Name:______________________________ Chem|stry M|dterm kev|ew Sheet

Metrics and Measurement

**** IMCk1AN1 kLILkLNCL 1A8LLS: 1A8LL C, 1A8LL 1 (DLNSI1, LkCLN1 LkkCk, 1LMLkA1UkL)

ML1kICS

reflx AbbrevlaLlon lacLor
Clga- C 10
9

Mega- M 10
6
kllo- k 10
3
PecLo- h 10
2
ueka- da 10
1

8ase unlL g, m, L 10
0

uecl- d 10
-1
or 1/10
CenLl- c 10
-2
or 1/100
Mllll- m 10
-3
or 1/1,000
Mlcro- 10
-6
or 1/1,000,000
nano- n 10
-9
or 1/1,000,000,000
lco- p 10
-12
or 1/1,000,000,000,000

CCNVLkSICNS
Convert|ng between un|ts by mov|ng dec|ma|s ! use Ladder Method:



Convert|ng between un|ts us|ng Iactor Labe| Method:
!" $%&'() *'++( '%,-. (,/+ /-01) &012 '-( 34')/+434-1 (,/ /)4"
5" 6,/ -447 1, 8,+3 124 '99+,9+0'14 %':4%47 +'10,) ;4</'%0104)="




Lxample: ConverL 2 meLers Lo cenLlmeLers.



MLASUkLMLN1:
Accuracy: Pow close Lhe measuremenL ls Lo Lhe expecLed value
reclslon: Pow close lndlvldual measuremenLs come Lo each oLher.


Lrror = Measured value - AccepLed value
AccepLed value

Dens|ty = Mass/ volume
noLe: 1 mL ls equal Lo 1 cm
3


volume of a regular solld: L x W x P

WaLer ulsplacemenL MeLhod for:
volume of an lrregular solld = (volume of waLer + solld) - (volume of waLer)

1emperature
ls deflned as Lhe measure of Lhe average klneLlc energy of parLlcles ln a subsLance.
AbsoluLe zero ls 0 k
ConverLlng beLween kelvln and Celslus... k = C + 273








SIGNIIICAN1 IIGUkLS
ALlanLlc and aclflc 8ule

ac|f|c Ccean At|ant|c Ccean

When declmal ls resenL ( for aclflc), sLarL on Lhe lefL slde of Lhe number. llnd Lhe flrsL non-zero number
and counL all numbers Lo Lhe rlghL of lL.
Lxample: 6.3890 has 3 slg flgs
0.0343 has 3 slg flgs

When declmal ls AbsenL (A for ALlanLlc), sLarL on Lhe rlghL slde of Lhe number. llnd Lhe flrsL non-zero
number and counL all numbers Lo Lhe lefL of lL.
Lxample: 3890 has 3 slg flgs
34003 has 3 slg flgs

1hls works slnce 1 meLer ls equal Lo 100 cm.
x 100
Average
klneLlc
Lnergy
1emperaLure
MulLlplylng and ulvldlng uslng slgnlflcanL flgures
MulLlply or dlvlde Lhe numbers. 8ound off Lo Lhe lowesL number of slg flgs.

Lxample: 12.237 (3 slg flgs)
x 1.162 (4 slg flgs)
14.242634 ! 14.24
(rounded off Lo 4 slg flgs)

Addlng and SubLracLlng uslng slgnlflcanL flgures
Add or subLracL numbers. 8ound off so LhaL Lhe answer has Lhe same amounL of numbers afLer Lhe
declmal as Lhe lowesL number ln Lhe problem.

Lxamples:












REGENTS QUESTIONS:

1. Which quantity of heat is equal to 200. joules?
a. 20.0 kJ b. 2.00 kJ c. 0.200 kJ d. 0.200 kJ

2. A sample of an element has a mass of 34.261 grams and a volume of 3.8 cubic centimeters. To which
number of significant figures should the calculated density of the sample be expressed?
a. 5 b. 2 c. 3 d. 4

3. Which measurement contains a total of three significant figures?
a. 0.12 b. 120 c. 120. d. 120.0

4. Which quantity expresses the sum of the given masses to the correct number of significant figures?


a. 5800 g b. 5798 g c. 5797.9 g d. 5797.892 g

5. A student collected the data shown below to determine experimentally the density of distilled water.

Mass of graduated cylinder + distilled H2O sample ............................................................... 163 g
Mass of empty graduated cylinder ....... 141 g
Mass of distilled H2O sample ..................... g
Volume of distilled H2O sample ........ 24.3 mL
Based on the experimental data collected, what is the density of the distilled water?
a. 1.0 g/mL b. 0.235 g/mL c. 0.87 g/mL d. 1.15 g/mL


Matter and Energy

Important keference 1ab|es: 1ab|e 8, 1ab|e 1 (neat)

Matter: AnyLhlng LhaL has mass and Lakes up space.

