Movement of Substances Through Plasma Membrane

The necessity for movement of substances across the plasma membrane

a b c

All movement of substances go through the cell membrane, which is also known as the plasma membrane. The necessity for the movement of substances across a plasma membrane are:

!ells nee" nutrients an" o#ygen. !ells pro"uce waste pro"uct which e#it through the plasma membrane. The plasma membrane control the types an" the amounts of substances nee"e" by the cell at any one time.

The structure of the plasma membrane

a Singer an" $icholson propose" the fluid mosaic mo"el in %&'( to e#plain the structure of the plasma membrane The flui" mosaic mo"el is the currently accepte" mo"el of the cell membrane. The basic unit of the plasma membrane is the phospholipi" molecule. The phospholipi" molecule consists of: A polar molecule carries an une)ual "istribution of electric charge. This une)ual "istribution of electric charge pro"uce a polar molecule which can attract other polar molecule such as water molecules. Hydrophilic means *water+loving, or attracte" to water molecule Hydrophobic water+hating,, or repelling water molecules.

b b

Permeability of the plasma membrane Permeability of the phospholipids bilayer.

%. (. Permeable means allowing something to pass through. The plasma membrane is selective permeable or semi+permeable as it allows only certain substances to pass through it but not others. -. a b b The phospholipi" bilayer is permeable to: Small non+polar .hy"rophobic molecules that are lipi"+soluble, such as fatty aci"s, glycerol, steroi", vitamin A, /, 0 an" 1. Small unchange" molecules, such as water, o#ygen an" carbon "io#i"e. These molecules are small enough to s)uee2e through between the phospholipi" gaps by simple "iffusion or osmosis "own their respective concentration gra"ients. The phospholipi" bilayer is not permeable to: a 4arge polar molecule, that are not soluble in lipi", such as glucose, amino aci"s, nucleic aci"s an" polysacchari"es. b 5ons .charge" , regar"less of si2e, such as: 67, $a7, 6!8-+, 17, !a97, an" Mg97.

3.

Types of transport across the plasma membrane.

%. Solute move across the plasma membrane by two main process:
a b Passive transport + which "oes not re)uire a cell to use energy. Active transport + a mechanism that re)uires to move substances across the plasma membrane.

(. Passive transport consists of:

a b Simple "iffusion : movement of a solute from a region of high concentration to one of lower concentration.

;acilitate" "iffusion : the movement of material across a plasma membrane in the "irection of the concentration gra"ient .from higher concentration to lower concentration . <lucose moves through the membrane by means of facilitate" "iffusion.

-.Osmosis is the special name given to simple "iffusion of water molecules through a semi+permeable membrane.

Simple "iffusion is the ran"om movement of ions or molecules from a region of their high concentration to a region of their low concentration "own a concentration gra"ient until an e)uilibrium is achieve".

There are more collision in a region of high concentration than in a region of low concentration.

SIMPLE DIFFUSION

Molecules have kinetic energy, move ran"omly, an" colli"e with each other.

=an"om collision of molecules sprea" the molecules out, "own the concentration gra"ient.

Concentration gradient > "ifference in concentration of a substance one region GASEOUS particular EXC A!GE "! T Ein A#$EO#" A!% &#OO% CAP"##A'"ES &( S")P#E %"**US"O! compare" to another region

%. 5n the lungs, capillary bloo" takes in o#ygen from the alveolar air space. (. Alveolar o#ygen "iffuse" across the alveolar walls an" the capillary walls into the capillary bloo", "own the o#ygen concentration gra"ient.

-. The bloo" circulation system takes the o#ygen rich bloo" away an" replaces it with bloo" low in o#ygen, but high in carbon "io#i"e. 3. !arbon "io#i"e from the capillary bloo" "iffuse" across the capillary an" the alveolar walls into the alveolar air spaces, "own the carbon "io#i"e concentration gra"ient

*actors affectin+ the rate of diffusion

Factor %iffusion +radient

Effect on the rate of simple diffusion The steeper, the hi+her the rate

Si-e of molecules or The smaller the si-e, the hi+her the ions rate Temperature The hi+her the temperature, the hi+her the rate

%iffusion medium 'ate in +as . rate in li/uid . rate in solid

Surface area

The lar+er the surface area, the hi+her the rate

FACILITATED DIFFUSION

$o energy re)uire".

;acilitate" "iffusion is the movement of specific molecules .or ions across the plasma membrane.

;acilitate" "iffusion is assiste" either by pore proteins or by carrier protein, an" the "irection of movement is "own the concentration gra"ient of the molecules concerne".

The function of pore protein and carrier protein Pore protein 0channel protein1
!harge ions .such as $a7, 17, !a97, an" Mg97 cannot "iffuse across the non+ polar center of the phospholipi"s bilayer.

a i.

ii.

Pore proteins open up pores or channel across the membrane to allow entry or e#it.

iii.

0ach pore or channel is specific an" will only allow one particular type of ion through

b1 Carrier proteins
i. ii. iii. They allow larger polar molecules .such as sugar an" amino aci"s to pass through. A particular protein attaches itself to the bin"ing site of a carrier protein. Then the carrier protein changes shape an" "elivers the molecule across the plasma membrane.

8smosis is the movement of water molecules from region of high water concentration to low water concentration through a semi+permeable membrane.

OSMOSIS

8smosis is the "iffusion of water only an" not of the substances that "issolve" in water.

ACT"$E T'A!SPO'T
Active transport is the movement of particles across the plasma membrane against the concentration gra"ient, that is from a region of low concentration to a region of high concentration. 0nergy is provi"e" by a"enosine triphosphate .ATP molecules. Active transport also re)uire" a specific carrier protein to carries molecules in or out of the cell. Active transport only take place in living organisms.

E2amples of active transport in biolo+y3

a Absorption of "issolve" mineral salt by root hairs. b Absorption of glucose an" amino aci"s by cell in the small intestine.

(POTO!"C,

(PE'TO!"C A!% "SOTO!"C SO#UT"O!

%. 5S8T8$5! have the same

Solution with concentration e)ual to the concentration of the cytoplasm. Two solution are isotonic if they have the same solute concentrations.

6@P8T8$5!

Solution that are less concentrate" than the intracellular flui".

6@P0=T8$5 !

Solution A is hypertonic to solution ? if solution A has a higher solute concentration than solution ?.

