Event Newsletter

Safeguarding our ancient heritage

A talk by Prof. Anita Rane- Kothare

Newsletter written by Maansi Parpiani Contact at maansiparpiani@orfonline.org

bserver Research Foundation Mumbai and the Museum Society of Bombay organised a talk on the Caves of Mumbai by Prof. Anita Rane-Kothare who is the Head of Department- Ancient Indian Culture, St. Xaviers College, Mumbai. Her talk is ORF Mumbais latest venture into discussions over Art, Culture and Heritage in the city. Prof. Rane-Kothares visual-rich presentation delved into the historicity of the city and highlighted the significance of the regions cave heritage.

Prof. Anita Rane-Kothare addressing the gathering

Historicity of the city of Mumbai:

Prof. Rane-Kothare opened her talk by tracing the historicity of the city to as far back as pre-historic times. It is a well known fact that the city of Mumbai was not always a contiguous piece of land as it exists today, she noted. It was formed from a cluster of seven islands through reclamations undertaken by the British. However, this is not to say that the history of the region begins only with the reclamation. Prof. Rane-Kothare pointed out that traces of Mumbais history have been found in the regions prehistoric tools of the Mesolithic man, dating back to about 25,000 years. These were excavated at present day Akruli near Kandivili, at what was formerly the island of Shasti. In the period of ancient history, she continued, the regions significance is known to have been spread out across 66 islands including the important ports of Thane, Sopara, Shasti and Salsette among others. These islands formed an important node in the Buddhist travel routes that were widely used between 6th and 10th century BC. Prof. Rane-Kothare noted that there are some very important Buddhist sites in this region, those of the Hinayana, Mahayana and Vajrayana Sects. These include Kondivite-Kanheri, Magathane, Jivadani and Sopara. The latter was a very important Buddhist port, from where travellers could sail out to destinations beyond the subcontinent like to Khuramala (Persian Gulf), Agnimala (Aden), Dadhimala (Red Sea) and Nilakusumamala (Nubia). Prof. Kothare said that Ashokas edict that was found at Sopara has a Brahmi inscription. The historicity of Sopara can be traced back to the 6th century BC and there are mentions of the Sopara jataka in the Mahabharata, she added.

Ashokas edict at Sopara

Stupa at Sopara

According to Prof. Rane-Kothare, invasions, the decline of cults and the subsequent decline of Buddhism as a whole, witnessed the incoming of Brahmanical influences. As a result, the Brahmanical Pashupata sect also has its important sites on the Mumbai islands, namely Gharapuri (Elephanta), Parel, Jogeshwari and Mandapeshwar. It is important to note that because of the nature of the disjointed islands, they were primarily used as halts in the trade route, and witnessed limited permanent settlement, Prof. Rane-Kothare pointed out. Though several dynasties maintained their rule over the region across the centuries, there was no consolidated rule of any single king, the kind that existed in the other regions of the subcontinent, she said. The islands are first known to have come under the rule of the Mauryas, through feudatories. The region then came under the Satvahanas who were responsible for constructing several of the caves in Western India, she added. Prof. Rane-Kothare informed the audience that it was the Mauryas of Konkan who then took over the region; and that some believe that they made Elephanta their capital. The Kalachuris are believed to have taken over the power in the region, but again most believe that this was through the rule of feudatories, she added. The Traikutakas ruled in the region from the 3rd- 5th century AD and copper plates of their rule have been found at Kanheri.

