tasksL What do people feel about the group coming to an endL 2ow do we handle these feelings - for e,ample having a reunion in a year, organising a final party, sending a final reportL 3ould we make the ending into a celebrationL

Team &!ildin" Process /eveloping 'eamwork .dentify the need Anow one another 4orm team charter Perform team tasks 0se team tools Work 'ogether 3onsensus 3ooperate with other 'eams (valuate 'eamwork

Types of Teams 'eams can be classified on the basis of their ob1ective. 'he three most common forms of teams in an organisation are problem solving teams, self-managed work teams, and cross-functional teams. Problem Solvin" Teams 'hey typically are composed of five to twelve employees from the same department who meet for a few hours each week to discuss ways of improving -uality, efficiency, and the work environment. Self('ana"ed =or) Teams elf-managed work teams are generally composed of ten to fifteen people who take on the responsibilities of their former supervisors. 'ypically, these responsibilities include collective control over the pace of work, determination of work assignments, and collective choice of inspection procedures. 4ully self-managed work teams even select their own members and have the members evaluate each others performance. *s a result, supervisory positions take on decreased importance and may even be eliminated. ross(F!nctional Teams 3ross-functional teams are made up of employees from about the same hierarchical level, but from different work areas, who come together to accomplish a task. !any organisations have used horizontal, boundary-spanning groups for years. 3ross-functional teams are an effective means for allowing people from diverse areas within an organisation $or even between organisations% to e,change information, develop new ideas, solve problems, and coordinate comple, pro1ects. Symptoms of Ineffective Team =or) *s organisations get larger the opportunities for personal e,pression and satisfaction often becomes less. 'oo often the members feel fr!strated because they cannot find a clear way of meeting their own needs and aspirations. 'eam members lose t$eir inspiration and lac) t$e commitment and motivation to work, which are the essential ingredients of effective teamwork. 'eam members often spend a lot of time on retaliation. 'hey do not use mistakes as opportunities for increased learning and improvements. !istakes become an e,cuse for punishing those who have committed thus giving a vent to their frustrations. 'he !n$ealt$y competition between team members - they en1oy backbiting and playing dirty tricks and politics on their own teammates. Poor teamwork is indicated by the d!ll e*pressionD which employees wear on their faces. (ffective team work breeds happiness and the uninformed visitor often gets an immediate impression of whether work is a happy place to be or whether he is likely to be Ckilled in the rush if he is around. Work does not have to be a dull and unen1oyable place5 it can easily be rewarding place where people love to be. #is$onest statements and the taking of false bar"ainin" stances. 'he lo- 7!ality of meetin"s can usually be determined by the way in which individuals either look forward to or dread the normal weekly or monthly get together.

)ow -uality of relationship between the team members is indicated when people cannot confide in or tr!st t$eir leader, where they are fearful of him or where their conversations are on a superficial or trivial level than real team work. 'he leader becomes increasin"ly isolated from his team. 2e does not represent their view and they do not subscribe to his.

Avoidin" &lo-!ps 0sually team-building sessions are interesting and constructive. Occasionally they become tedious and dull. =arely team-building events can blow up with uncomfortable or hurtful incidents. .f group difficulties and blowups are handled with care, they provide a potential for significant progress. 'he following guidelines can help you to use these team-building materials successfully" Fol!ntary Involvement Ade7!ate #isc!ssion Time Appropriate Se7!ence aref!l Preparation Relevant $oices Avoid Gnd!e T$reat =or) T$ro!"$ onflicts and #iffic!lties

Appraisal of Team F!nctionin" 4ollowing is a checklist for making on-the-spot appraisal of team functioning by acronym PERFOR'S. Productivity" is the team getting enough doneL Empathy" do the team members feel comfortable with each otherL Roles O goals" do they know what they are supposed to be doingL Fle,ibility" are they open to outside influence and contributionL Openness" do they say what they thinkL Recognition" do they praise each other and publicize achievementL 'orale"do people want to be in this teamL 'he most common indicators of problems in any of these areas" Productivity" a boss in a bad temper. Empathy" no coffee at team meetings Roles O goals" puzzled faces Fle,ibility" annoyed outsiders talking about the #fortress mentality&. Openness" silence Recognition" backbiting 'orale"everyones leftE &enefits of Team &!ildin" 'he team, potentially the most fle,ible and competent tool known to mankind, can support a positive management strategy in the following ways" 'ana"ement of omple*ity. 'he breadth of resources available to the team enables comple, situations to be creatively managed. Rapid Response. Well-developed teams are capable of responding -uickly and energetically. 0i"$ 'otivation. 'he team feeds the individuals need to have personal significance, and team processes encourage activity and achievement. 0i"$ M!ality #ecisions. !ature teams are capable of making better -uality decisions than all but the most brilliant individual. 2ence, the use of a team approach improves the overall -uality of decisions. Perhaps more importantly, the level of commitment to team decisions is much higher.