S States of Matter:
8ose-LlnsLeln CondensaLe
*Solld
*Llquld
*Cas
lasma

States of
Matter
Def|n|te Vo|ume? Def|n|te Shape? Lnergy of Mo|ecu|es
(Low, Med|um, n|gh)
Lxamp|e
Solld

?es,
volume can be measured.
?es,
regular, flxed,
repeaLlng crysLalllne
sLrucLure
Low,
molecules vlbraLe ln
place
P
2
C
(s)

Llquld

?es,
volume of llqulds can be
measured (uslng graduaLed
cyllnder for example)
no,
Llqulds Lake Lhe
shape of Lhe
conLalner
Medlum,
molecules flow or
move pasL one
anoLher
P
2
C
(l)

Cas

no,
volume changes lf Lhe
conLalner ls changed. Cases
Lake up Lhe enLlre volume of
Lhe conLalner lL ls ln.
no,
Cases Lake Lhe shape
of Lhe conLalner.
Plgh,
very fasL movlng. 1he
molecules have
mlnlmum aLLracLlon Lo
one anoLher.
P
2
C
(g)


MaLLer can be characLerlzed lnLo Lwo maln groups, pure subsLances and mlxLures:


LlemenLs can be monaLomlc (one aLom) or dlaLomlc (Lwo aLoms). CerLaln elemenLs exlsL only as havlng
Lwo aLoms of lLself bonded LogeLher. An example ls hydrogen, whlch ls P
2
, where Lwo hydrogen aLoms are
bonded LogeLher. All dlaLomlcs lnclude HOFBr INCl.

art|c|e D|agrams:




MlxLures are pure subsLances LhaL are physlcally comblned. So, Lhey can be separaLed physlcally.

SLAkA1ICN ML1nCDS for m|xtures |nc|ude:
lllLraLlon (separaLlon by parLlcle slze - blg parLlcles sLay behlnd on Lhe fllLer paper all else goes Lhrough)
LvaporaLlon
MagneL
ulsLlllaLlon (separaLlon by bolllng polnLs of subsLances)
CenLrlfuge (separaLlon by denslLy)

MaLLer can undergo physlcal and chemlcal changes.

hys|ca| Changes:
new subsLance ls nC1 formed. Can be a change ln:
LlemenLs (Lxamples: Cu, S, C
2

Compound (Lxamples: CC
2
, P
2
0, naCl
(s)
)
MlxLures (Lxamples: naCl
(aq)
, SalL and Sand, lzza)
" Slze
" Shape
" Appearance
" ******State of matter (so||d, ||qu|d, gas) - Me|t|ng, Ireez|ng, 8o|||ng, etc. ********

Chem|ca| Changes:
A new subsLance ls formed. MosL of Lhe Llme lL ls lrreverslble.

LNLkG ls always lnvolved when Lhere ls a physlcal or chemlcal change ln maLLer.
1he baslc unlL for energy ls called a ICULL, I.
Lnergy can be Lransferred from one form Lo anoLher.
neat a|ways transfers from hot to co|d!! So a hoL subsLance wlll glve lLs heaL Lo a cold subsLance.
1he LemperaLure of boLh subsLances ls ln Lhe mlddle of orlglnal LemperaLure.

**** 1emperature |s the measure of a substances average k|net|c energy ****





nASL CnANGLS


**** 8emember Lhe Lwo lmporLanL subsLances LhaL subllme: CC
2 (s)
(u8? lCL) and l
2 (s)
(lodlne).

nLA1ING AND CCCLING CUkVLS:
Craph of LemperaLure versus Llme for a glven subsLance as heaL energy ls added or removed.


neat|ng Curve Coo||ng Curve


When a subsLance ls ln a parLlcular phase (s, l or g) and heaL ls added, Lhe LemperaLure of Lhe subsLance
lncreases and Lhe klnL1lC LnL8C? of Lhe parLlcles lncreases.

Lndotherm|c: 1akes ln Lnergy
(adds)

Lxotherm|c: 8eleases Lnergy
(removes)
AL any phase change (melLlng, bolllng, freezlng, condenslng) Lhere ls nC CPAnCL ln 1LML8A1u8L. 1hls ls
shown as a plaLeau on Lhe heaLlng (or coollng) curve. As heaL ls added, Lhe energy ls used Lo overcome Lhe
aLLracLlon beLween parLlcles (ex: Lo change Lhe dlsLance beLween parLlcles = oLenLlal energy) lnsLead of
lncreaslng Lhe klneLlc energy of Lhe parLlcles.
# Ius|on: MelLlng of a subsLance (solld Lo llquld)
# Vapor|zat|on: LvaporaLlon of a subsLance (llquld Lo gas)

**** kemember your 3 's .. |ateau, hase Change, otent|a| Lnergy Change ****

CALCULA1ING nLA1 ( 3 neat Lquat|ons)

Speclflc heaL : Lhe amounL of heaL (q) LhaL lL Lakes Lo lncrease Lhe LemperaLure of 1 g of a
subsLance by 1C.
1he speclflc heaL capaclLy, C
p
, for waLer ls 4.18 !/gC (1A8LL 8 ln 8eference 1able)

When ln a parLlcular phase (s, l, or g) use Lhe formula:

q = m C
p
1 where : q = heaL
m = mass
C
p
= speclflc heaL of subsLance
A1 = 1
flnal
- 1
lnlLlal

