Thinking & Intelligence (Modules 24, 25, 26) Cognition - Mental Activities Including Those Such as Thinking, Reasoning,

and Problem Solving.

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Cognitive Psychology or Science - A Subdiscipline Within Psychology That Study These Related Issues. (Rapidly Growing Area within Psychology)
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Concepts - Mental Categories for Objects or Events that are Similar to One Another in Certain Respects. e.g., Furniture or Birdness

Concepts are Often Described as Being Artificial Concepts or Natural Concepts.

Artificial Concepts Concepts that Can be Clearly Defined by a Set of Rules or Properties. e.g., Triangles, Robins, Oxygen.
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Natural Concepts Concepts that Do Not have Clear-Cut Boundaries (often defined by Prototypes). e.g., Clothing, Furniture, Art

Prototype - The Best or Clearest Example of Various Objects or Stimuli in the Physical World. e.g., What do You Think of When I Ask, Name a Type of Bird? or A Type of Vehicle?

Schemas - Cognitive Frameworks That Represent Our Knowledge About Aspects of the World. e.g.., Going to Class or Going to a Movie
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Positive vs. Negative Instances: A Stimulus that is an Example of a Concept under Study is a Positive Instance, if it is Not, then It is a Negative Instance. e.g., A Raccoon is a Mammal but a Robin is Not.

Generally, It is Easier to Detect A Positive Instance vs. a Negative One.

Paragraph Test - What is So Unusual About The Following Paragraph?

If you know the Solution, Do not Give it Away Immediately.

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How fast can you spot what is unusual about this paragraph? It looks so ordinary that you might not think anything was wrong with it at all and, in fact, nothing is. But it is atypical. Why?

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Study its various parts, think about its curious wording, and you may hit upon a solution. But you must do it without aid; my plan is not to allow any scandalous misconduct in this psychological study.

No doubt, if you work hard on this possibly frustrating task, its abnormality will dawn upon you. You cannot know until you try. But it is commonly a hard nut to crack. So, good luck!
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I trust a solution is conspicuous now. Was it dramatic and fair, although odd? Authors hint: I cannot add my autograph to this communication and maintain its basic harmony. Authors Name is Steuben.

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Problem Solving - Efforts to Develop or Choose Among Various Responses in Order to Attain a Desired Goal. e.g., Matchstick Problem
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Task: How Would You Arrange 6 Matches to Form 4 Equilateral Triangles? (Solution -->)

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Can It Be Done with 3 Lines ??

Task: How Can you Intersect all 9 Dots with A Series of 4 Straight Lines (or Less) Without Lifting up Your Pen? Here you Must Imagine that the Lines continue for Some distance until they Intersect, as all such non-parallel lines must.
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Algorithms - Procedures or Rules That Guarantees a Solution to a Given Problem.

Candle Problem: Task Determine Way to Use Candle(s) as a Stable Light Source w/ Objects Available.
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Two-String Problem: Task Connect the Strings Together w/ Objects Available.

e.g., A Computer Program or Following a Recipe.

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Heuristics - Mental Rules of Thumb That Usually Enable Us to Make a Decision or Solve a Problem. However, They Can be Inexact.
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While Heuristics Often Lead Us to Make a Correct Decision, They Dont Always ...

Which of the Following Pairs of Conditions Causes More Deaths in the U.S. Yearly? (A or B?)
1. All Accidents or Strokes? 2. All Cancers or Heart Disease? 3. Botulism or Small Pox Vaccinations? 4. Electrocution or Asthma? 5. Homicide or Diabetes? 6. Motor Veh Accidents or Cancer of Dig. System? 7. Tornado or Excessive Exposure to Cold? 8. Lightning or Appendicitis? 9. Motor Vehicle/Train Collision or Tuberculosis? 10. Drownings or Leukemia? 27

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Would You Believe B In All Cases? Why May This Be?

1. All Accidents or Strokes? 2. All Cancers or Heart Disease? 3. Botulism or Small Pox Vaccinations? 4. Electrocution or Asthma? 5. Homicide or Diabetes? 6. Motor Veh Accidents or Cancer of Dig. System? 7. Tornado or Excessive Exposure to Cold? 8. Lightning or Appendicitis? 9. Motor Vehicle/Train Collision or Tuberculosis? 10. Drowinings or Leukemia? 28

Availability Heuristic Rule of Thumb Where the Probability of an Event is Judged on the Basis of How Readily It Comes to Mind.