ollective Stren"t$. .ndividuals often feel that it is hard to influence organisations and make any impact outside their immediate area. 'he team changes this as team members e,tend their viewpoint to see that they, together, can achieve much.

'eam building is time consuming and can be e,pensive. .t is important to identify how the approach can be used to give useful benefits.

onflict Part of my 1ob is to keep the five guys who hate me away from the five guys who are undecided. 3asey tengel

We define conflict to be a process in which an effort is purposely made by * to offset the efforts of + by some form of blocking that will result in frustrating + in attaining his goals or furthering his interests. onflict% An Inevitable Prod!ct of $an"e .n its simplest term, conflict is no more than a by < product of growth, change, or innovation. *nd like change itself, its practically inevitable. +ut its also something that, when handled correctly can actually promote better communication, guarantee achieving desired results, and improve employee morale and productivity. 3onflict can be defined as" #3onflict is a set of divergent behaviours, aims, or methods.& Types Of onflict Intraindivid!al onflict Within every individual there are 7. * nmber of competing needs and roles, 8. * variety of ways that drives and roles can be e,pressed, 9. !any types of barriers that can occur between the drive and the goal, and :. +oth positive and negative aspects attached to desired goals. onflict d!e to Fr!stration 4rustration occurs when a motivated drive is blocked before a person reaches a desired goal. 'he barrier may be overt $outward, or physical% or covert $inward, or mental < sociopsychological%. 'raditionally, psychologists felt that frustration always led to the defense mechanism of aggression. 4rustration may lead to any of the defense mechanism used by the human organism. *lthough there are many such mechanism, they can be grouped according to four broad categories" aggression, withdrawal, fi,ation and compromise. 'he frustration model can be useful in the analysis not only of behaviour in general but also the specific aspects of on < the < 1ob behaviour. Coal onflict *nother common source of conflict for an individual is a goal that has both positive and negative features, or two or more competing goals. 4or ease of analysis, three separate types of goal conflict are generally identified" 7. *pproach < approach conflict, where the individual is motivated to approach two or more positive but mutually e,clusive goals. 8. *pproach < avoidance conflict, where the individual is motivated to approach a goal and at the same time is motivated to avoid it. 9. *voidance < avoidance conflict, where the individual is motivated to avoid two or more negative but mutually e,clusive goals.

Interpersonal onflict So!rces of interpersonal conflict Personal difference .nformation deficiency =ole incompatibility (nvironmental stress

Strate"ies for interpersonal conflict resol!tion Lose / lose. .n a lose < lose approach to conflict resolution, both parties lose. One of the more common approaches is to compromise or take the middle ground in a dispute. * second approach is to pay off one of the parties in the conflict. * third is to use an outside third party or arbitrator. *nd finally the fourth type would be parties involved in conflict resolve to bureaucratic rules or e,isting regulations to resolve the conflict. =in / lose. .n the win < lose strategy one party in a conflict situation attempts to marshal its force to win, and the other party loses. =in / -in. .n the win < win strategy of conflict resolution energies and creativity are aimed at solving the problems rather than beating the other party. 2ere the needs of both parties in the conflict situation are met, and both parties receive rewarding outcomes. Inter"ro!p be$avio!r and conflict Antecedents to inter"ro!p conflict. conflict. 7. 3ompetition for resources 8. 'ask interdependence 9. @urisdictional ambiguity :. tatus struggles. Feat!res of onflict everal antecedent conditions have been identified for e,plaining intergroup

3onflict is inevitable 3onflict is neither good D bad 3onflict is not always caused by trouble makers 3onflict is part of change 3onflict is sometime desirable