When me|t|ng (fus|on) or freez|ng use Lhe formula:

q = mn
f
where : q = heaL
m = mass
P
f
= heaL of fuslon

noLe: PeaL of fuslon for waLer ls 334 !/g (1A8LL 8)

When evaporat|ng (vapor|zat|on) or condens|ng use Lhe formula:

q = mn
v
where : q = heaL
m = mass
P
v
= heaL of vaporlzaLlon

noLe: PeaL of vaporlzaLlon for waLer ls 2260 !/g (1A8LL 8)

REGENTS QUESTIONS:

1. Which substance can be broken down by chemical means?
a. CO b. Ce c. Ca d. Cu

2. Which process is a chemical change?
a. melting of ice b. boiling of water c. subliming of ice d. decomposing of water

3. Which two particle diagrams represent mixtures of diatornic elements?

a. A and B b. A and C c. B and C d. B and D

4. Which transfer of energy occurs when ice cubes are placed in water that has a temperature of
45C?
a. Chemical energy is transferred from the ice to the water.
b. Chemical energy is transferred from the water to the ice.
c. Thermal energy is transferred from the ice to the water.
d. Thermal energy is transferred from the water to the ice.

5. Which substance has vibrating particles in regular, fixed positions?
a. Ca (s) b. Hg (l) c. Cl
2
(g) d. CaCl
2
(aq)

6. Which sample of ethanol has particles with the highest average kinetic energy?
a. 10.0 mL of ethanol at 25C b. 10 mL of ethanol at 55C
c. 100.0 mL of ethanol at 35C d. 100.0 mL of ethanol at 45C

7. Which phase change is accompanied by the release of heat?
a. H
2
O(s) ! H
2
O(g) b. H
2
O(s) ! H
2
O(l) c. H
2
O(l) ! H
2
O(g) d. H
2
O(l) ! H
2
O(s)

8. The graph to the right represents the relationship between
temperature and time as heat is added to a sample of H
2
O.

Which statement correctly describes the energy of the particles of
the sample during interval BC?

a. Potential energy decreases and average kinetic energy
increases.
b. Potential energy increases and average kinetic energy
increases.
c. Potential energy increases and average kinetic energy RTS.
d. Potential energy RTS and average kinetic energy increases.

9. The table below shows the data collected by a student as heat was applied at a constant rate
to a solid below its freezing point.

What is the boiling point of this substance?
a. 32C b. 54C c. 62C d. 100C

10. When 200 grams of water cools from 50.C to 25C, the total amount of heat energy released
by the water is:
a. 42 kJ b. 21 kJ c. 34 kJ d. 17 kJ

11. A sample of water is heated from 10.0C to 15.0C by the addition of 126 Joules of heat. What
is the mass of the water?
a. 5.00 g b. 6.00 g c. 30.0 g d. 150.0 g

12. An 80.0-gram sample of water at 10.0C absorbs 1680 Joules of heat energy. What is the final
temperature of the water?
a. 50.0C b. 15.0C c. 5.00C d. 4.00C

13. What is the total number of joules released when a 5.00-gram sample of water changes from
liquid to solid at 0C?
a. 334 J b. 1670 J c. 2260 J d. 11300 J

14. How much energy is required to vaporize 10.00 grams of water at its boiling point?
a. 2.26 kJ b. 3.34 kJ c. 4.2 kJ d. 22.6 kJ

15. Which Kelvin temperature is equal to 73C?
a. 100 K b. 173 K c. 200 K d. 346 K



KMT and Gas Laws

*** IMPORTANT REFERENCE TABLES: TABLE A, TABLE T (COMBINED GAS LAW) ***

The assumptions of the Kinetic Molecular Theory (KMT):
1) Gases have negligible volume.
2) There are no attractive/repulsive forces between particles.
3) Particles move in random, straight-line paths until they are acted upon by another particle
or the container.
4) Kinetic energy (KE) of particles is transferred between objects that collide. KE is
conserved. Called Elastic Collision.
5) Pressure arises from the collision of particles against the container.

An Ideal Gas is a model gas for KMT to explain the behavior of gases it doesnt really exist.

****Deviations from Ideal Gas Behavior:
Real gases actually do have volume and they do have attractive/repulsive forces between one
another thats why the KMT is not perfect.
***But, a real gas acts very close to an ideal gas under high temperature and
low pressure. Also, smaller particles are most like an ideal gas (H
2
, He).

Boyles Law: If the temperature and amount of gas remain constant, the volume of a gas is
inversely proportional to the absolute pressure.
PV = k = constant
Or P = k/V
P
1
x V
1
= P
2
x V
2


Charles Law: If the pressure and amount of gas remain constant, the volume of a gas is
directly proportional to the temperature.
V = constant
T

V
1 =
V
2

T
1
T
2



Gay-Lussacs Law: If the volume and amount of gas remain constant, the pressure of a gas
is directly proportional to the temperature.
P = constant
T

P
1 =
P
2

T
1
T
2


Avogadros Law: If the pressure and temperature remain constant, the volume (V) of a
given mass of gas is directly proportional to the number of moles of gas (n).