Mauryas

Satvahanas

Mauryas of Konkan

Kalachuris

Traikutakas

Rashtrakutas

Chalukyas

Portuguese

British

The subsequent dynasties that ruled in the region included the Rashtrakutas, the Chalukyas followed by the Shilaharas, Prof. Rane-Kothare said. The Portuguese took over from the Shilaharas, and subsequently the islands of Bombay came under the control of the British, she asserted.
Bombay's Rulers through the Ages

Cave heritage of the islands of Mumbai

Prof. Rane-Kothare highlighted that all across India, there are about 1,200 rock-cut caves, of which 900 caves are located in Maharashtra along. Of these, 150 caves, which have been built in both the Brahmanical and Buddhist styles, are located in and around Mumbai. The Buddhist caves constructed all over the islands provide the biggest evidences for the existence of an important trade and travel route through the islands, Prof. Rane-Kothare said. Buddha is known to have suggested the idea of excavating caves along a travel route for rest and protection of the travellers. However, he was not the first one to do so. She pointed out that the earliest caves known in Indian subcontinent- the Lomas Rishi and Sudama caves, situated in the Barabar cave complex, in present day Bihar were excavated following the same logic. These rock-cut chambers date back to the 3rd century BC, to the period of Mauryan rule by Ashoka and his son Dasaratha.

Early Cave Centres in Western India

Prof. Rane-Kothare asserted that the geomorphology of the region was an important factor in the construction of caves. Mumbai, primarily has amygdaloidal basalt and the region beyond Borivali has trecolite and violate basalt. According to her, the quality of the rock played an important role in the carving of the cave. For example, there are beautiful sculptures in the annex of cave No.1 of Elephanta, but it is crooked. This is not however because of any mutilation, but in fact owning to a dyke that flows in the middle. The artisans were aware of these faults and accommodated their art around them, she added. Prof. Rane-Kothare further highlighted that though Elephanta is considered to be an important Brahmanical location today, the sites of Morobundar and Rajbundar in the Elephanta complex were originally Buddhist sites, and that stupas have been found here. It formed an important halt in the Buddhist travel route and, lead coins and a sculpture of the Buddhist fertility god Prasava Devata have been excavated here. It was only after the decline of Buddhism that Gharapuri was taken over by the Pashupata sect, she pointed out. Apart from the caves, several other Buddhist relics and spots of significance have been discovered on the islands of Bombay, Prof. Rane-Kothare asserted. An Avalokiteshvara has been discovered at Trombay. Also, Prof. Rane-Kothare said, Vihar lake lies at a strategic location of the travel route and was considered to have been an important source of water for the voyagers. She further said that the Buddhist influence was not limited to the islands alone. All along the Sahyadri range, there are Buddhist caves on hillocks- Mahad, Ambivili and Lonar caves. Khandala has the famous Karla, Aaja, Bedsa and Kondane caves. Prof. Rane-Kothare explained the components of Buddhist cave art and architecture in brief. She pointed out that Buddhist cave architecture is mainly divided into Chaityas and Viharas. Viharas can be of two types- Bhojana Matapa and Uposatha Matapa. The former is a hall used for eating meals and the latter for meditation. Water cisterns (also known as podhis) can also be of two types- panya podhi and snaan podhi. The former refers to a drinking water source while the latter is a source used for bathing. She also made reference to Asanapedhikas which are benches that were generally made in front of scenic locations, for the monks to sit and enjoy the view in front of them. With respect to Buddhist art, she pointed that there are two important types- the Dhammakaya form and the Roopakaya form. The former is the one that does not believe in depicting Buddha in a human form while the latter depends heavily on depicting Buddha in the manushi or human form.

Elephanta Caves (Gharapuri) Prof. Rane-Kothare said that the term Gharapuri has been derived from Aghorapuri which indicates that the Aghora cult was practiced on the island. It was only after the Portuguese took over that the island got the name of Elephanta, owing to the big sculpture of an elephant at the entrance. She informed the audience that the Trimurti Shiva sculpture in the caves is not representative of Brahma, Vishnu and Mahesh, as is often understood. It denotes Shivas three forms: Aghora, Tatpursha and Vamdeva, as the creator, protector and destroyer respectively. Further, she said that the sculpture of the Prasava Devata found at Elephanta is similar to one found at the Rameshwar cave at Ellora, near Aurangabad. The plan of the cave as a whole is similar to the plan of the Dhumerlena cave at Ellora. According to Prof. RaneKothare, these evidences of similarity in style point towards the fact that there were artisans guilds that constructed these caves and that these guilds travelled across India. There are no epigraphical evidences specific to these sculptures, but the mention of shrenis (guilds) have been made at Kanheri, she added.