=$en to Stim!late onflict When you have 3Yes5 men around you When individ!als are afraid to admit i"norance When team members create an impression of peace When individuals display too m!c$ concern When individuals believe in pop!larity When individuals lack new ideas When individuals offer resistance to c$an"e

Five =ays to Sense onflict 6. &e Fisionary% >isualize how your actions or those of others will cause, or are causing, conflict. *sk yourself who, what, when, where, how, and why -uestions to determine potential, as well as present, sources of conflict. 8. Cive Feedbac)% 'he amount, accuracy, and timeliness of information that you can provide to an individual will help you to understand that persons point of view. haring your thoughts and feelings first, in a non-threatening way, often encourages others to tell you what is on their minds. 9. Cet Feedbac)% 'ake the time to find out what your associates are thinking and feeling. /o not wait until the last moment to discover that trouble is upon you. Probe for more information by asking -uestions such as" 2ow so5 .n what5 Why5 and 3an you tell me moreL :. #efine E*pectations% !eet on a weekly basis with your associates to determine priorities for the upcoming week. *ny ma1or discrepancies between your e,pectations will alert you to potential conflict.

F. Revie- Performance Re"!larly% When supervisors and employees communicate openly about how they are $or are not% working together, they reduce serious conflict and build stronger working relationships. =ays of Resolvin" onflict 3larify reporting =elationship (liminate communication gap D misunderstanding =estructure the organisation .ntroduce new bloodD new thinking 3reate 3ompetition &enefits of #ealin" -it$ onflict &enefits to Individ!al Stron"er relations$ips% Bou will be able to build stronger relationships as a result of being comfortable e,pressing your true thoughts. 4ewer mind games will be played resulting in a less stressful day. Increased self(respect% Bou will be able to feel good about yourself and will learn not to take criticism personally. Personal development and "ro-t$% When you break down some of your own invisible barriers and become more assertive in resolving or preventing conflict, you will learn more and gain support from others. &enefits to Yo!r Or"anisation Improved efficiency E effectiveness% (mployees will be able to do their 1obs more efficiently and effectively by focusing their efforts where they will produce the greatest results. reative t$in)in"% +y encouraging people to make, share, and learn from their mistakes, the organisation will reap the benefits of creative thinking. Syner"y or team-or)% !anagers and associates will be able to focus on serving their customers and each other. a!ses of onflict 4or a variety of reasons, many people have difficulty sensing or finding the causes of conflict. !any factors contribute to the difficulty in identifying the correct cause of a conflict" Personality Perceptions (,clusive ;oals /eliberate +ehaviour carce =esources tatus Power =ewards !embership /ecision !aking

T$e Five Steps to S!ccessf!l onflict 'ana"ement Step One% 'ake =esponsibility for /ealing with 3onflict Step T-o% 0ncover, /efine, and /iscuss the =eal Problem Step T$ree% *sk Puestions and )istenE Step Fo!r% et ;oals and 3reate an *ction Plan Step Five% 4ollow 0p

Fo!rteen 'et$ods for #ealin" -it$ onflict ( =in I =in +e indirect5 only hint at the problem 4ind something outside yourself on which to blame situation 0se sarcasm in talking about the situation with others eek a specific scapegoat !ake efforts to smooth over tension D live with situation, even if negative +low up5 let off steam5 let people know 1ust e,actly how you feel 2ide your feelings, only reveal them later to friends or confidants in private *ttempt to seek clarification O information about the situation ublimate your feelings, put energy O attention in unrelated activitiesD interests pend time listening O gathering additional info. by talking with those involved +ack down under pressure rather than dealing with conflict !ake an active attempt to compromise 3omplain to others about unfairness of the situation !ake an effort to seek creative alternatives to the situation

&asic S)ills to Resolve onflict Intellect!al S)ills *nalytical )earning *bility @udgement Planning Organising Perception 3onceptualizing Ob1ectivity 4le,ibility Emotional S)ills 2onesty Persistence *mbition elf-discipline =esult-orientation 4ast pace .nitiative (nthusiasm *ssertiveness Interpersonal S)ills Persuasiveness ;regariousness )istening 3ommunication Writing ensitivity

'ana"erial S)ills ;ives guidance !otivates /elegates elects competent people 'erminates incompetent associates (,pects Professionalism onflict mana"ement styles =esignation. Withdrawal. *ppeasement. /efusion. 3onfrontation. *rbitration. 3ompromise. 6egotiation.