One mole of an ideal gas has a
volume of 22.4 liters at S.T.P.
So!
Two moles of an ideal gas has a
volume of 44.8 liters at S.T.P., etc.

Combined Gas Law: Combines Boyles, Charles and Gay Lussacs laws into one.
PV = constant
T

P
1
V
1 =
P
2
V
2

T
1
T
2



REGENTS QUESTIONS:

1. Which statement describes the particles of an ideal gas?
a. The particles move in well-defined, circular paths.
b. When the particles collide, energy is lost.
c. There are forces of attraction between particles.
d. The gas particles are relatively far apart and have negligible volume.

2. Under which conditions of temperature and pressure would helium behave most like an ideal gas?

a. 50 K and 20 kPa b. 50 K and 600 kPa c. 750 K and 20 kPa d. 750 K and 600 kPa

3. Which of the following gases behaves most like an ideal gas?
a. H
2
(g) b. CO
2
(g) c. NH
4
(g) d. O
2
(g)

4. Each stoppered flask below contains 2 liters of a gas at STP. Each gas sample has the same:
a. density
b. mass
c. number of molecules
d. number of atoms


5. A cylinder with a movable piston contains a sample of gas having a volume of 6.0 liters at 293 K and 1.0
atmosphere. What is the volume of the sample after the gas is heated to 303 K, while the pressure is held at
1.0 atmosphere?
a. 9.0 L b. 6.2 L c. 5.8 L d. 4.0 L

6. A rigid cylinder with a movable piston contains a 2.0-liter sample of neon gas at STP. What is the volume
of this sample when its temperature is increased to 30.C while its pressure is decreased to 90. kilopascals?
a. 2.5 L b. 2.0 L c. 1.6 L d. 0.22 L

7. At which temperature is the vapor pressure of ethanol equal to the vapor pressure of propanone at 35C?
a. 35 C b. 60 C c. 82 C d. 95 C

8. Which graph best represents the pressure-volume relationship for an ideal gas at constant temperature?
a. c.


b. d.




Atomic Theory Review

Daltons Theory
1. All matter is composed of tiny, indivisible particles called atoms. (Later experiments found
this to be untrue)
2. All atoms of the same element are identical.
3. Atoms of different elements combine in constant ratios to form compounds.
4. Atoms are rearranged in chemical reactions.

History of the Atom:
Dalton Billiard Ball Model (atoms are solid spheres)
Thomson Plum Pudding Model (positively charged sphere with negative charge throughout)
Rutherford Atoms are mainly empty space with a positive dense core with electrons outside.
Bohr Electrons are in defined orbits
Wave Mechanical Model also called Electron Cloud Model. Electrons are not located in a
defined orbit but in an orbital where we know probability of electron location only). Current Model.

Rutherfords Gold Foil Experiment.
Positively charged particles were fired toward an atom. Most particles passed right through
without deflection. Showed that atoms are made up of mostly empty space. Sometimes particles
got deflected this is when they hit or came close to the nucleus.
1. Atoms have small, dense, positive core called the nucleus
2. Atoms are made up of mostly empty space.


Subatomic Particles:
Particle Charge Mass Location Symbol

Proton, p

+1

1 amu

In Nucleus


Neutron, n

0

1 amu

In Nucleus


Electron, e
-


-1

1/1836 amu

Outside Nucleus


Atomic number = number of protons = number of electrons in a neutral atom

Atomic mass = number of protons plus neutrons

# of Neutrons = Atomic Mass Atomic Number
Electrons:
Electrons revolve around the nucleus in shells. They have a specific amount of energy. Electrons
in shells further away from the nucleus have more energy compared to those closer to the nucleus.

The maximum number of electrons that can be in each shell is 2n
2
.


Wave Mechanlcal
Model
8ohr Model
An elements electron configuration shows the placement of electrons in their shells.

Excited Electrons: Electrons that gain energy and jump to a higher energy level.

Electrons can absorb (or gain) energy and move to higher energy levels (excited state). They
dont want to be in an excited state so the electron will fall back down into the lower energy level.
When this happens, it emits energy in the form of light (spectra).
o Amount of energy released corresponds to the different colors of the spectrum seen.
o Each element has its own unique atomic emission spectrum or bright line spectrum.
a. Flame Test
b. Spectrophotometers


Bohr Diagrams
1) Draw the protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
2) Place electrons in the proper principle energy level (or shell) based on their electron
configuration.

Ions
Atoms can lose or gain electrons from their valence shell to become ions. They want 8 electrons
in their outer shell.
Metals lose electrons and become positive ions called cations.
Nonmetals gain electrons and become negative ions called anions.


REGENTS QUESTIONS:

1. Which subatomic particles are located in the nucleus of a carbon atom?
a. protons only b. neutrons only c. protons and neutrons d. protons and electrons

2. What are the characteristics of a neutron?
a. no mass and no charge b. mass of 1 amu and no charge
c. no mass and -1 charge d. mass of 1 amu and -1 charge


3. Which statement concerning elements is true?
a. Different elements must have different numbers of isotopes.
b. Different elements must have different numbers of neutrons.
c. All atoms of a given element must have the same mass number.
d. All atoms of a given element must have the same atomic number.