C'E!AT"O!
Ahen a cell loss water to the surroun"ing flui"

AE)O#(S"S
Ahen a re" bloo" cell "raws in water an" bursts

TU'G"%
Turgi"ity is essential in plant cells to make them keep stan"ing upright. Plant cells that lose much water have less turgor pressure, an" ten" to become flacci". ;urther water loss eventually results in the wilting of the plant.

0 $ B @ M 0 S

E!4()ES
8rganic catalyst that increase the rate of a biochemical reaction. The can be "escribe" as any of several comple# proteins that are pro"uce" by cells an" act as catalyst in specific biochemical reactions. ?iological catalyst are those catalyst which are foun" in living organisms an" they spee" up the metabolic reactions occurring in them.

SU&ST'ATE
The substance that is acte" upon by an en2yme. =e)uire" for : "igestion , synthesis of substances , contraction of muscles an" respiration.

!A)"!G O* E!4()ES
Maltose : maltase Sucrose : sucrase 4actose : lactase Protein : protease 4ipi"s : lipase Starch + amylase starch protein amylase protease SC?ST=AT0 4actose maltose cellulose lipi" 0$B@M0S lactase maltase cellulose lipase P=8/C!TS glucose 7 galactose glucose glucose glycerol 7 fatty aci" maltose peptone 7 polypepti"e

!6A=A!T0=5ST5! 8; 0$B@M0S

/enature" by high temperature

Spee" up the rate of biochemical reactions

Proteins pro"uce" by living cell

Sensitive to p6

The action is e#tremely specific : 0ach en2yme only act on one substrate base" on lock D key hypothesis

0ffective in small amount

Affecte" by inhibitors

"!T'A CE##UA' E!4()ES A!%

EXT'A CE##U#A' E!4()ES

5ntra cellular en2ymes : Pro"uce" by the cell an" function within the cell. 0#amples en2ymes that are involve" in respiration : mitochon"ria

photosynthesis : chloroplast 0#tra cellular en2ymes : Secrete" out of the cell an" functions outsi"e the cell. 0#amples : Salivary amylase, trypsin an" lipase are pro"uce" in the pancrease an" transporte" to the "uo"enum.

*actors affectin+ en-yme activity

 Temperature p6 Substrate concentration 0n2yme concentration

TE)PE'ATU'E
The low the temperature, the low the rate of en2yme reaction. 4ow temperature .below 3EFc a rise of %EFc will "ouble the rate of reaction. 8ptimum temperature : -'Fc .bo"y temperature 8ver 3EFc , en2ymes become "enature" rapi"ly. At GEFc , en2ymes are "enature" an" the reaction stop.

p
Protein are "enature" by changes in the p6 level of the reaction me"ium. Most are en2ymes are effective in only a narrow p6 range. The optimum p6: the particular p6 at which the rate of reaction is fastest.

SU&ST'ATE CO!CE!T'AT"O!
Temperature, p6 value an" en2yme concentration are kept constant , the rate on en2yme reaction increase "irectly proportional to the amount of substrate present until a limiting value. The rate on en2yme reaction "oes not increase even though the substrate increase.

E!4()E CO!CE!T'AT"O!

p6 value , temperature , substrate concentration are kept constant =eaction increase "irectly proportional to the en2yme until it reaches a limiting value Any increases in the en2yme concentration "oes not increase the rate of reaction.

T E )EC A!"S) O* E!4()E 'EACT"O!

0n2ymes are comple# protein ma"e of one or more polypepti"e chains The *lock an" key, hypothesis The *substrate, molecule represent the *keyH The *en2yme, molecule represent the *lock, The substrate molecule bin"s to the active site to form an en2yme+substrate comple#. 0n2yme molecule is now free to bin" to more substrate molecules.

! 0 4 4

/ 5 I 5 S 5 8 $
)"TOS"S
A type of cell "ivision which involve the "ivision of the nucleus to pro"uce two "aughter cells, each contain same number an" i"entical chromosome as the parent cell. 8ccurs in all somatic cell e#cept gametes. 5n unicellular organisms+ for ase#ual repro"uction .Amoeba sp. Multicellular organisms+ to generate new cells to replace "ea" an" "amage" cells for growth an" "evelopment.

Somatic cells contain ( sets of chromosomes, % set from female parent, % set from male parent+ "iploi" .(n Single set of unpaire" chromosome+haploi" .n

0ach somatic cells pro"uce ( new haploi" cells i"entical to the parent cell.

S"G!"*"CA!CE O* )"TOS"S
;or growth, repair an" replaces cells that are "ea" or "amage".

A form of ase#ual repro"uction to increase the number of organisms. To ensure that the offsprings J new cells are genetically i"entical to the parent.

T E CE## C(C#E

"!TE'P ASE 0 G5, S, G6 1

<% : <rowth phase % The cell growth by pro"ucing proteins an" cytoplasmic organelles. S : Synthesis Synthesis of /$A, chromosomes are "uplicate" an" /$A has replicate" to form ( i"entical sister chromati"s Koine" together by centromere. <(: <rowth phase ( !ell growth an" cell "ifferentiation occur

) P ASE 0 CE## %"$"S"O! 1

Mitosis : nucleus "ivi"e

Prophase Metaphase Stage of mitosis Anaphase Telophase !ytokinesis : "ivision of cytoplasm

P'OCESS O* )"TOS"S

C(TO7"!ES"S
The "ivision of cytoplasm. Animal cell : Actin filaments in the cytoplasm contracts to pull a ring of the plasma membrane inwar"s to form a cleavage furrow into ( "aughter cells the cell is separate"

 Plant cell : Start with the formation of cell plate at the e)uator of the cell cell plate enlarge pro"uce". new cell wall is forme" ( "aughter cells are

P'OCESS O* C(TO7"!ES"S

T E APP#"CAT"O! O* 7!O8#E%GE O! )"TOS"S "! C#O!"!G

%. Many unicellular organisms an" plants can repro"uce ase#ually through mitosis to pro"uces clones. (. The clones share the same genetic content an" chromosomal number with one another as well as the parent. -. !loning is the process of pro"ucing clones or genetically i"entical organisms through ase#ual repro"uction 3. Tissue culture . another techni)ue of cloning is the growth of tissues of living organisms in a suitable an" sterile culture me"ium containing nutrients an" growth hormones. L. A"vantages of cloning : a Pro"uce large numbers of genetically i"entical young plants. b The genes of a plant is altere" an" engineere" to give high crop yiel" through genetic

engineering. These transgenic plants carry foreign genes so that they have new an"

M058S5S

Process of nuclear "ivision that re"uces the number of chromosomes in new cells to half the number of chromosomes in the parent cell.