Fr!stration Fr!stration / A =estern Overvie4rustration, defined as, blocking ongoing goal directed behaviour that may operate in a manner similar to provocation and serve both as an instigator and an e,ternal 1ustification for violating normative constraint against aggression. !aier and (llen $ 7JFF % describe frustration in the following manner" *n insoluble problem. Pressure from behind. +arriers preventing escape. Persistent or severe punishment. 3onsistency or inconsistency of results that conflict with e,pectations.

.n general, they lean toward the generalization that frustrating situation is frustrating when it involves the e,perience of failure and this, of course, is a far cry from the original very rigid definition of a frustrating situation. &asic $aracteristics of Fr!stration Insti"ated &e$avio!r 'he 4rustration process produces behaviour that is purely an end in itself and not a means to an end. 'he behaviour thus elicited is not an e,pression of preference since it is not influenced by what it accomplishes. .n this sense, the behaviour is compulsive in nature, and the type of behaviour that is selected in 4rustration is a matter of its availability at the time as well as of a number of other factors. 'his type of behaviour is altered most readily by a reduction in the state of 4rustration. When this is not possible, 4rustration instigated behaviour may be directed along different channels by the introduction or removal of barriers and other forms of restraints or by various forms of guidance. 'hus, aggression induced by economic hardships may be directed away from government offices and towards food stores or racial groups. on7!erin" Fr!stration .n order to understand how to overcome frustration, it can be tackled at a personal as well as organizational level. At a personal level

#4rustration and anger can be evoked when we perceive an inconsistency between what is e,pected and what is obtained.& .t can be taken care of in the following methods" Fi"$t or Fli"$t People should rethink situations they are confronted with before #blowing up&. #Poorly managed anger is at the root of many serious physical, social and emotional problems, from heart disease to neighborhood violence&. Ret$in) .t is an acronym developed and used by .!2. in anger management workshops to help people have new control and power over learning to channel their anger. .t stands for recognize, empathize, think, hear, integrate, notice and keep. Reactions of Fr!stration 'he first response to frustration, which needs to be delineated, is the emotional reaction. 4rustration leads to some sort of negative emotional state. 'wo important properties are that the emotions are aversive, and that it produces or results in increased physiological arousal. 'he aversive nature means that the individual will be highly motivated or reduced in it. 'he increased around tends to increase the vigor or strength of whatever response is elicited and this arousal is implications for task performance, On the behavioural end, there are at least four ma1or classes of behaviour, which can result from frustration. Probably the most common reaction, especially to mild frustration, is to try a different response or find an alternate and hopefully unblocked means to the goal. 'he most troublesome and often mentioned reaction is aggression, which has received considerable attention in the laboratory. *nother possible response, which can be related to finding alternative means, is withdrawal from the situation. 'hat is, the individual can leave the situation entirely, and find another setting in which to achieve the goal. *lternatively, the individual can abandon the goal entirely and other leave or remain in the situation. 3oncerned with either aggression, or the effects of frustration on task performance. Effects of Or"ani+ational Fr!stration 'here are at least four possible reactions to frustration by individuals, which have potential effects on organizations. 'hese include the emotional response of anger and associated increased physiological arousal, and the behavioural responses of trying alternative course of action, aggression, and withdrawal. 'o the e,tent that it interferes with or blocks task performance, frustration can be directly harmful to organizations. 'o the e,tent it induces increased physiological arousal, it may facilitate or inhibit task performance depending upon task comple,ity. 4inally, to the e,tent it induces aggression or withdrawal frustration can have damaging effects on organizations. *rousal itself, as shown previously, differentially affects performance depending upon the comple,ity of the task. 4rustration can increase task speed with no additional errors for simple task, but interferes with correct performance on comple, tasks. *lthough it may be possible that mild frustration can increase arousal and facilitate task performance with no additional negative effects in the short run, continued or severe frustration might result in aggression or withdrawal. Withdrawal can be manifested temporarily as absenteeism and tardiness, or permanently as turnover. *ggression can be directed either against other people, or against the organization itself. *ggression in organizations can take many forms. .t can be directed covertly against the source of frustration $if a person% either verbally or physically. .t can also be directed covertly against a person5 that is, an individual can secretly perform behaviours, which can hurt another person. *ggression can also be directed against the organization itself. 'he organizational aggression could be overt to covert. Overt acts might include strikes, work slowdowns, grievances, or lawsuits. 3overt acts would include sabotage, secret withholding of output and stealing. * critical variable causing a person to choose overt, covert, or no aggression would be e,pectation of punishment for the act. 4inally, frustration can lead a person to try alternative courses of action to achieve goals or fulfill needs. .n fact mild frustrations, which interfere rather than block can add challenge and include greater overall effort. 'hus frustration might have positive, motivating effects.