4. The major portion of an atom's mass consists of
a. electrons and neutrons b. electrons and protons
c. neutrons and protons d. neutrons and positrons

5. Which conclusion was a direct result of the gold foil experiment?
a. An atom is mostly empty space with a dense, positively charged nucleus
b. An atom is composed of at least three subatomic particles
c. An electron has a positive charge and is found inside the nucleus
d. An electron has properties of both particles and waves

6. Which sequence represents a correct order of historical developments leading to the modern
model of the atom?
a. the atom is a hard sphere ! most of the atom is empty space ! electrons exist in orbitals
outside the nucleus
b. the atom is a hard sphere ! electrons exist in orbitals outside the nucleus ! most of the atom
is empty space
c. most of the atom is empty space ! electrons exist in orbitals outside the nucleus ! the atom is
a hard sphere
d. most of the atom is empty space ! the atom is a hard sphere ! electrons exist in orbitals
outside the nucleus

7. What is the charge of the nucleus in an atom of oxygen-17?
a. 0 b. -2 c. +8 d. +17

8. A neutral atom contains 12 neutrons and 11 electrons. The number of protons in this atom is
a. 1 b. 11 c. 12 d. 23

9. What is the mass number of a carbon atom that contains six protons, eight neutrons, and six
electrons?
a. 6 b. 8 c. 14 d. 20

10. What is the total number of neutrons in an atom of
7
3
Li?
a. 7 b. 10 c. 3 d. 4

11. The atomic mass of an atom is measured in atomic mass units. This unit is based on
a.
1
H b.
14
N c.
16
O d.
12
C

12. In a calcium atom in the ground state, the electrons that possess the least amount of energy
are located in the:
a. First electron shell b. Second electron shell c. Third electron shell d. Fourth electron shell

13. What is the maximum number of electrons that can occupy the fourth principal energy level
(shell) of an atom?
a. 2 b. 8 c. 18 d. 32

14. Which electron configuration represents an excited state for a potassium atom?
a. 2-8-7-1 b. 2-8-7-2 c. 2-8-8-1 d. 2-8-8-2

15. Compared to an atom of hydrogen in the ground state, an atom of hydrogen in the excited
state has
a. absorbed energy b. released energy c. neither absorbed or released energy


16. The bright-line spectrum of sodium is produced when energy is
a. absorbed as electrons move from higher to lower electron shells
b. absorbed as electrons move from lower to higher electron shells
c. released as electrons move from higher to lower electron shells
d. released as electrons move from lower to higher electron shells

17. An atom of oxygen is in an excited state. When an electron in this atom moves from the third
shell to the second shell, energy is
a. emitted from the nucleus b. emitted from the electron
a. absorbed by the nucleus b. absorbed by the electron

18. Given the table below that shows student's examples of proposed models of the atom:


Which model correctly describes the locations of protons and electrons in the wave-mechanical
model of the atom?
a. A b. B c. C d. D


Nuclear Chemistry Review

Isotopes
Atoms of the same element that have different number of neutrons" so they have a different
mass.

The atomic mass listed for an element on the Periodic Table is the weighted average of the
atomic masses of all the naturally occurring isotopes of that element.

Avg Atomic Mass = (mass x abundance Isotope 1) + (mass x abundance Isotope 2)
+ (mass x abundance Isotope 3) etc.

Some isotopes are stable and some are unstable.

**Nuclear reactions involve the changing of the nucleus of an atom.



If the nucleus has too little neutrons compared to protons, it is unstable. It can also be unstable
with too many neutrons.

When an isotope of an element is unstable, it is considered radioactive and itwill spontaneously
decay until a stable non-radioactive isotope is obtained. It can decay by emission of:


$ Alpha particles, #
$ Beta particles, $
-

$ Positrons, $
+

$ Gamma rays, %





Particle Symbol Mass Charge Penetrating Power
Alpha He or # 4 amu +2 Low
Beta e or $
-
0 amu -1 Moderate
Positron e or $
+
0 amu +1 Moderate
Gamma % 0 amu 0 High

Gamma radiation : electromagnetic energy that is released from the nucleus. Similar to x-rays.

There are no stable nuclei with an atomic number greater than 83. They tend to decay
by alpha emission.





Nuclear transmutation is the conversion of one element into another. Can occur naturally or
artificially.

1. Can be natural " through decay of radioactive isotope.

2. Can be artificial " through bombardment of high energy particles into a nucleus.


Fission
! Artificial Transmutation. Atom is bombarded by a neutron.
! Large, heavy nucleus splits into medium, lighter fragments.
! It also emits one or more neutrons and ENERGY.
! The most common nuclear fuels are
235
U and
239
Pu.
! Big problem is nuclear waste.
! Examples:
Atomic bomb (uncontrolled)
Nuclear Power Plant (controlled fission)




Fusion
$ Artificial transmutation.
$ Combining lighter nuclei to make a heavier nucleus.
$ Products formed are not radioactive.

