Characteristics of Plants

All are many celled Most contain the green pigment chlorophyll All have cell walls to provide structure Most do not move around All are made up of eukaryotic cells (have a membrane and nucleus) Found in nearly every environment on earth

About 285,000 plant species have been identified and scientist believe many have not yet been found (tropical rainforests) Origin of Plants arliest plants came from the sea from plant!li"e protists #epended on $ater to sustain life %lants eventually had to adapt to land &ell $alls made of cellulose "ept plant cells from drying out' Most land plants also have a $a(y, protective layer on stems and leaves called a cuticle )he cuticle is an adaptation that enables plants to "eep from drying out on land Life on Land

Advantages of life on land: More direct sunlight available for photosynthesis More availability of carbon dio(ide (there is more &*2 in the air than in the $ater) What Plants need to Survive Sunlight %lants use the energy from sunlight to carry out photosynthesis %lants have many adaptations to ma(imi+e their ability to absorb sunlight Water All cells re,uire a constant supply of $ater -ater is used up ,uic"ly during photosynthesis because of the sun' %lants have developed lots of adaptations to absorb $ater and prevent $ater loss' What Plants need to Survive

Minerals %lants absorb minerals )hese nutrients are in the soil and are necessary for plant gro$th Gas !change %lants need o(ygen for respiration as $ell as carbon dio(ide for photosynthesis' %lants need to e(change these t$o gases $ith the atmosphere $ithout losing $ater in the process Move"ent of water and nutrients throughout the plant #ody %lants absorb $ater and minerals through their roots, but ma"e food in their leaves' Classification of Plants Plants are divided into $ "a%or groups: &ryophytes ! Mosses non!vascular seedless 'erns vascular seedless

Cone(&earing Plants ! .ymnosperms %roduce seeds vascular 'lowering Plants ! Angiosperms %roduce seeds vascular

&ryophytes &ryophytes: small plants found in damp environments li"e the forest floor, the edges of ponds and streams and near the ocean /sually 0ust a fe$ cells thic" so they can absorb $ater directly through their cell $alls' )hey are nonvascular 1ascular tissue is made up of long, tubeli"e cells in $hich $ater and nutrients are transported through the plant &ryophytes do not have vascular tissue Mosses and liver$orts are in the 2ryophyte #ivision 2ryophytes do not gro$ tall Seedless )onvascular Plants

#o not have roots, stems or leaves .ro$ form spores instead of seeds 3eproduce ase(ually &an develop $hen a small piece of the parent brea"s off 4nclude5 Mosses 6iver$orts *f 20,000 species of nonvascular plants, most are classified as mosses Mosses 3ootless plant $ith leaf li"e gro$ths in a spiral around a stal" 7eld in place by root li"e filaments or threads, called rhi*oids .ro$ in damp areas range in si+e from 2!5 centimeters in height

Liverworts +nlike tree leaves which have veins that conduct water, nutrients and other "aterials, in liverworts there is little or no conducting tissue -ree leaves have window(like stomata which close when the leaf is threatened with drying out. liverworts have nothing like sto"ata, so the whole plant shrivels when dry

/nstead of #earing regular roots, liverworts anchor the"selves with one(celled appendages known as rhi*oids /"portance of Mosses and Liverworts Are often the first plants to gro$ in ne$ environment, such as a volcanic site or forest fire area

)hese pioneer plant species gro$ and die and become food and nutrients for other less hardy plants )hey change the conditions in the environment so that other plants can gro$ there also Seedless 0ascular Plants &haracteristics5 %roduce 8pores (not seeds) 7ave vascular tissue (unli"e the mosses) )he vascular tissue is made up of long, tube li"e cells

)hese cells carry $ater, minerals and nutrients to all the cells throughout the plant )his allo$s the plants to gro$ bigger and thic"er than the nonvascular plants 4nclude5 &lub mosses and spi"e mosses 7orsetails Ferns 'erns 6argest group of seedless vascular plants in this division' 92,000 living species 3e,uire very little $ater to gro$ 1hi*o"e is the underground stem system of a fern )he leaf of a fern is called a frond 3eproduce by a spore, a reproductive cell that forms ne$ organisms $ithout fertili+ation 1hi*o"e

coal

An underground stem' 3oots gro$ from the rhi+ome to root the plant to the soil' /"portance of Seedless 0ascular Plants *ver long periods of time, this plant material built up, became compacted and compressed and eventually became 8eedless plants such as bryophytes and ferns ma"e up peat, $hich in turn becomes fuel

Found in bogs today, a poorly drained area $ith spongy, $et ground this is composed mainly of dead plants $hose decay has been slo$ed by lac" of o(ygen Peat

Peat : forms in bogs, but after millions of years it becomes coal, natural gas and petroleum'

Plants have adaptations to help them survive (live and gro$) in different areas' Adaptations are special features that allo$ a plant or animal to live in a particular place or habitat' )hese adaptations might ma"e it very difficult for the plant to survive in a different place' )his e(plains $hy certain plants are found in one area, but not in another' For e(ample, you $ouldn;t see a cactus living in the Arctic' <or $ould you see lots of really tall trees living in grasslands' &lic" on the different biomes or areas belo$ to learn about them and some of the adaptations plants have to live there5 2esert Grassland