$an"e 'ana"ement 3To improve is to c$an"e. To be perfect is to c$an"e often5. - Winston 3hurchill 3hange 3hange is the name of the game in management today. !arket, product and competitive conditions are rapidly changing. 3hange is an alteration in the e,isting field of forces $e,ternal O internal% that tends to affect the e-uilibrium of an organisation. .n an era of accelerating change, organizations degree to e,cellence is 1udged by its ability to cope with these changes. Organizations either become more adaptive, fle,ible and anticipative or they become rigid, stagnant and react to change after the fact, often when it is too late. 'herefore, !anagers must do more than 1ust react5 they must be able to anticipate the changing patterns of people, markets, products, services and technology. 7. 8. 9. :. )evels of 3hange Anowledge 3hanges *ttitudinal 3hanges .ndividual +ehaviour 3hanges ;roup or Organisational Performance 3hanges

3hanges in knowledge tend to be the easiest to make5 they can occur as a result of reading a book or an article or hearing something new from a respected person. *ttitude structures differ from knowledge structures in that they are emotionally charged in a positive or a negative way. 3hanges in individual behaviour seem to be significantly more difficult and time consuming. While individual behaviour is difficult enough to change, it becomes even more complicated when you try to implement change within groups or organisations. Types Of $an"es in Or"ani+ations

'acro level 3hange in tructure " e. g., amendments to the 3onstitution5 nationalisation of banks. 3hange in !ethodology " e.g., *utomation in industry " irrigation, chemical fertilizers and crop rotation in agriculture. 3hange in +ehaviour " e.g., family planning program5 patriotism and social discipline in time of war or emergencies. 3hange in *ssumptions and >alues" e. g., desire for socialistic pattern of society5 liberation movements. 3ycles of 3hange 'he levels of change become very significant when you e,amine two different change cycles - Participative 3hange 3ycle - /irective 3hange 3ycle Participative $an"e * participative change cycle is implemented when new knowledge is made available to the individual or group. .t is hoped that the group will accept the data and will develop a positive attitude and commitment in the direction of the desired change. 'he ne,t step will be to attempt to translate this commitment into actual behaviour. 'his step is significantly more difficult to achieve. *n effective strategy may be to identify the informal and formal leaders among the work group$s% and concentrate on gaining their behavioral support for the desired change. Once this is accomplished, organisational change may be effected by getting other people to begin to pattern their behaviour. #irective $an"e 'his change cycle begins by change being imposed on the total organisation by some e,ternal force, such as higher management, the community, new laws. 'he new contacts and modes of behaviour create new knowledge, which tend to develop predispositions towards or against the change.

'hree /imensions of 3hange 7. 8. 9. Lo"ical #imension% +ased on the technical evidence of economics and science. 'his evidence needs to be presented to employees so that they can understand the technical and economic reasons for change. Psyc$olo"ical #imension% +ased on the fact that change is logical on terms of the human values and feelings in the situation. Sociolo"ical #imension% +ased on change logical from the point of view of social values. .s the change consistent with norms of the groupL /oes it maintain group teamworkL 'hese -uestions need to be resolved keeping in mind society norms.