Uses of Radioactive Materials
! Carbon-14 (to date once living organisms)
! Uranium-238 (to date rocks, etc.)
! Iodine-131 (treatment of thyroid cancer)
! Cobalt-60 (Cancer treatment)
! Technetium-99 (Brain cancer detection)
os|t|ve
Negat|ve
! Americium-241 (Smoke detectors)
! Cobalt-60 (Food irradiation)

Half-life: Time it takes for half of a sample to naturally decay. Isotopes with a long half-life are
more stable compared with those that have a short half-life. Make table for half-life questions:

Mass Time # of Half-lives Fraction remaining
0 0 1
1 1/2
2 1/4
3 1/8

REGENTS QUESTIONS:

1. The total number of protons, electrons, and neutrons in each of four different atoms are shown
in the table below.

Which two atoms are isotopes
of the same element?
a. A and D
b. A and Z
c. X and D
d. X and Z



2. All the isotopes of a given atom have
a. the same mass number and the same atomic number
b. the same mass number and different atomic numbers
c. different mass numbers and the same atomic number
d. different mass numbers and different atomic numbers

3. Which two notations represent different isotopes of the same element?
a.
20
11
Na and
20
10
Ne b.
39
19
K and
40
20
Ca c.
39
19
K and
42
19
K d.
14
6
C and
14
7
N

4. The average isotopic mass of chlorine is 35.5. Which mixture of isotopes (shown as percents)
produces this average mass?
a. 50%
12
C and 50%
13
C b. 50%
35
Cl and 50%
37
Cl
c. 75%
35
Cl and 25%
37
Cl d. 75%
12
C and 25%
13
C

5. Which nuclear emission has the greatest mass and the least penetrating power?
a. alpha b. beta c. neutron d. gamma ray

6. Which isotope will spontaneously decay and emit particles with a charge of +2?
a.
53
Fe b.
137
Cs c.
l98
Au d.
220
Fr
7. Which reaction is an example of natural transmutation?
a.
239
94
Pu
235
92
U +
4
2
He b.
27
13
Al +
4
2
He
30
15
P +
1
0
n
c.
238
92
U +
1
0
n
239
94
Pu + 2
0
-1
e d.
239
94
Pu +
1
0
n
147
56
Ba +
90
38
Sr + 3
1
0
n

8. Given the nuclear equation:
232
90
Th
228
88
Ra + X

The letter X in the equation represents
a. alpha particle b. beta particle c. neutron d. gamma ray

9. An electron has a charge identical to that of
a. alpha particle b. beta particle c. neutron d. gamma ray

10. What is the half-life of a radioisotope if 25.0 grams of an original 200.-gram sample of the isotope
remains unchanged after 11.46 days?
a. 2.87 d b. 3.82 d c. 11.46 d d. 34.38 d

11. Approximately what fraction of an original Co60 sample remains after 21 years?
a. 1/2 b. 1/4 c. 1/8 d. 1/16

12. In which type of reaction is an atom of one element converted to an atom of a different element?
a. decomposition b. saponification c. transmutation d. neutralization

13. A particle accelerator is used to provide charged particles with sufficient
a. kinetic energy to penetrate a nucleus b. kinetic energy to penetrate an electron cloud
c. potential energy to penetrate a nucleus d. potential energy to penetrate an electron cloud

14. Which particles can be accelerated in an electric or magnetic field?
a. alpha and gamma b. beta and neutron c. beta and neutron d. beta and gamma

15. Which statement best describes what happens in a fission reaction?
a. Heavy nuclei split into lighter nuclei. b, Energy is absorbed and more stable elements are formed.
c. Light nuclei form into heavier nuclei. d. Energy is released and less stable elements are formed.

16. Which balanced equation represents a fusion reaction?
a.
235
92
U

+

1
0
n
93
36
Kr+

140
56
Ba + 3
1
0
n b.
2
1
H +
3
1
H
4
2
He +
1
0
n
c.
14
7
N +
4
2
He
17
8
O +
1
1
H d.
226
88
Ra
222
86
Rn +
4
2
He

17. Which radioisotope is used for diagnosing thyroid disorders?
a. U-238 b. Pb-206 c. I-131 d. Co-60

18. Which components of a fission reactor are used to slow neutrons during a fission reaction?
a. control rods b. coolants c. shields d. moderators

Periodic Table Review Sheet

The Periodic Table is arranged by atomic number.
When the elements are arranged in this manner, there is a reoccurring trend in which elements in
a group have the same chemical properties. This is the Periodic Law.

Important Reference Tables: Table S

Periods
Run from left to right.
The period number tells how many principle energy levels (or shells) the atom has occupied by
electrons.


Example:
Li has an electron configuration of 2-1
N has an electron configuration of 2-5
They are both in Period 2 and both have 2 principle energy levels occupied by electrons.
K has an electron configuration of 2-8-8-1
What period is potassium, K, in?

Groups
Run up and down
The group number tells how many valence electrons the atom has. Valence electrons dictate the
chemical properties.