Significance of meiosis
%. 0ach gamete receives one chromosomes from every pair of homologus. This means that the gametes contain haploi" number of chromosomes .n (. 4ike mitosis, meiosis is a continuous process an" consists of two separate nuclear "ivisions Meiosis l an" Meiosis ll. 6owever the /$A of each chromosome only replicate once.

n
-. Meiosis 5 begins with a single "iploi" parent cell an" at the en" of Meiosis 55, four

haploi" "aughter cell are pro"uce", each genetically "istinct from the other an" from the parent cell

n
<amete cells ( haploi" cell

(n

Parent cell

Meiosis 5 Meiosis 55

T E P'OCESS O* )E"OS"S

CO)PA'"SO! &ET8EE! )"TOS"S A!% )E"OS"S

$ C T = 5 T 5 8 $

$utrition
The process by which organisms obtain energy an" nutrients from foo", for growth, maintenance and repair of damaged tissues. 4iving organisms can be "ivi"e" into two main groups base on their nutritional habits.

T8O T(PES O* !UT'"T"O!

ACT8T=8P65! 60T0=8T=8P65!

AUTOT'OP "C !UT'"T"O!

8rganisms practicing this types of nutrition are known as autotrophs. They are able to: Synthesise comple# organic compoun"s from raw an" simple inorganic substances.

?y the process of

Photosynthesis 5n this process photoautotrophs Pro"uce organic compoun"s ;rom carbon "io#i"e an" water Csing light energy. 0#ample: <reen plants.

!hemosynthesis 5n this process chemoautotrophs synthesis organic compoun"s by o#i"i2ing inorganic substances such as hy"rogen sulphi"e an" ammonia 0#ample: ?acteria

ETE'OT'OP "C !UT'"T"O!

8rganisms practicing this types of nutrition are known as heterotrophs They are not able to: Synthesis their own nutrients, hence energy is obtaine" through the intake an" "igestion of organic substances. Types of this nutrition are

6848B85! The organisms fee" by ingestion soli" organic matter which is then "igeste" an" absorbe" into their bo"ies. 0#amples are herbivores, carnivores an" omnivores.

SAP=8P6@T5SM The organisms calle" saprophtism fee" on "ea" an" "ecaying organic matter whish is "igeste" e#ternally before absorbing the nutrients into their bo"ies. 0#amples: bacteria an" fungi

PA=AS5T5SM The organisms calle" parasites obtains nutrients by living on or in the bo"y of a host an" absorbs rea"ily "igeste" nutrient from it 0#amples: fleas, lice an" tape worms

&A#A!CE% %"ET
%. A balance" "iet is one which contains the correct proportions of all the classes of foo" accor"ing to the re)uirements of the bo"y. (. a. b. c. ". e. f. A balance" "iet consists of the following foo" re)uirements: !arbohy"rates an" lipi"s : provi"e energy Protein : to buil" new tissues for growth an" repair Iitamins : to prevent "iseases an" for normal healthy "evelopment. Mineral salts : essential for normal healthy growth an" "evelopment. ;ibres : roughage to stimulate peristalsis an" prevent constipation. Aater : me"ium for all chemical reactions in the cells. 5t helps to transport substances that are nee"e" by cells an" remove metabolic wastes. 5t also helps to "istribute an" regulate bo"y heat. -. The energy value or calorific value is the )uantity of heat pro"uce" when one gram of foo" is completely o#i"ise". 3. L. The unit of energy value is Koules per gram .M g+% or calories. 8ne calorie or 3.( Koules is the )uantity of heat re)uire" to raise the temperature of % gram of water by %o!. The energy value in a certain foo" can be "etermine" by using the following formula: 0nergy value .caloric value .M g+% > Mass of water.g # increase in Temperature .o! # 3.( .M g+% o!+% Mass of foo" .g

G. a. b. c. ".

The "aily energy re)uirement of the bo"y "epen"s on the following factors: Age Se# ?o"y si2e an" weight 8ccupation

A<0 a <rowing chil"ren an" teenagers mee" more emergy compare" to a"ults. b The metabolic rate in growing chil"ren an" teenagers is higher than a"ults because they nee" more energy for growth.

S0N a A male a"ults nee" more energy than a female a"ults of the same si2e an" age. b The metabolic rate in a male a"ult is higher than a female a"ult because they nee" more energy for the "evelopment of the bo"y.

?8/@ S5B0 D A05<6T a Small si2e" people nee"s more energy than big si2e" people. b The rate of heat loss is small si2e" people is higher than big si2e" people because they have a larger surface are per unit volume.

8!!CPAT58$S a An active person who "oes heavy work nee"s more energy than a person who is mo"erately active.

?iochemical reactions

8smotic pressure in the tissue flui" an" bloo" plasma

5MP8=TA$!0 8; AAT0=

Peristalsis

?o"y temperature ;oo" substances "uring "igestion 0#cretory wastes

Nutrient Content in Food

Vitamins
Vitamins provide no energy but are essential for the maintenance of good health and efficient metabolism.

Water-soluble vitamins include vitamins B and C.

The fat-soluble vitamins are A, D, E and K.

Minerals
Major minerals, called macrominerals, are required in relatively large quantities such as calcium, phosphorus, sodium, potassium and chlorine.

Roughage or dietary fibre

Dietary fibre refers to the indigestible part of plant food which consists mainly cellulose.

Deficiency of roughage in a persons diet can lead to constipation and other disorders of the large intestine. Constipation can be prevented by taking enough fibre and water.