Trimurti at Elephanta

Mahakali Caves The Mahakali caves are a group of 17 caves, dating back to the 4th century AD. Prof. Rane-Kothare yet again asserted the evidences for the existence of artisan guilds and the travelling of their art and style. The Chaitya Griha at Mahakali is similar to the one at Sudama cave, that was made during the 9th year of Ashokas reign. According to the Professor, there is only one inscription at Mahakali and it reads: Gotamassa gottena Brahmanassa,sapitussa,sabhatukassa imaya Viharo pathikya vaatavassaya deyyadhammam The meaning of this inscription is that, a Brahmin from the Gautam gotra along with his father and bothers have excavated this cave to provide travellers protection from wind and rain, as a religious merit, Prof. Rane-Kothare said. The inscription provides clarity with respect to the purpose of the cavesas rest houses for travellers. Also, she pointed out, it indicates that there was at least some flexibility with respect to the construction of caves, and even Brahmins considered it as a religious merit to construct caves for Buddhist travellers. The Mahakali cave does not have a lot of sculptures because of the kind of rock. The lack of images of human Buddha indicates that the cave was built by the cult of Hinayana Buddhism that does not believe in image worship. A few images of Buddha (Manushi Buddhas) were carved out in the Chaitya hall, following the fall of the Hinayana cult, Prof. Rane-Kothare added. A similar sculpture of Lakulisha- the founder of the Pashupata sect in Shaivism can be found at Elephanta, indicating how Brahmanical art

that arose after the decline of Buddhism borrowed from the latter. A tank and water cisterns have also been excavated at Mahakali.

Manushi Buddha sculpture at Mahakali

Kanheri Caves Also known as Krishnagiri caves, the Kanheri caves have been in existence since 1st century BC. According to Prof. Rane-Kothare, the caves were widely visited by Italian, Portuguese and British travellers. Italian traveller John Di Casto has stated in his chronicles that Kanheri was the biggest rockcut educational university in western India. Kanheri has evidences of three phases of cave art- that of the Satvahana, the Traikutas and the Rashtrakutas. It consists of 120 caves that are located on three different hills. Prof. Rane-Kothare pointed out that cave No.3 has dampatis or donor couples. According to her, they depict the gender equality that was prevalent during the Satvahana period, which is known to have followed matriarchal rule. Earrings of the sculptures are similar to those found at Ter near Solapur, which was an important commercial centre. The Satvahana phase followed both Dhammakaya and Doopakaya art forms and there are many images of Buddha in these caves. There are murals in cave No. 34 that explain the symmetrical measurements that were used to make paintings. In cave No. 41, there is an eleven-headed Avalokiteshvara, which is the only one of its kind in the whole country. It is worshipped in China as quanin. According to Prof. Rane-Kothare, this sculpture would have been made in the Traikutaka period. She felt that it could be a form of the violent Vedic God Rudra. It has been mentioned in the Nagarjunakonda, and also in the chronicles of the 5th century AD, Huna king- Toramana. However, nothing can be decisively said about the genesis of the image, she added. Prof. Rane-Kothare also elaborated on the image next to the Avalokiteshvara, of a Buddha seated with a bowl in his hand. This, according to her is the medicinal

Buddha, also known as Baishachguru. This Buddha is very popular in Tibet and the image in Kanheri is the only image of the medicinal Buddha in India. Prof. Rane-Kothare pointed out that cave No.11 has a big durbar hall that could have been a Bhojana Matapa for the monks to have their meals. Alternatively it could have been used for meditating or for lectures, as in the monasteries of north-east India. The cave No.99 also has an asanapedhika or a sagar darshan, which is a kind of a bench where monks could sit and enjoy the view, she added.