Metals
Located to the left of the staircase on the Periodic Table.
Metallic property increases as you go down a group.
Most active metal is Francium.
Characteristics of metals:
All are solid except for Mercury, Hg (which is a liquid)
Malleable
Ductile
Shiny or have metallic luster
Good conductors of heat and electricity
Loses electrons to form positive ions.
Low ionization energy
Low electronegativity

Metalloids
Located on the staircase (B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, Te)
Have properties of metals and nonmetals

NonMetals
Located to the right of the staircase on the Periodic Table.
Metallic property increases as you go down a group.
Most active non-metal is Fluorine.

Characteristics of non-metals:
Brittle
Dull or does NOT have metallic luster
Poor conductors of heat and electricity
Gains electrons to form negative ions.
High ionization energy
High electronegativity

Electronegativity: Affinity for electrons. Attraction for electrons.
Element with highest electronegativity is Fluorine (F).

Ionization Energy (IE) : Energy required to remove the most loosely bound electron from the
atom. For metals, it is easy to remove the electron(s) so the IE is low. For non-metals it is hard to
remove the electron(s) so the IE is high.

Atomic Radii: Radius of an atom.
Decreases as you go from left to right across a period ! electrons get pulled in closer to the
nucleus as # of protons increases.
Increases as you go down a period ! atoms have more occupied electron shells.

Ionic Radii: Radius of an ion.
When an atom of a metal loses an electron to form an ion, the radius decreases.
When an atom of a non-metal gains an electron to form an ion, the radius increases.

Allotropes: Element that exists in two or more forms. They
have different molecular structures so they have different
properties.

Examples of allotropes:
1. Graphite and diamond are both made up of carbon
atoms.
2. Oxygen (O
2
) and ozone (O
3
)
3. Phosporus comes in red, black or white (yellow)


Group 1 metals are called Alkali Metals
Very reactive!

Group 2 metals are called Alkaline Earth Metals

Group 3-12 are Transition metals
They form colored solutions.

Group 17 elements are called Halogens

Group 18 elements are called Noble Gases (or Inert Gases)
Have 8 valence electrons a complete outer shell. So they are generally unreactive with other
elements and are found as monatomic atoms.

Diatomic Molecules: Elements that exist as molecules of 2 atoms are:
H
2
, O
2
, F
2
, Br
2
, I
2
, N
2
, Cl
2


REGENTS QUESTIONS:

1. The elements on the Periodic Table are arranged in order of increasing
a. atomic mass b. atomic number c. first ionization energy d. oxidation states

2. Which element has chemical properties that are most similar to the chemical properties of sodium?
a. beryllium b. calcium c. lithium d.magnesium

3. Whlch llsL of elemenLs conLalns a meLal, a meLallold, a nonmeLal, and a noble gas?
a. 8e, Sl, Cl, kr b. C, n, ne, Ar c. k, le, 8, l d. Na, Zn, As, Sb

4. Which element is an alkali metal?
a. Na b. Mg c. Al d. Cl

5. Which of the following Period 4 elements has the most metallic characteristics?
a. Ca b. Ge c. As d. Br

6. Which group contains elements composed of diatomic molecules at STP?
a. 11 b. 2 c. 7 d. 17

7. A sample of an element is malleable and can conduct electricity. This element could be
a. H b. He c. S d. Sn

8. Which two characteristics are associated with metals?
a. low first ionization energy and low electronegativity
b. low first ionization energy and high electronegativity
c. high first ionization energy and low electronegativity
d. high first ionization energy and high electronegativity

9. Which is a property of most nonmetallic solids?
a. high thermal conductivity b. high electrical conductivity c. brittleness d. malleability

10. Which element is a liquid at STP and has low electrical conductivity?
a. silver b. mercury c. barium d. bromine
11. Which substance at STP exists in the form of a monatomic gas?
a. neon b. oxygen c. chlorine d. nitrogen

12. Which element has both metallic and nonmetallic properties?
a. Rb b. Rn c. Si d. Sr

13. Which element has the greatest density at STP?
a. scandium b. selenium c. silicon d. sodium

14. Given the particle diagram:

a. Rn b. Xe c. Ag d. Kr

15. Solid samples of the element phosphorus can be white, black, or red in color. The variations in color are
due to different
a. atomic mass b. molecular structure c. ionization energies d. nuclear charge

16. Draw the Lewis electron-dot diagram that represents a boron atom in the ground state?


17. What is represented by the dots in a Lewis electron-dot diagram of an atom of an element in Period 2 of
the Periodic Table?
a. the number of neutrons in the atom b. the number of protons in the atom
c. the number of valence electrons in the atom d. the total number of electrons in the atom

18. If X: represents the electron-dot symbol of an element, that element could be
a. C b. O c. B d. N

19. What is the total number of valence electrons in a calcium atom in the ground state?
a. 8 b. 2 c. 18 d. 20

20. The atoms of the elements in Group 2 have the same
a. mass number b. atomic number c. number of protons d. number of valence electrons

21. Which set of properties is most characteristic of transition elements?
a. colorless ions in solution, multiple positive oxidation states
b. colorless ions in solution, multiple negative oxidation states
c. colored ions in solution, multiple positive oxidation states
d. colored ions in solution, multiple negative oxidation states