Water
Water makes up about 70% of the total body weight. It also serves as a transport medium for nutrients and waste substances

*OO% %"GEST"O!
The re)uirement of substances by cells. %. /igestion is the process that breaks "own comple# foo" substances into simpler, Soluble molecules that can be absorbe" into the bo"y. (. !arbohy"rates , proteins an" lipi"s are "igeste" into their component monomers Through hy"rolysis by "igestive en2ymes. a Starch is "igeste" into b Protein is "igeste" into c 4ipi" is "igeste" into glucose amino aci" fatty aci" an" glycerol /5<0ST58$

P6@S5!A4 %. ?reaking up of large pieces of foo" into smaller pieces by mechanical means. (. 5t starts in the mouth with the slicing an" chewing action of the teeth, continues in the stomach by the churning action. Digestion in the mouth

!60M5!A4 %. /igestive en2ymes break "own comple# foo" molecules into simple soluble molecules which enter the bloo"stream. (. 5nvolves en2ymatic hy"rolysis.

Maltose is not one of the small molecules that can be absorbe" by the intestinal lining. An a""itional "igestive process occurs further along the alimentary canal to convert maltose to glucose. The thoroughly chewe" foo" is rolle" by the tongue into a mass calle" a bolus in preparation for swallowing.

Digestion in the stomach The epithelial lining of the stomach contains gastric glan"s. These glan"s secrete gastric Kuice which consists of mucus, hy"rochloric aci" an" the en2ymes pepsin an" rennin. Such a high aci"ity is sufficient to "estroy most bacteria that are present in foo".

Pepsin starts the hy"rolysis of large protein molecules into smaller chains of polypepti"es.

=ennin coagulates milk by converting the soluble milk protein, caseinogen, into the insoluble casein.

%"GEST"$E P'OCESS

The %i+estive System of 'uminants

Digestive system in ruminants and rodents

=uminants an" ro"ents obtain most of their energy from the break"own of cellulose of plant cell walls. The en2yme cellulase is re)uire" to break "own cellulose but is not pro"uce" by these animals. =uminants like cows an" goats have stomachs which are "ivi"e" into four chambers, namely rumen, reticulum, omasum an" abomasum. The rumen an" reticulum are specialise" compartments which harbour large communities of bacteria an" proto2oa. These microorganisms are able to pro"uce cellulase that "igest cellulose.

A&SO'PT"O! A!% ASS")"#AT"O! O* %"GESTE% *OO%

5n the ileum, two processes occur which are "igestion an" absorption. The process of "igestion is complete" in the ileum to pro"uce simple sugars . glucose, fructose an" galactose , amino aci"s, glycerol an" fatty aci"s. The process of absorption also occurs in the ileum to absorb the pro"ucts of "igestion into the bloo" capillaries an" to be use" by the cells in the bo"y. The pro"ucts of "igestion are absorbe" into the bo"y by small finger+like proKections calle" villi .singular: villus in the walls of the small intestine. 0ach villus contains a network of bloo" capillaries an" a lymphatic vessel calle" lacteal in the centre of the villus.

Absorption of digested food

$utrient absorption involves both "iffusion an" active transport. 5nitially, glucose, amino aci"s, water+soluble vitamins an" minerals "iffuse into the epithelial cells an" are absorbe" into the capillaries. Subse)uently, the transport of the remaining nutrients across the epithelial lining involves active transport "uring which energy is use".

5n contrast, glycerol an" fatty aci"s enter the epithelial cells where they recombine to form tiny "roplets of lipi"s, which then move into the lacteals. ;at+ soluble vitamins are also absorbe" into the lacteals to be transporte" together with lipi"s.

The lacteals converge into larger vessels of the lymphatic system. The flui" carrying lipi"s an" fat+soluble vitamins enters the lymphatic system which forms a network throughout the bo"y.

The contents are then "raine" into the right lymphatic "uct an" thoracic "uct before being emptie" into the bloo"stream through the subclavian veins. !apillaries that "rain water+soluble nutrients away from the villi converge into hepatic portal vein, which lea"s to the liver. ;rom here, the nutrients are transporte" to all cells in the bo"y.

Together with the small intestine, the colon reabsorbs almost &EO of the water an" minerals. 5n the colon, water an" minerals are reabsorbe" into the cells lining the colon, an" subse)uently into the bloo"stream, so that we "o not constantly lose them.

Assimilation of digested food Some of the pro"ucts of "igestion are brought "irectly to the liver for processing, in preparation for metabolic processes or assimilation. Assimilation takes place in the cells where the nutrients are use" to form comple# compoun"s or structural components.

The liver acts as a checkpoint which controls the amount of nutrients release" into the bloo" circulatory system.

Most of the glucose is converte" into glycogen an" store" in the liver. Ahen the bloo" sugar level falls an" the bo"y nee"s energy, the store" glycogen is converte" back to glucose. <lucose is "istribute" throughout the bo"y by the circulatory system. Ahen the glucose molecules reach the cells, they are o#i"ise" to release energy "uring cellular respiration. Ahen the glycogen store in the liver is full, e#cess glucose is converte" into lipi"s by the liver.

P'OCESS O* A&SO'PT"O! "! T E $"##US

ASS")"#AT"O! O* %"GESTE% *OO%

Assimilation takes place in the cells."igestion takes place in the alimentary canal

Simpler form of nutrient is use" to form comple# compoun"s or structural components 4iver acts as checkpoint an" control centre for the release of appropriate amount of nutrients in the cicculatory system.

ASS")"#AT"O! O* G#UCOSE
Most of glucose is converte" into glycogenan" store" in the liver. <lycogen will be converte" to sugar when the bo"y nee"s energy <lucose is "istribute" throughout the bo"y by circulatory system !ells o#i"i2e glucose to release energy "uring cellular respiration

ASS")"#AT"O! O* A)"!O AC"%S

Amino aci"s have to pass through the liver before they reach bloo" c i r c u l a t o r y s ys t e m . Amino aci"s are use" to synthesi2e" plasmaproteins. ;unction of plasma proteins: bloo" clotting an" osmoregulation Ahen there are short supply of glucose, amino aci"s are converte" to glucose by the liver through gluconeogenesis process. Amino aci"s that enter the cell are use" for synthesi2ing protoplasm an" repair the "amage" tissue 0#cess of amino aci"s will be broken by "eamination process. The waste pro"uct of this process is commonly the urea. Crea is transporte" to the ki"neys an" secrete" out through urine.

#"P"%S

4ipi"s such as fats represent the maKor energy store of the bo"y 0#cess lipi"s are store" in the a"ipose tissue.