$an"e Process !anaging change means managing the conversation between the people leading the change effort and those who are e,pected to implement the new strategies. 'he critical factors of a change process are " kill to identify and analyze the ob1ectives of change $knowledge of understanding what the problem is O finding solutions to it.% kill to devise successful methods to accomplish the ob1ectives and solve the problems. kill to enlist the support of people involved and affected by change. A 'odel Of Adaptive Orientation )ow *nticipative !anagement (nvironmental tability atisficing !anagement 2igh 2igh *daptive Orientation Strate"ies For #ealin" =it$ $an"e .n some cases where change is forced the new behaviour engaged in creates the kind of knowledge that develops commitment to the change and therefore, begins to appro,imate a participative change as it reinforces the individual and group behaviour. 'he hope is that #if people will only have a chance to see how the new system works they will support it.& Planned change according to +enne and 3hin, can be divided into three basic types of strategies. Empirical / Rational Strate"ies % 'he fundamental assumption underlying empirical-rational strategies is that human beings are rational and will follow their self-interest once this is revealed to them. 'his strategy is basically straightforward and uncomplicated. ince the person is rational and motivated by his self-interest, he will obviously adopt the proposed change if the logic can be effectively communicated. Normative Re(ed!cative Strate"ies % 'he normative re-educative strategies believe that human beings are guided in their actions by sociocultural norms and their commitment to these norms. 3onse-uently, change is not e,clusively at the cognitive or intellectual level but is often at a more personal level " habits, attitudes, and values. Po-er( oercive Strate"ies % Power-coercive strategies are based on the assumption of compliance of those with less power to the will of those with more power. )ow 3onservative !anagement =eactive !anagement

Resistance to $an"e !anagers in every company must be alert to problems and opportunities, because the perceived need for change is what sets the stage for subse-uent actions that create a new product or technology. +ig problems are easy to spot. ensitive monitoring systems are needed to detect gradual changes that can fool managers into thinking their company is doing fine. *n organization may be in greater danger when the environment changes slowly, because managers may fail to trigger an organizational response. 4ailing to use planned change to meet small needs can place the organization in hot water, as illustrated in the following passage " When frogs are placed in a boiling pail of water, they 1ump out < they dont want to boil to death. 2owever, when frogs are placed in a cold pail of water, and the pail is placed on a stove with the heat turned very low, over time the frogs will boil to death. Psychologists have studied the phenomenon of resistance to change during the past few decades. have been given for resistance to change. ome of these are as follows" 7. 'he change itself produces dise-uilibrium 8. 'here e,ists a deep seated human characteristic to go against change 9. 'he basic an,ieties aroused by the working conditions :. .nsecurity created by the ambiguity related to change everal e,planations

=esistance has a protective function for the individual. *ll behaviour which opposes change is not necessarily resistance. ome opposition to change may be perfectly logical.

Tactics for Overcomin" Resistance to $an"e Approac$ 3ommunication, education =$en to Gse 3hange is technical. 0sers need accurate information and analysis to understand change. 0sers need to feel involved. /esign re-uires information from others. 0sers have power to resist. ;roup has power over implementation. ;roup will lose out in the change. * crisis e,ists. .nitiators clearly have power. Other implementation techni-ues have failed. 3hange involves multiple departments or reallocation of resources. 0sers doubt legitimacy of change.

Participation

6egotiation 3oercion

'op management support

Tec$ni7!es for initiatin" $an"e trategies for overcoming resistance to change typically involve two approaches" the analysis of resistance through the force field techni-ue and the use of selective implementation tactics to overcome resistance. Organisations may be in a state of e-uilibrium, with forces pushing for change on one hand and forces resisting change by attempting to maintain the status -uo on the other. Aurt )ewin e,pressed this phenomenon in his field force t$eoryD which suggests that an e-uilibrium is maintained by driving forces and restraining forces. When a change is introduced, some forces drive it and other forces resist it. 'o implement a change, management should analyze the change forces. +y selectively removing forces that restrain change, the driving forces will be strong enough to enable implementation.

*nother approach, and one that is usually more effective, is to reduce or eliminate the restraining forces and then move to a new level of e-uilibrium. .n organizations, therefore, a change in policy is less resisted when those affected by it participate in the change. 'he change process involves three steps " 7. unfreezing 8. moving or changing 9. refreezing 'he first stage, unfreezing, creates motivation for change. .f people feel uncomfortable with the present situation, they may see the need for change. 2owever, in some cases an ethical -uestion may arise regarding the legitimacy of deliberately creating discomfort that may initiate change. 'he second stage is the change itself. 'his change may occur through assimilation of new information e,posure to new concepts, or development of a different perspective. 'he third stage, refreezing, stabilizes the change. 3hange, to be effective, has to be congruent with a persons self-concept and values. .f the change is incongruent with the attitudes and behaviors of others in the organization, chances are that the person will revert back to the old behaviour. 'hus, reinforcement of the new behaviour is essential.