Another Heuristic Can Be Demonstrated from the Following Example (No Need to Copy Example).

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Linda is 31, Single, Outspoken, and Very Bright. She Majored in Philosophy in College, Was Concerned with Social Issues, and Participated in Antinuclear Demonstrations.

Which Statement is More Likely? A. Linda is a Bank Teller or B. Linda is a Bank Teller and Active in the Feminist Movement.

While Many Choose B, A is More Likely to Be Correct. Why?

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Because of the Fact that Any Two Uncertain Events Occurring Together is Always Less Likely than the Odds of Either Happening Alone.
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Therefore, If You Chose B, You Likely Used the Representativeness Heuristic - Where the Probability of an Event is Judged on the Basis of How Well They Seem to Match a Particular Prototype.

While Heuristics Often Lead Us to Make A Good or Correct Decision, In Certain Cases They Can Lead us Astray.
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Other Tendencies May Also Hamper Our Ability to Solve A Problem. e.g., Functional Fixedness The Tendency to Think of Using Objects Only as They Have Been Used in the Past.

Given: Box of Matches, 12 Tacks, and a Candle.

Solution: Using A Box of Matches as a Holder For the Candle. Some Companies Now Stress Creativity - New or Novel Ways of Viewing or Solving Problems.

Task: Attach the Candle to a Wall to be Used as a Light Source.

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Marvels of the Human Mind (1) It Has Been Estimated that the Circuitry in the Human Brain Has 60 Times the Informational Capacity of the Entire U.S. Telephone System.

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(2) Each of Us Knows Nearly 50,000 Facts About Every Topic On Which We Are Reasonably Knowledgeable. e.g., Our Personal Idiosyncrasies, Our Own Body, or Words and Grammar of Native Language.

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(3) In the Course of A Lifetime, The Average Person Can Accumulate 500 Times More Information as is Contained in the Encyclopedia Britannica.
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It is Easy To Take For Granted The Enormously Complex Mental Acts We Routinely Perform Every Day.

e.g., Whats a 7-letter Word, that Ends in y that Means a group of Interacting Individuals Living In the same region with the Same Culture?
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A: Society. Pretty Easy? Or Was It? But How Did You Manage to Find the Word So Quickly Among the 50,000 - 75,000 Words in Your Working Vocabulary?

Q: What is George Washingtons Phone Number?

You Quickly Recognize the Question as Absurd, But Why? What Would a Computer Do?

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Q: In the Place You Lived Two Residences Ago, Did Your Front Door Open at the Left Side or the Right Side? How and Why Do You Recall This Information So Easily and Efficiently?

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Intelligence - No Universally Accepted Definition. One Used by Wechsler is: The Aggregate or Global Capacity of the Individual To Act Purposefully, to Think Rationally, and to Deal Effectively With the Environment.

The History of the Use of Intelligence Tests is Long and Controversial. Nearly 4000 Years Ago in China Persons Were Given Written Exams for Civil Service Positions.

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The First Modern Intelligence Tests Were Designed by Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon in France. Their Task Was to Identify Children Who Would Not Benefit from Formal Schooling.

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David Weschsler Devised A Series of Tests to Measure Intelligence. eg., For Adults - Weschler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS). For Children Weschler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-R).

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Controversy With Intelligence Tests. One Common Complaint is the Issue of Whether Intelligence Tests Are Culture - Fair or Unbiased Against Different Races or Groups.

The Use of Virtually Any Language Poses a Problem... One Attempt to Devise a Culture-Fair Test is to Not Use Words. How?
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The Raven Standard Progressive Matrices Test (1948) is One Attempt. Not All Agree Even this Test is Culture Fair.
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I.Q. - Intelligence Quotient IQ = Mental Age (MA) X 100

Today, Many Believe Intelligence is Best Viewed as Being of Different Types.

eg., Daniel Goleman - Wrote Emotional Intelligence (1995) Belief that Adapting Well to Emotions Is Critical.