Some lipi"sH 0#ample: phospholipi"s an" cholesterol are maKor components of plasma membranes. 4iver acts as the "eto#icification site 5 n t h i s p r o c e s s , t h e l i v e r r e m o v e s h a r m f u l substances from bloo" an" convert them to less to#i"ic compoun"s. The "eto#icification pro"ucts are eliminate" from the bo"y through bile or urine.

P OTOS(!T ES"S
Photosynthesis is the process that plants un"ergo in or"er to transform solar energy into chemical energy store" in the bon"s of sugar molecules. The overall process of photosynthesis is typically represente" by the following e)uation: G !8( 7 G 6(E 7 sunlight ++++++++++++P !G6%(8G 7 G 8( Plant leaves contain small pores terme" stomata that serve to regulate the entrance an" e#it of carbon "io#i"e, o#ygen an" water. 5n short, through the process of photosynthesis !8( an" 6(E form new bon"s, generating glucose .!G6%(8G , releasing o#ygen "uring the process. The en" result of photosynthesis is glucose, which serves to store some of the potential energy originally present in the sun. Through the process of photosynthesis autotrophicorganisms generate foo" to supply heterotrophic organisms within the ecosystem.

%"SCO$E'( O* P OTOS(!T ES"S

Scientist

/iscovery Soil ha" to ability to convert "ea" organic matter into useful nutrients which were absorbe" by plants.

Aristotle

Mean ?aptiste Ian 6elmont .%G3E Moseph Priestly .%''( Man 5ngenhous2

Plant ha" grown mainly from the water which was a""e" regularly an" not the soil

Showe" that plants release o#ygen into the atmosphere. Plants only release o#ygen in the presence of sunlight an" that only the green parts of plants coul" release o#ygen. =ecognise" the importance of sunlight an" chlorophyll in photosynthesis. !arbon "io#i"e is the source of carbon for green plants. !arbon "io#i"e was taken in by plants "uring photosynthesis

Mean Senebier .%'QEs

/e Saussure .%QE3 =obert Mayer .%&EL ?lackman .%&EL

Aater is re)uire" for photosynthesis.

Plants convert solar energy into chemical energy "uring photosynthesis. Photosynthesis involves a photochemical reaction .is referre" to as light reaction which is light+"epen"ent an" a biochemical reaction. Showe" that isolate" chloroplast place" in water in the presence of a suitable o#i"i2ing agent were able to release o#ygen.

=obert 6ill .%&-'

#EA*
5n plants the green parts perform photosynthesis. 4eaves are most suitable for this purpose. They arise at the no"es of stem an appear green,flat an" thin. They are e#pose" to sun an" speciali2e" for the process of photosynthesis an" transpiration.

A!ATO)( O* A #EA*

T E #EA* CE##

eaf !tructure"
A leaf is ma"e of many layers that are san"wiche" between two layers of tough skin cells .calle" the epi"ermis . The epi"ermis also secretes a wa#y substance calle" the cuticle. These layers protect the leaf from insects, bacteria, an" other pests. Among the epi"ermal

cells are pairs of sausage+shape" guar" cells. 0ach pair of guar" cells forms a pore .calle" stomaH the plural is stomata . <ases enter an" e#it the leaf through the stomata.

Leaf Glossary
chlorophyll + a molecule in leaves that can use light energy from sunlight to turn water an" carbon "io#i"e gas into sugar an" o#ygen .this process is calle" photosynthesis . !hlorophyll is magnesium+base" an" is green. compound leaf + a leaf that is "ivi"e" into many separate parts .leaflets along a mi"rib .the rachis . All the leaflets of a compoun" leaf are oriente" in the same plane. epidermis + the protective, outler layer of cells on the surface of a leaf. The guar" cells .an" stoma are part of the epi"ermis. The surface of many leaves is coate" with a wa#y cuticle which is secrete" by the epi"ermis. guard cell + one of a pair of sausage+shape" cells that surroun" a stoma .a pore in a leaf . <uar" cells change shape .as light an" humi"ity change , causing the stoma to open an" close. lamina + the bla"e of a leaf. mesophyll + the chlorophyll+containing leaf tissue locate" between the upper an" lower epi"ermis. These cells convert sunlight into usable chemical energy for the plant. palisade mesophyll + a layer of elongate" cells locate" un"er the upper epi"ermis. These cells contain most of the leafRs chlorophyll, converting sunlight into usable chemical energy for the plant.

spongy mesophyll + the layer below the palisa"e mesophyllH it has irregularly+shape" cells with many air spaces between the cells. These cells contain some chlorophyll. The spongy mesophyll cells communicate with the guar" cells .stomata , causing them to open or close, "epen"ing on the concentration of gases. stoma + .plural stomata a pore .or opening in a plantRs leaves where water vapor an" other gases leave an" enter the plant. Stomata are forme" by two guar" cells that regulate the opening an" closing of the pore. <enerally, many more stomata are on the bottom of a leaf than on the top.

8verview of Photosynthesis

G!8( 7 G6(8

!G6%(8G 7 G8(

A. Photosynthesis is not a simple one step reaction but a biochemical pathway involving many steps ?. This comple# reaction can be broken "own into two reaction systems +++ light dependent D light independent or dark reactions

ight #eaction: 6(8 8( 7 ATP 7 $A/P6( Aater is split, giving off o#ygen.

This system "epen"s on sunlight for activation energy.

4ight is absorbe" by chlorophyll a which Se#citesS the electrons in the chlorophyll molecule. 0lectrons are passe" through a series of carriers an" a"enosine triphosphate or ATP .energy is pro"uce". Takes place in the thylakoi"s.

Dar$ #eaction: ATP 7 $A/P6( 7 !8( !G6%(8G !arbon "io#i"e is split, provi"ing carbon to make sugars.

The ultimate pro"uct is glucose. Ahile this system "epen"s on the pro"ucts from the light reactions, it "oes not "irectly re)uire light energy. Takes place in the stroma.

*ACTO'S A**ECT"!G P OTOS(!T ES"S #"G T

4ight is a limiting factor. 5t is nee"e" "irectly for the light "epen"ent stage of photosynthesis. Ahen there is no light photosynthesis cannot take place because the light "epen"ent reaction re)uires it. Ahen there is no light, photosynthesis cannot take place, even if the carbon "io#i"e concentration an" the temperature are at their optimum temperature. The light limits the whole reaction As more light is provi"e", with a goo" supply of the other factors, then the rate of photosynthesis increases. $ow when the level of light is low, then the only factor limiting photosynthesis is still the light. This means that any increase in the light intensity will cause an increase in the rate of photosynthesis.

