Technical Information: Stress and Strain Tension Testing

Engineering Stress Engineering stress, , is force, F, divided by original area, A0 : F != A0 Tension positive. [=] N/m2 = Pa (usually MPa) or [=] lb/in2 = psi (usually ksi) 1 MPa ! 145 ksi Engineering Strain Engineering strain is the change in length divided by the original length: l " l0 #l != = l0 l0 (2) True Stress True stress, T, is force divided by the actual area: F !T = A For uniform deformation: !T = !(1 + " ) True Strain True strain is:

(1)

(3) (4)

dl l For uniform deformation: "l% !T = ln# & = ln{1 + !} $ l0 ' Once necking begins: 2 % " * d0 " A0 % ) ( ( d0 ) ) & = ln# & !T = ln# = 2ln , / 2 dneck . $ Aneck ' + ) ) ( d ( ) $ neck ' Shear Stress and Shear Strain Plastic deformation conserves volume. Plastic deformation is by shear. Plastic deformation may produce surface markings and localized heating. d! T =

(5)

(6)

(7)

Linear Elastic Loading The initial part of the stress-strain curve is linear, with slope: ! E= (8) " E is Youngs Modulus or the elastic modulus. E [=] Pa. E is the slope of the modulus line in Figure 1. E is valid for uniaxial tension.

For small strains, deformation is reversible; the specimen exhibits linear elasticity.

General Characteristics of an Engineering StressStrain Curve

! Figure 1. Initial portion of the stress-strain curve for annealed polycrystalline copper. The 0.2% offset yield strength is indicated. If the specimen were unloaded to the yield strength and then unloaded, it would suffer a permanent strain of 0.002.
! Plastic Yielding A stress-strain line that changes slope gradually, as seen in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2, indicates homogeneous plastic deformation throughout the specimen. The yield strength, !Y , is taken as the start of significant plastic yielding. A practical measure of the yield strength is the stress where a line of slope E drawn through ! = 0.002 intersects the stress-strain curve (Fig. 1). If plastic flow begins at one point and then propagates along the specimen, the result is a yield point (Fig. 3). On the stress-strain diagram, this shows up as a peak (the Upper Yield Point, UYP), a load drop, a small irregular strain, and a point (the Lower Yield Point, LYP) where the normal curve continues. In this case the yield strength is taken as the stress at the LYP. Uniform Deformation and Strain Hardening After yielding, uniform plastic deformation leads to a nonlinear increase in the engineering stress referred to as strain hardening. Tensile Strength The tensile strength, TS (or ultimate tensile strength, UTS), is the maximum engineering stress in a tension test. (Fig. 2 and Fig. 3)

!
Figure 2. Complete engineering stress-strain curve for annealed polycrystalline copper. The 0.2% offset yield strength (taken from Figure 1), tensile strength, and percent elongation at fracture are indicated

"

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Figure 3. Complete engineering stress-strain curve for a mild steel (1018 hot-rolled steel). The upper and lower yield points (UYP and LYP), tensile strength, percent elongation at fracture, and Lders strain are indicated.

The Development of Plastic Instability (Necking) in Ductile Metals Necking, which begins at the maximum engineering stress, is the result of plastic instability in tension. Once a neck has formed, plastic deformation only continues in the neck region, because the true stress is highest in the neck. In addition, the true plastic strain is greatest in the neck itself, and all further strain hardening occurs in the neck. Necking begins when the differential decrease in the cross-sectional area of the gauge section is not balanced by an appropriate differential increase in flow stress due to strain hardening. Measures of Ductility* Ductility can be measured as (i) the elongation, or (ii) the reduction in area at fracture. The percent elongation at fracture is given by: " l f ! l0 % %.elongation = $ (9) ' ( 100 # l0 & Reduction in area at fracture is given by: " A0 ! A f % % RA = $ (10) ' ( 100 # A0 & * For many polymers, significant elastic recoil occurs at fracture, and the % elongation before fracture can be larger than the % elongation after fracture. Fracture The geometry of the neck adds a tensile hydrostatic component to the axial tension. This stress state creates voids in the center of the neck. When they coalesce, load is transferred to the exterior which fails with a rapid, final shear fracture. The result is a ductile cupcone fracture, with a central fibrous zone and a shear lip zone.

General Characteristics of a True StressStrain Curve

Low-Strain Portion The low-strain portion of a true stresstrue strain curve is virtually identical to the lowstrain portion of an engineering stressengineering strain curve. Therefore, Young's modulus and the yield strength can be evaluated from either. Strain Hardening Strain hardening is the slope of the true stresstrue plastic strain curve at any point prior to the onset of necking. The primary cause of strain hardening is an increase in dislocation density. Dislocations are generated during plastic flow and dislocation motion during slip is impeded because of the increasing dislocation density. True stress true strain data often can be fitted the empirical expression:

!T , plastic = K " T , plastic

or:

(11)

ln{!T } = ln{K } + n ln{" T } if K (the strength coefficient) and n (the strain-hardening exponent) are constant. The greater the value of n, the greater is the strain hardening. For metals, n ranges from close to zero up to slightly greater than 0.5.
Necking (Plastic Instability) After the onset of necking, all further plastic deformation occurs in the neck region. The hydrostatic stress component and the developing voids make it impossible to calculate the true stress in the neck. Reduction of Area After Fracture The reduction in area at fracture (% basis), which is one measure of ductility, is uniquely related to the true strain at fracture.