Chronological Age (CA)

100 is Average, So those above are Considered Bright while Below are Deficient.
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For Fun: Savant Syndrome - A Condition in Which People with Serious Mental Handicaps, Either from Retardation or Mental Illness, Have Spectacular Islands of Ability or Brilliance. [Movie:Rainman]

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Darold Terfferts Extraordinary People: Understanding Idiot Savants (1989) is an Excellent Source of Examples...
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George and His Identical Twin Brother Charles can Give you the Day of the Week for any Date over a span of 80,000 Years. Also, They can Describe the Weather on Any Day of Their Adult Life...

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However, They Cannot Add or Count to 30, and they Cannot Determine Change from a $10 bill for a $6 Purchase. [Some Psychologists have Suggested it is Good To Forget Many Things]

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Upon hearing Tchaikovskys Piano Concerto No 1 for the First Time in his Teen Years, Leslie Played it Back Flawlessly and without Hesitation. He Can Do the Same with any other Piece of Music, No Matter How Long

Or Complex. Unfortunately, Leslie is Severley Mentally Handicapped, Blind, and he has Cerebral Palsy.

Motivation & Emotion (Modules 28, 29, 30) Motivation - An Inferred Internal Process that Activates, Guides, and Maintains Behavior Over Time. Many Theories Have Been Proposed to Explain It.

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Instinct Theory - Theory of Motivation that Suggests Behavior Stems from Innate Urges or Tendencies. Instinct - Patterns of Behavior Assumed to be Universal in a Species. e.g., Bill Pecking By Gulls.

Drive Theory - Theory of Motivation that Suggests Behavior is Pushed by Biological Needs. e.g.., Thirst or Hunger.
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Homeostasis - A State of Physiological Balance within the Body. Evidence Suggests that We are More Motivated When Homeostasis is Shifted (e.g., Water or Food Depletion --> Seek These Items).

Arousal Theory - Theory of Motivation that Suggests We Seek an Optimal Level of Arousal or Activation. Many Studies Show Our Performance is Best Under Moderate Levels of Arousal.

High Level of Performance Low

(Inverted U-Function)

Low High Arousal Level --->

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Expectancy Theory Theory of Motivation that Suggests Behavior is Elicited by Expectations of Desirable Outcomes (Cognitive Theory). e.g., Why are You Taking This Class?
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Maslows Hierarchy of Needs (1970)

Self-Actualization Esteem Needs Needs to Belong Safety Needs Physiological Needs

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Specific Behaviors: Eating and Drinking. Much Research Has Been Done to Study The Process of Food and Water Intake. Evidence Suggests They Are Complex Processes.
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(1998) - SurveyAmericans don't drink enough Water While 2 out of 3 Americans responding to a survey know they should drink eight 8 oz. servings of water daily, 1 in 2 admits not getting enough ...
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The survey also showed people may be "drinking themselves to dehydration" by consuming too many alternative water-robbing beverages.

As We Age, Our Thirst Mechanims Dont Signal Us to Drink as Readily as Young Therefore, Older Persons Need to Guard Against Dehydration.

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Brain Regions Shown to Be Significant in Eating and Drinking. Two Areas of the Hypothalamus Have Been Found Critical for Food Intake in Rats.

(1) Lateral Hypothalamus (LH) - May be Called a Start-Eating Center, Since Stimulation Leads to Eating and Destruction of Area Leads Animals Not to Eat.
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Ventromedial Hypothalamus (VMH) - May be Called a Stop-Eating Center, Since Stimulation Leads to the Stopping of Ongoing Eating and Destruction Leads to Overeating and Obese Animals.
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Rat with VMH Lesion Note scale is surpassing 1000 grams (many large adult rats may be in 350 to 450 Range
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Eating Disorders: Anorexia Nervosa - An Eating Disorder in Which Individuals Starve Themselves and Often Lose a Dangerous Amount of Weight. e.g., Karen Carpenter Singer from 70s

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Anorexia - Persons often have an Intense Fear of Becoming Obese. No Single Cause of Anorexia is Agreed Upon, Some Include:
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1. Problem with Hypothalamus. 2. Fears of Sexuality.