CA'&O! %"OX"%E

The reason why carbon "io#i"e is a limiting factor, is because if there is not enough, then the light in"epen"ent reaction of photosynthesis will not be able to take place as )uickly. This will mean that less ribulose biphosphate will be ma"e, which means that the whole reaction will be slowe" "own. The lack of carbon "io#i"e will cause a lack of pro"ucts being ma"e from the light in"epen"ent stage to be re"uce".

TE)PE'ATU'E

As the temperature creeps above a certain temperature, it begins to level off, an" then the rate of photosynthesis su""enly begins to "rop. $ow the temperature at which the rate of photosynthesis is the highest is calle" the optimum temperature. Above this optimum temperature the en2ymes an" proteins begin to "enature.Ahen the en2ymes are

"enature", it means that they can no longer carry out their function. This happens because the structure changes when the temperature gets too high, an" this permanently "amages the en2ymes.

At first only some of the en2ymes will be "amage", an" the "amage may not be severe enough as to stop them from working. As the temperature is increase" further the en2ymes become more "amage", an" so they begin to stop working altogether. 5f these high temperatures are maintaine" or increase" further, then eventually no photosynthesis will take place at all.

*OO% P'OCESS"!G

To e#ten" the life span of foo" To "iversify the uses of foo" substances To avoi" foo" wastage

*OO% A$E TO &E P'OCESS &ECAUSE 9

To prevent bacterial an" fungal "ecay

To prevent sprea" "iseases "ue to contaminating of foo" which can cause foo" poisoning.

To increase their commercial value.

To ensure that the foo" supply is enough for the population

Preservation *rom *ood Spoila+e Pasteuri-ation

%.Pasteuri2ation is a process which slows microbial growth in foo". The process was name" after its creator, ;rench chemist an" microbiologist 4ouis Pasteur. The first pasteuri2ation test was complete" by 4ouis Pasteur an" !lau"e ?ernar" on April,%QG(. The process was originally conceive" as a way of preventing wine an" beer from souring. (.Cnlike sterili2ation, inventor $icolas Appert, pasteuri2ation is not inten"e" to killall pathogenic micro+organisms in the foo" or li)ui". 5nstea", pasteuri2ation aims tor e " u c e t h e n u m b e r o f v i a b l e p a t h o g e n s so they are unlikely to cause "isease.assuming the pasteuri2ation pr o " u c t i s r e f r i g e r a t e " a n " c o n s u m e " b e f o r e i t s e#piration "ate . !ommercial+scale sterili2ation of foo" is not common because ita"versely

affects the taste an" )uality of the pro"uct. !ertain foo" pro"ucts are processe" to achieve the state of commercial sterility.

*ermentation
% . The science of fermentation is known as 2ymology. ;ermentation usually impliest h a t t h e a c t i o n o f t h e m i c r o o r g a n i s m s i s " e s i r a b l e a n " t h e p r o c e s s i s u s e " t o pro"uce alcoholic beverages such as wine, beer, an" ci"er. ( . ; e r m e n t a t i o n i s a l s o e m p l o ye " i n p r e s e r v a t i o n t o c r e a t e l a c t i c a c i " i n s o u r f o o " s such as pickle" cucumbers, kimchi an" yogurts.

Coo:in+
%.!ooking is the process of preparing foo" by appl ying heat, selecting, measuring,a n " c o m b i n i n g o f i n g r e " i e n t s i n a n o r " e r e " p r o c e " u r e f o r p r o " u c i n g s a f e a n " e"ible foo". (.The process encompasses a vast range metho" of metho"s, tools an" combinationof ingre"ients to alter the flavor, appearance, te#ture or "igestibility of foo".-.;actors affecting the final outcome inclu"e the variability of ingre"ients, ambientcon"itions, tools an" the skill of the in"ivi"ual "oing the actual cooking.

Preservation a1 Salt
%.Salting is the preservation of foo" with "ry salt. 5t is relate" to pickling .preparingfoo" with brine, i.e. salty water

(.5t is one of the ol"est metho"s of preserving foo", an" two historically significant such foo"s are "rie" an" salte" co" .usually referre" to as salt fish an" salt+ cure" meat. -.Salting is use" because most bacteria, fungi an" other potentially p a t h o g e n i c organisms cannot survive in a highly salty environment, "ue to the hypertonic nature of salt.

b1 $ine+ar
%.$ow a relatively common practice to bottle vegetables, herbs an" s p i c e s i n o i l , vinegar or mi#ture of both. (.This is"one both commercially an" "omestically an" the pr o " u c t s s h o u l " b e refrigerate" below 3T!. -.Pro"ucts which are treate" in this way inclu"e choppe" garlic, garlic cloves, sun+"rie" tomatoes, chili, ginger an" capsicum. 3.Acetic aci" in the vinegar prevents microbial growth. The more c o n c e n t r a t e " vinegar absorbs water from foo" an" microorganisms by osmosis.

Cannin+
%.Cses heat sterili2ation metho" to kill microorganisms an" their spores. (. The foo" is packe" in cans an" steame" at high temperature an" pressure to "rive out air. -. The cans containing foo" are then seale" while the foo" is being coole". 3. The vacuum create" within the cans prevents growth of microorganism.

'efri+eration
%. This metho" is commonly use" at home to prevent foo" from spoilage. (. ;oo" store at temperature below than E "egree celcius can remain fresh for a long time. -. The e#tremely low temperatures prevent growth of microorganisms or germination of spores because en2ymatic reactions stop at low temperatures.

Cannin+

$ine+ar

)A#!UT'"T"O!
Cnbalace" "iet "ue to certain nutrients which are "eficient in e#cess an" in the wrong proportions.

The 0ffect of Malnutrition a /eficiency nutrients

!alcium, Phosphorus an" Iitamin / "eficiencies

Protein "eficiencies

b 0#cessive intake of certain nutrients

0#cessive intake of carbohy"rates 0#cessive intake of vitamins 0#cessive intake of lipi"s

0#cessive intake of minerals

0#cessive intake of proteins

= 0 S

P 5 = A T 5 8 $
CE#U##A' 'ESP"'AT"O!
Cellular respiration is the process by which the chemical energy of "food" molecules is released and partially captured in the form of ATP. Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins can all be used as fuels in cellular respiration, but glucose is most commonly used as an example to examine the reactions and pathways involved.