Clockwise from top left- Durbar hall in cave No. 11, Dampatis outside cave No. 3, Sagar darshan at cave No. 99 and the 11-headed Avalokiteshvara at cave No. 41

Remnants of wood have also been found in these caves and according to Prof. Rane-Kothare this was because many carpenters who had turned into masons worked on these caves. Rainwater harvesting systems and water cisterns for purifying water have been found near cave No. 11. A tank has been excavated at the top. She also informed the audience of an inscription of a sethi punakka from Sopara who had made a brick dam to stop and store the water. The dam exists till date. There are about 50 stupas in the cave complex that have several inscriptions. Many are in Kharoshti and there is also an inscription in Japanese. This inscription in cave No. 11 mentions that the land at Mangalasthanaka should be brought into use and the income generated from it must go towards making robes for the monks. According to Prof. Rane-Kothare, this land is right opposite cave No.11 and it is where the Magathane caves were constructed.

Magathane Caves
The Magathane caves are situated on the Dattapada road, off Mumbais western express highway. Mag means road and thane means a halt. According to Prof. Rane-Kothare, Kanheri was a large cave complex, with people from different Buddhist sects living there together. She discerned that it might have been difficult for a traveller to come and live in the complex, apart from the fact that Kanheri was located deeper in the jungle. The Magathane caves were thus excavated for the convenience of the travellers by the Vajrayanists, she added. The Gazetteer mentions the stupas that existed here, which have vanished now. The Kamya stupa on the top of the cave has been taken over by a lady who has established a Gayatri mandir for the Samadhi of her parents. This was built in 1991, its permission granted by the Charity Commissioner.

Magathane Caves: Then and Now

Prof. Rane-Kothare pointed out that there are seven Manushi Buddhas and a tank in the cave. The carving on the lintel, also known as makaratorana has nagas and the style suggests it could have belonged to the Rashtrakuta phase of 7th or 8th century AD. The cave complex also has Shilahara wells. The road from Magathane leads right to the Charkop creek, which was a harbour in those days. Currently it is almost completely dried up. The river Poisar which is nearby has also become like a sewage carrying canal.

Shilahara Wells (Left), Poisar river (Right)

Brahmanical caves Prof. Rane-Kothare said that with the decline of Buddhism, Brahmanical influence began to surface in the city. This is evident from the several Brahmanical sites in the region. The Mandapeshwar caves have a beautiful temple with an image of Natraja. It was destroyed by the Portuguese, but the ruins remain. Conservation work is in the progress at the cave, she added. Prof. Rane-Kothare also spoke of the Jogeshwari cave. Like the Mandapeshwar caves, it also has a Natraja idol at the eastern entrance with dampatis. The rationale for entering through the east lies in the metaphor of entering the garbh gruha (the womb of a mother). To enter the cave, one has to descend 120 steps. The exit from the cave is through the west. A new cave at Majas, close to the Jogeshwari cave was discovered by Prof. Rane-Kothare. Shortly after the discovery, the cave was overnight sealed off by the builder who owned the land. An idol of Shiva has also been excavated at Parel. It is on a hillock and the idol signifies the eight forms of Shiva, each signifying a natural element. According to Prof. Rane-Kothare, one may regard the location where the Shiva has been discovered, as a kind of factory that created idols.