3. Struggle for Control w/ Parents.

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4. Cultural Preoccupation with Being Thin; Many Believe They Are Too Fat. What is Our Societys Message?
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Research Findings: Leora Pinhas from the U. of Toronto Presented 118 Female University Students with Two Series of Images (1 containing Female Fashion Models, the Other No Human Figures)...
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Both Before and After Study Women Were Given Questionnaires to Determine Their Mood State, Satisfaction with Their Bodies, and Risk of Developing an Eating Disorder. (Any Predictions?)
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Results: They Were More Depressed and Angry Following Exposure to the Fashion Models. Also, Those with the Highest Propensity toward Eating Disorders Responded with Greater Anger to the Female Slides.
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Findings Suggest that These Images have a Detrimental Effect on Women and May Play a Role in Episodes of Binge Eating in Response to Negative Mood States.
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Less Idealized Media Portrayals of Women May Become an Important Public Health and Preventive Health Issue. Do You Think It Will?
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Research Suggests That Relatives of People with Eating Disorders Have Higher Risks for Developing Similar Disorders (1998).
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Treatment for Anorexia is Often Difficult; in Part Due to Belief Nothing is Wrong.

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Bulimia - An Eating Disorder in which Periods of Binge Eating Alternate with Periods of SelfInduced Purging (via Vomiting or use of Laxatives).
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Characteristics of Bulimics 1. Most Females in Late Teens or 20s.

2. Often of Higher Socioeconomic Class.
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Characteristics of Bulimics 3. Body Weight Often Fluctuates Within or Above Normal Weight (often Hides Condition).
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Problems of Bulimics 1. Erosion of Tooth Enamel.

Problems of Bulimics 1. Erosion of Tooth Enamel.

2. Dehydration or Electrolyte Imbalance.

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Problems of Bulimics 1. Erosion of Tooth Enamel. 2. Dehydration or Electrolyte Imbalance. 3. Depression and/or Mood Swings.
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Problems of Bulimics 1. Erosion of Tooth Enamel. 2. Dehydration or Electrolyte Imbalance. 3. Depression and/or Mood Swings. 4. Time is Limited for Other Activities.

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Cognitive Approaches to Motivation: Intrinsic Motivation - The Desire to Perform Activities Because They are Self-Rewarding. e.g., Hobbies (No Payment).

Extrinsic Motivation Pursuit of Activities Because of External Rewards or Punishment. e.g., Payment, Praise, Threats.
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Are Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation Related? How?

Q: Are Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation Related? How?

Some Research Suggests that Behaviors Once Engaged in For Intrinsic Reward Can Be Reduced or Undermined by the Addition of Extrinsic Rewards.
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e.g., Harry Harlow - Story of Rhesus Monkeys and Wooden Puzzles.

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Other Studies Suggest the Same Outcome Occurs with Humans. e.g., Deci - Found CollegeStudents Reduced Their Level of Puzzle-Solving Following Rewards. But...
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However, a Reduction in Behavior is Not Always the Case. Recent Evidence Suggests that if the External Rewards are Viewed as Recognition, not Bribes, Intrinsic Motivation May be Enhanced.
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Achievement Motivation The Desire to Accomplish Difficult Tasks and Meet Standards of Excellence. Clearly, People Differ In This Behavior. How Can it Be Measured?
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Projective Tests - Various Tests that Aim to Have Persons Project or Reveal Their Beliefs or Desires (Motives).

e.g., the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) Test Consisting of a Series of Ambiguous Pictures Which Persons are Asked About.

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Rorschach Inkblot Test Another Projective Test, That Consists of a Series of Ambiguous Patterns Formed from Blotted Ink Deposits. First Formulated by a Swiss Psychiatrist (Rorschach).
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Example Rorschach Pattern What Do You See ?

Through Scoring Such Answers, Those with a High Need to Achieve Frequently Create Stories with Themes Including Success, Getting Ahead, and Competition.
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Today, the Validity (or Accuracy) of the Rorschach test is in Question, Yet some Clinicians Believe in its Use.
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Emotions - Reactions That Typically are Composed of 3 Major Components: (1) Physiological Changes (2) Subjective Cognitive States (3) Expressive Behaviors.

e.g., the Polygraph (Lie Detector) Machine Simultaneously Records A Number of Physiological Systems Such as Heart Rate, Blood Pressure, Respiration Rate, and Skin Conductance Levels (GSR).
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Polygraphs are Used in Certain Cases for Trials and For Some Job Screening, But Interpretation of Tests Must Be Done Cautiously. Why?
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All of These Measures are Common Body Processes; There is No Measure of Our Actual Thought Processes. Changes Suggest Disturbances in Thought, But They Could Be Due to Other Than Guilt or Lies. What About Fear?
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Have a Good, But Safe, Weekend !!!

Stay Warm !!

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