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A!AE'O&"C 'ESP"'AT"O!
1.

6appens "uring vigorous e#ercise. 8#ygen nee"s to be transporte" fast enough to the muscle cells for rapi" cell respiration. This will enable the release of sufficient energy for the vigorous muscle activity.

(.

-. 3. L. G. '. Q.

6eart rate an" breathing rate are increase" to supply more o#ygen )uickly to the muscle cells for rapi" muscular contraction. 6owever, the supply of o#ygen to the muscle cells is still insufficient an" the muscle cells have to carry out anaerobic respiration to release energy. <lucose is broken "own in the absence of o#ygen to form lactic aci" an" energy for muscle contraction. 4actic aci" accumulates in the muscle cells causing muscular ache. An o#ygen "ebt is incurre" because the ma#imum rate of o#ygen use" is less than the o#ygen supplie". 8#ygen is re)uire" to pay off the o#ygen "ebt. =api" breathing continues after the vigorous e#ercise to obtain sufficient o#ygen. The o#ygen will break "own the lactic aci" built up in the muscles.

&.

8#ygen o#i"i2es the lactic aci" to carbon "io#i"e, water an" energy.

AE'O&"C 'ESP"'AT"O!
Aerobic respiration is the breaking "own of glucose in the presence of o#ygen to release chemical energy. (. -. 3. L. 8#ygen is re)uire" to o#i"i2e the glucose to pro"uce carbon "io#i"e, water an" energy. 5n aerobic respiration, the glucose is completely o#i"i2e" to release all the chemical energy in the glucose. 8ccurs in the mitochon"ria an" cytoplasma of cells. 5t is controlle" by en2ymes in stages. 0nergy is release" in stages an" in small amounts.

G. '. Q. &.

Some of the chemical release" is change" to heat energy while the rest of the chemical energy release" is store" in the form of a"enosine triphosphate .ATP . ATP can be regenerate" by combining inorganic phosphate .P to A/P .a"enosine "iphosphate using the chemical energy obtaine" from the o#i"ation of foo". Ahen bo"y cells nee" energy, ATP molecules will be hy"rolyse" to yiel" energy, a molecule of A/P an" an inorganic phosphate. Aerobic respiration can be represente" by the following e)uation:

%E. The o#ygen for aerobic respiration comes from inhale" air while the carbon "io#i"e release" is remove" "uring e#halation.

Similarities of Aerobic 'espiration and Anaerobic 'espiration

To form cellular respiration

To pro"uce o#i"ation of glucose

5nvolve the break"own of glucose Are catalyse" by en2ymes

Pro"uce energy

8ccurs in animals an" plants

=espiratory Structure in Some Animals

Types of respiratory structures involve in gaseous e#change:

a Across plasma membrane b Tracheal system c <ills

" Skin e 4ungs

=espiratory structure in unicellular organism

%.=espiratory structure of a unicellular organism such as amoeba sp is through plasma membrane. (.These organisms have a large surface area compare" to the volume of their bo"y. -. Movement of respiratory gases between the respiratory surface an" the e#ternal environment is by "iffusion. 3. The larger the si2e of an organism, the smaller the surface area per unit volume of the organism thus, the volume of the bo"y that re)uires o#ygen increases much more rapi"ly than the surface area.

=espiratory Structure in 5nsects

%. =espiratory system of insects is tracheal system. (. 5t consists of air tubes calle" tracheae. Air enters the tracheae through spiracles which are locate" at the tora# an" ab"omen. -. The trachea are reinforce" with rings og chitin which prevent them from collapsing. 3. The finer tubes calle" tracheoles. The large number of tracheaoles provi"es a large surface area for "iffusion of gases. L. The terminal en"s of the tracheoles have thin, permeable walls an" contain flui" in which respiratory gases can "issolve. This ensure that the epithelium lining remains moist all the time

=espiratory Structure of ;ish

%. ;ishes have respiratory structures calle" gills. ?ony fish have four pairs of gills which are protecte" by operculum.

(. 0ach gill consist of filaments which ae supporte" by a gill arch. The filaments have a thin wall calle" lamellae. -. The structural a"aptation of the gills: a thin membranes to allow the absorption of respiratory gases into the bloo" capillaries b =ich of bloo" capillaries for efficient e#change an" transport of respiratory gases. c Surroun"e" by water which enable respiratory gases to be "issolve. " 4arge surface area of filaments an" lamellae for efficient gases e#change. 5$6A4AT58$

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The floor of the buccal cavity is lowere" At same time, opercular cavity is enlarge an" the operculum closes This lowers is pressure in the buccal cavity Aater with "issolve o#ygen is "rawn into the mouth

Ahen the mouth closes, floor of buccal cavity is raise". Aater flows through lamellae an" gaseous e#change between bloo" capillaries an" water occurs. At same time, opercullar cavity becomes smaller. Pressure in buccal cavity is higher than the pressure outsi"e. 6igher water pressure forces operculum to open an" water to flow out through operculum.

=espiratory Structure 8f Amphibians

%. <ases e#change occurs mainly through the skin an" in the lungs of frogs. A"aptation of the skin for gaseous e#change

%. The skin is thin an" highly permeable

-. skin is kept moist by the secretion of mucus by glan"s foun" on the surface of the bo"y

(. ?eneath the skin is a network of bloo" capillaries

U A"aptation of the lung for gaseous e#change

%. Surface area for gases e#change is increase" by numerous inner partition

(. !overe" with a rich network of bloo" capillaries

-. The membrane of the lungs are thin an" moist

5$6A4AT58$

/uring inhalation, ar is "rawn into the bucco+ pharryngeal cavity through nostril. The glottis is close" an" the stale air remains in lungs. Ahen the glottis opens, the nostrils are close". The increase" air pressure forces air into the lungs. The lungs e#pan" an" with rapi" movements of bucco+pharyngeal floor, this will accumulate fresh air for ventillatiom

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Ahen the lungs muscles contract an" also with the help of ab"ominal pressure, air is e#pelle" from the lungs.