Clockwise from top left - Natraja at Mandapeshwar, Shiva at Parel and dampatis at Jogeshwari

Q and A session The audience was very enthusiastic about the subject and posed several questions to Prof. Rane-Kothare. A question was posed with respect to the potential of military bases being housed within cave complexes. Prof. Rane-Kothare answered that some caves built by the Satvahanas were fortress-cum caves like the Lohagad and Visapur. However, this was not a general feature of all cave complexes of the period. Talking about the present state of the caves, Prof. Rane-Kothare regarded the erosion of the caves to be the result of both natural and manmade causes. Prof. Rane-Kothare taking questions from the audience Natural causes, attributed to erosion, natural calamities, subsoil water, bacteria, insects and all kinds of wild growth, impact the life and character of the caves. But apart from this, the vandalism (sometimes religiously motivated), environmental pollution, construction and quarrying activities severely hamper the cave heritage, she added. To a question regarding the oversight of the government with respect to preserving the cave heritage, the professor answered that there was an urgent need to put in place a strict legislation over building activity. She said that the region is very rich in heritage and that any building or construction activity must be preceded by an archeological dig to ensure that no unfound heritage is lost. She stated the example of the Pune Municipal Corporation that has such a rule in place, as a result of which ruins of the Satvahana period have been discovered at various spots all over the city. Apart from excavation, what other techniques could be used to discover hidden treasures? was the next question. Prof. Rane-Kothare answered aerial photography is proving to be of much use to many archeologists. It is used in place of satellite imaging that though is better in quality but much more expensive. Is anything known about the artists that made the sculptures in these caves? an audience member asked. Prof. Rane-Kothare replied that artists usually worked in guilds and there are references to guild names. However in most cases, the names of the artists remained anonymous. The talk ended on the consensus that citizens of Mumbai do not know enough about the cultural and historic heritage of the city and its wider region. The lack of awareness was expressed as the main hurdle due to which the significance of the heritage was often lost and sometimes permanently damaged. The need for citizens to engage with this past and ensure that these relics are not ignored by the governance machinery was emphasised. The talk and the discussion created a spirit of inquiry among the audience who felt a much stronger stakeholdership and association with their citys past.

About ORF-Mumbai Observer Research Foundation (ORF) is a leading non-partisan Indian Think-Tank that seeks to influence public policy formulation. It was established in New Delhi in 1990 by R.K. Mishra, a widely respected public figure, who envisaged it as a broad-based intellectual platform pulsating with ideas needed for Indias nation-building. In its journey of twenty years, ORF has brought together leading Indian policy makers, academics, public figures, social activists and business leaders to discuss various issues of national importance. ORF scholars have made significant contributions toward improving government policies. ORF has produced a large body of critically acclaimed publications. Until recently, ORFs activities were based mainly in New Delhi. Beginning 2010, ORF Mumbai has been established to pursue the Foundations vision in Indias business and financial capital. It has started research and advocacy in six broad areas: Education, Public Health, Inclusive Development, Urban Renewal, Youth Development, and Promotion of Indias Priceless Artistic and Cultural Heritage. Some of the recent reports published by ORF Mumbai include: Reforms in Medical Education- to Promote Accessible and Affordable Healthcare for All Making the Sewer a River Again... Why Mumbai Must Reclaim its Mithi; Moving People: Why Mumbai Needs a Bus Rapid Transport System (BRTS); NCHER: A Much Needed Reform that Fails the Test, a commentary on the National Commission for Higher Education and Research Bill; and Affordable Housing for Mumbais Poor: Possible!

Forthcoming ORF Reports include: Time is Running Out: Does Mumbai have Enough Water? Mumbais Secret: Maharashtra Nature Park Masked Identities: Safeguarding Indias Intangible Cultural Heritage

ORF Mumbais mission statement is: Ideas and Action for a Better India. It will champion the cause of balanced socio-economic development and a better quality of life for all Indians. It will also work towards strengthening Indias democratic institutions to become more responsible, responsive and sensitive to common peoples needs and concerns, especially those of most vulnerable sections of society. Besides conducting diligent research in its above six core areas, ORF Mumbai also pursues wideranging initiatives like the Maharashtra @ 50 Study Centre, the Forum for India-China Citizens Dialogue, the Centre for the Study of Indias Ancient Knowledge Traditions, and the Gurus of Science Series.