-ropical 1ain 'orest

-e"perate 1ain 'orest

-e"perate 2eciduous 'orest

-aiga

-undra

/n Water

Mosses )he first group of land plants are the mosses and their allies, the liver$orts and horn$orts' )ogether, they are called the bryophytes' )hey are land plants, but do not have seeds or flo$ers' )he gametophyte generation, that is, the generation that is the larger, more easily seen, is the one that produces gametes, not the one that produces spores' )he sporophyte generation is a little plant that gro$s on or 0ust under the soil and is rarely seen' Mosses reproduce $ith spores' 4f you loo" closely, you can sometimes see a little bulb on a thin stal", stic"ing up from the moss' )his structure is called a seta, and it is the sporophyte generation' )he stal" is called a foot, and the bulb at the end is called a capsule' 4t contains the sporangium, $hich is the structure that produces the spores' Mosses lac" vessels, so they are restricted to smaller si+es and more moist environments than other land plants' Mosses, then, are land plants $ithout seeds or flo$ers, $ith a dominant gametophyte generation' )he photograph at right $as ta"en along a small cree" that flo$s into Austin &ree", 0ust above camp' Ferns Ferns, horsetails, and their allies ma"e up the second group of land plants, the pteridophytes' )hese plants all have vascular systems, made up of (ylem (flo$ of $ater and nutrients from roots to leaves) and phloem (flo$ of sugars and other metabolic products from leaves to roots)' Mosses do not have vascular systems' Ferns, ho$ever, do not have flo$ers' )his fern is found throughout &a+, under the shade of the red$oods' )his horsetail is found along Ausin &ree"'

Ferns reproduce by means of spores' =ou can often see them if you turn over a mature leaf' =ou $ill see ro$s of little dots' ach dot is a sori, $hich contains the sporangia, $hich is the structure that produces thousands of spores' ach spore gro$s into a very small plant, called a gametophyte, and is the gametophyte generation' )he gametophyte produces gametes (eggs and sperm), $hich unite to produce the fern plant' )he fern plant that $e "no$ of, that has leaves, stems, and roots, produces spores, so it is the sporophyte generation'

&onifers )he gymnosperms (>na"ed seeds>) ma"e up the third group of land plants' )hey produce seeds, not spores, that are contained $ithin a cone' 8eeds are a great evolutionary development, since, unli"e spores, they are multicellular and contain nutrition for the ne$, developing plant, all $ithin a protective coat' )he largest group of gymnosperms are the conifers (>cone bearer>), $hich include the red$oods and #ougles!firs $hich are the dominant plants of &a+' &onifers produce pollen cones, in $hich develop microsporangia, $hich undergo meiosis, producing pollen grains, $hich are immature male gametophytes' )he pollen is blo$n by the $ind onto female cones' )his is a fairly inefficient process, so the conifers must produce a very large amount of pollen to ensure the female cones get fertili+ed' 4f you are in a conifer forest in the spring, you $ill find that your tent and car become covered in pollen grains' -hen a female cone gets fertili+ed $ith pollen, it produces seeds' )he seeds are not contained $ithin an ovary, so are considered >na"ed>' )he tall plant $e recogni+e as a red$ood is the sporophyte generation'

Flo$ering %lants

)he final group of land plants are the angiosperms, also "no$n as the flo$ering plants' )he evolution of the flo$er represents the high point of plant evolution' )he flo$er attracts many animals $hich assist in pollination, ma"ing the process of pollination more efficient and less random than in the gymnosperms' )he seed develops in an ovary, $hich becomes a fruit' )he fruit serves to help seed dispersal, since animals eat the seeds, $hich generally pass unharmed through the animal;s intestinal tract' 2irds and mammals may deposit the seeds, along $ith a little bit of fertili+er, a long $ay from the original plant' )he tanbar" oa" is also a flo$ering plant, but its flo$ers are small and inconspicuous' )he >acorn> that is produced is the seed'

1enomous cabbage 8cientists have recently ta"en the gene that programs poison in scorpion tails and loo"ed for $ays to combine it $ith cabbage' -hy $ould they $ant to create venomous cabbage? )o limit pesticide use $hile still preventing caterpillars from damaging cabbage crops' )hese genetically modified cabbages $ould produce scorpion poison that "ills caterpillars $hen they bite leaves @ but the to(in is modified so it isnAt harmful to humans'

Flavr 8avr tomato )he Flavr 8avr tomato $as the first commercially gro$n genetically engineered food to be granted a license for human consumption' 2y adding an antisense gene, the &alifornia!based company &algene hoped to slo$ the ripening process of the tomato to prevent softening and rotting, $hile allo$ing the tomato to retain its natural flavor and color' )he F#A approved the Flavr 8avr in 9BBCD ho$ever, the tomatoes $ere so delicate that they $ere difficult to transport, and they $ere off the mar"et by 9BBE' *n top of production and shipping problems, the tomatoes $ere also reported to have a very bland taste5 F)he Flavr 8avr tomatoes didnAt taste that good because of the variety from $hich they $ere developed' )here $as very little flavor to save,G said &hrist -at"ins, a horticulture professor at &ornell /niversity'