=espiratory Structure 8f 6uman

%. <aseous e#change in human takes place in the lungs. (. Air enters the lungs through: Trachea bronchi bronchioles alveoli

-. Trachea is supporte" by cartilage which keep it from collapse "uring inhalation.

;eatures of Alveoli an" the ;unction in <aseous 0#change

A large number of alveoli in the lungs

5ncrease" surface area for e#change gases

Aalls are ma"e of a single layer cell

<ases can "iffuse easily across the thin walls

Aalls secrete a thin lining of moisture

<ases can "issolve in moisture an" "iffuse easily across walls

Surroun"e" by a network of bloo" capillaries

!an transport o#ygen to an" carbon "io#i"e away from the cells

5$6A4AT58$ %. 0#ternal intercoastal muscles contract (. 5nternal intercoastal muscles rela# -. The rib cage move upwar"s an" outwar"s 3. The "iaphragm contracts an" flattens L.Iolume of the thoracic cavity increase resulting in re"uce" air pressure in alveoli. G. 6igher atmospheric pressure outsi"e causes the air to rush in

0N6A4AT58$ %. 0#ternal intercoastal muscles rela# (. 5nternal intercoastal muscles contract -. The rib cage move "ownwar"s an" inwar"s. 3.The "iaphragm rela#es an" returns to "ome+shape" L. Iolume of the thoracic cavity "ecreases resulting in higher air pressure in alveoli G. Air is force" out of lungs.

!omparison between human respiratory system with other organisms

<aseous 0#change Across the =espiratory Surfaces an" Transport of <ases in 6umans

Transport 8f =espiratory <ases in 6umans

Transport 8f o#ygen

Transport of carbon "io#i"e

'ESP"'AT"O! "! P#A!TS Energy requirements in plants

Although plant are not mobile like humans an" animals, they nee" energy to carry out living processes such as cell "ivision, active transport, growth, repro"uction an" "evelopment. The energy re)uirements of plant are few in comparison to those of animals.

The energy is "erive" using the same mechanism as animals an" humans, that is, by breaking "own glucose an" capturing the energy in the form of ATP. 5n other wor"s, plants also un"ertake the process of respiration at the bo"y cells.

Aerobic and anaerobic respirations in plants

The cellular respiration in plant involves taking in o#ygen an" releasing carbon "io#i"e. Cnlike animals, plants "o not have a specialise" respiratory system for gaseous e#changes. These e#changes are carrie" out mainly at the lenticels or at the stomata via simple "iffusion along the concentration gra"ient.

Respiration at the lenticels

4enticels are raise" pores an" can be foun" mainly on the bark of woo"y stems as well as at some roots. The cork cells in the lenticels are loosely arrange" an" there is air space between the cells. The gases can "iffuse in an" out of the stems an" root tissues.

Respiration at the stomata

Stoma are tiny pores foun" mostly un"erneath leaves. Surroun"e" by a pair of guar" cells an" contain chloroplast. <aseous e#changes between atmospheric air an" internal tissues of leaves occur at stomata. Stomata only open at "ay time when there is light an" close at night when light is absent.

The concentration of o#ygen in cells is lower than concentration of o#ygen in intercellular ai spaces. Cpon entering stomata, o#ygen "iffuses into intercellular ais spaces an" "issolves in surface moisture before "iffusing in cytoplasm !8( from respiration "iffuses out of cells into intracellular air spaces in opposite "irection along concentration gra"ient. !8( then "iffuses out through stomata into atmosphere.

Relationship between Light Intensity and Attainment of Compensation Point

Plants carry out respiration an" photosynthesis. =espiration is carrie" out all the time with the intake of o#ygen an" the release of carbon "io#i"e. 8n the han", the rate of photosynthesis "epen"s on light intensity. /ue to this, the amount of carbon "io#i"e release" by plants varies throughout the "ay an" night "epen"ing on the availability of sunlight. 5n the presence of sunlight, carbon "io#i"e release" by respiration is consume" by photosynthesis. 5n the "ark, respiration occurs without photosynthesis an" hence, alarge )uantity of carbon "io#i"e is being release". As such, more carbon "io#i"e is pro"uce" at night compare" with the amount pro"uce" "uring the "ay.

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uman Activities That Endan+er An Ecosystem

%. /eforestration: The permanent removal of trees from the fprest "ue to the cutting "own of trees for e#ports an" local use . (. Agricultural activities that lea" to: *Slash an" burn, "uring e#ploration of new lan"s .

4evelling of hills for highlan" Cse of e#cessive inorganic fertili2ers, pestici"es an" herbici"es.

-. 5n"ustrial an" "omestic activities cause: /umping of waste materials in "umpsites, stinking the areas. /ischarge of effluent that "issolve an" suspen" in water to "eteriorate the water )uality 5norganic fertili2ers: nitrates phosphate potassium

;armers

use

causes 0utrophicatio n 4akes an" rivers

The Effects of 8ater Pollution

0utrophication

%.Promote rapi" growth of algae

-.!over water surface D block sunlight 3.A)uatic plant unable to carry out photosynthesis '.5ncrease "ecomposing bacteria

(.Pro"uce alga bloom

L./estroy foo" chain

G.Algae D other organism "ie

Q.=e"uce o#ygen content in o#ygen

&.5ncrease ?8/ value

%%.A)uatic life "ie

%E./ecrease o#ygen in water

5ncrease ?8/

The presence of organic materials in water promotes the rapi" growth of microorganisms, Thus lea"s to the increase of ?8/ .?iological 8#ygen /eman" . As a result, the "issolve" o#ygen in water is re"uce" an" the life of the living a)uatic organisms is affecte".

To#ic materials

The illegal "umping of waste an" effluent from heavy in"ustries are the main source of to#ic pollution, such as heavy metals an" ra"ioactive materials that are highly to#ic, last for a long time an" accumulate in living organisms via foo" chain.

Sources: %. Iehicles (. !onstruction Sites -. 5n"ustrial machineries Air

Sources: %. ?urning of fossil fuels by vehicles, in"ustrial power stations an" factories.

$oise

Type 8f Pollution

Aater

Sources: %. 5n"ustrial processes. (. !ooling towers of electrical power stations.

Sources: %. 0ffluents from in"ustrial an" resi"ential areas (. =un+off from agricultural areas. Thermal