22. Which changes occur as a cadmium atom, Cd, becomes a cadmium ion, Cd
2+
?
a. The Cd atom gains two electrons and its radius decreases.
b. The Cd atom gains two electrons and its radius increases.
c. The Cd atom loses two electrons and its radius decreases.
d. The Cd atom loses two electrons and its radius increases

23. An atom of which element has the greatest attraction for electrons in a chemical bond?
a. As b. Ga c. Ge d. Se

24. Which atom in the ground state requires the least amount of energy to remove its valence electron?
a. lithium atom b. potassium atom c. rubidium atom d. sodium atom

25. Based upon your knowledge of metallic activity, which element would most readily react with water?
a. Zn b. Cu c. Fe d. Li

26. As the elements of Group 16 are considered in order from top to bottom, the covalent radius of each
successive element increases. This increase is primarily due to an increase in
a. atomic number b. the number of protons occupying the nucleus
c. atomic mass d. the number of occupied electron shells

Bonding

ENERGY
The stored energy within a chemical bond is potential energy.
To break a bond, energy is absorbed and stability is decreased.
When a bond is formed, energy is released and stability is increased.

Atoms gain, lose or share electrons to form bonds and form stable compounds. Atoms tend to do
this to obtain a stable octet of valence electrons (= Octet Rule). There are some exceptions to
this rule. For example, hydrogen only needs two electrons to be stable since it will fill its first
electron shell, which can only hold 2 electrons.

Lewis Dot Diagrams can be used to show bonding. The symbol of the element is written to
represent the kernel, which is the nucleus plus all inner shell electrons. The dots (or xs) around
the element symbol represent only the valence electrons.

There are three main types of bonds:
1. Ionic
2. Covalent
3. Metallic

IONIC BONDS
Ionic bonds form between a metal and non-metal. It involves a transfer of electrons. The metal
transfers its valence electrons to the non-metal. The metal becomes a positive ion (cation) and its
radius decreases. The non-metal becomes a negative ion (anion) and its radius increases.

Ionic bonds do not form individual molecules, instead they form crystal lattices. General
characteristics of substances with ionic bonds include:
Brittle
High melting point and boiling point
Soluble in water
Does not conduct electricity as a solid
Does conduct electricity in liquid state or when dissolved in water.

Electrostatic attractions hold these compounds together. In other words, the attraction between
the negative and positive ions.

Example of Lewis dot diagram for ionic compound:

COVALENT BONDS
Covalent bonds form between non-metals. It involves a sharing of electrons. They can share
more than one pair of electrons, forming double or triple bonds. Examples:
Double bond: Triple bond:

Each line represents two electrons in a covalent bond ". One from each atom.

Substances that form covalent bonds usually form individual molecules.

General characteristics of substances with covalent bonds include:
Soft
Low melting point and boiling point
Not soluble (or insoluble) in water
Does not conduct electricity
REGENTS QUESTIONS:

1. Given the balanced equation representing a reaction:
a. absorb energy b. create energy c. destroy energy d. release energy

2. In a chemical reaction, there is conservation of
a. energy, volume, and mass b. energy, volume, and charge
c. mass, charge, and energy d. mass, charge, and charge

3. As energy is released during the formation of a bond, the stability of the chemical system generally will
a. decrease b. increase c. remains the same

4. A barium atom attains a stable electron configuration when it bonds with
a. one chlorine atom b. two chlorine atoms c. one sodium atom d. two sodium atoms

5. Which of these elements has an atom with the most stable outer electron configuration?
a. Ne b. Cl c. Ca d. Na

6. The elements Li and F combine to form an ionic compound. The electron configurations in this compound
are the same as the electron configurations of atoms in Group
a. 1 b. 14 c. 17 d. 18

7. Which term indicates how strongly an atom attracts the electrons in a chemical bond?
a. alkalinity b. atomic mass c. electronegativity d. activation energy

8. The bonds in BaO are best described as
a. covalent, because valence electrons are shared
b. covalent, because valence electrons are transferred
c. ionic, because valence electrons are shared
d. ionic, because valence electrons are transferred

9. Which type of bond results when one or more valence electrons are transferred from one atom to
another?
a. a hydrogen bond b. ionic bond c. covalent bond d. metallic bond

10. Which substance contains bonds that involved the transfer of electrons from one atom to another?
a. CO
2
b. NH
3
c. KBr d. Cl
2


11. As a chlorine atom becomes a negative ion, the atom
a. gains an electron and its radius increases b. gains an electron and its radius decreases
c. loses an electron and its radius increases d. loses an electron and its radius decreases

12. A neutral atom with the electron configuration 2-6 would most likely form a bond with an atom having the
configuration
a. 2 b. 2-2 c. 2-8 d. 2-8-8

13. A characteristic of ionic solids is that they
a. have high melting points b. have low boiling points c. conduct electricity d. are non-crystalline

14. Which substance is a conductor of electricity in the liquid phase but not in the solid phase?
a. Br
2
b. HBr c. Na d. NaCl

15. Given a formula for oxygen:

What is the total number of electrons shared between the atoms represented in this formula?
a. 1 b. 2 c. 8 d. 4

16. Covalent bonds are formed when electrons are
a. transferred from one atom to another b. captured by the nucleus
c. mobile within a metal d. shared between two atoms