Lecture 9 Verbs III Primary verbs

Be
1 Main verb be As a main verb, be - the copula - is the most important copular verb in English. It links the subject noun phrase with a subject predicative (1) or an obligator adverbial (!)" 1 Radio waves are useful. 2 She was in Olie's room a lot. 2 Auxiliary verb be As an au#iliar verb, be has two distinct grammatical $unctions" progressive aspect (be + ing-participle)" The last light was fading by the time he entered the town. passive voice (be % ed-participle) : This system of intergovernmental transfers is called fiscal federalism. &hese two au#iliar uses o$ be can occur together in the same clause (the progressive passive" A mutual investment fund for astern the bac"ing of #ontinental $rain. uro!e is being launched today with

Have
1 Main verb have 'ecause have is a primar verb, we have not covered its use under our earlier discussion o$ le#ical verbs. (owever, as a transitive main verb, have is as common as the most common le#ical verbs in English. %ave is most common in conversation and least common in academic prose. )ithin academic prose, though, have is more common than an le#ical verb. *imilar to get, the main verb have can be used with man di$$erent meanings. +or e#ample" showing ph sical possession" One in three of these families has two cars. telling $amil connections" %er story was this: she had a husband and child. describing eating or drinking" Anca Cehan 2008-2009 1

The "ids had 'su!erhero sundaes' which turned out to be merely ice cream. showing where something e#ists (similar to an existential there construction)" &ut it really would be nice to have a young !erson about the house again. ,compare e#istential there" 't would be nice if there was a young !erson about the house. linking a person to an abstract .ualit " ' ho!e she has fun. %er visitor had a strong !ungent odor of a winter's day. linking an inanimate subject to an abstract .ualit " Stylistics can have other goals than this. 'n these e(tensions soil science will always have a ma)or role. showing that someone causes something to be done" *aybe you should have it dyed blac" as well. In addition, the verb have occurs as part o$ the semi-modal have to (meaning must)" '+ll have to blan" it out. +inall , have occurs in a number o$ idiomatic multi-word phrases, such as have a loo": ''ll have a look. 2 Auxiliary verb have As an au#iliar verb, have is the marker o$ per$ect aspect. /ast tense had marks past per$ect, and present has,have marks present per$ect" Twenty years before- #harlie had !assed a whole day from rising to retiring without a drin". .o one has ever seen anything li"e that before.

Do
1 Main verb do As a main verb in transitive constructions, do has an activit meaning. It can take a direct object" 'n that moment /ran"lin /ield did a wonderful thing. or an indirect object % direct object" 0ill you do me a favor1 (owever, do more commonl combines with a noun phrase to $orm relativel $i#ed, idiomatic e#pressions such as do the )ob, do the dishes, do time (meaning 0go to prison), do some wor", do the wash, do your hair. +or e#ample" 't does the )ob. 't's not a bad little thing. Anca Cehan 2008-2009 2

0ell we'd better do some wor" you "now. ''m used to it. ' do the dishes every day. In these e#pressions, do has little le#ical content. It re$ers to the per$ormance o$ an activit that is relevant to the object noun phrase, but it does not speci$ that activit . A Main verb do as a transitive pro-verb 2o also commonl $unctions as a pro-verb, substituting $or a le#ical verb. /roverb do is especiall common in conversation. It o$ten combines with it- this,that, or so, to $orm a transitive pro-verb construction" ' didn't do it. 0ell that's why he did it. That really hurts my ears when you do that. The nglishman- half aslee!- had bro"en 3a44aro's right arm and "noc"ed him unconscious. The nglishman who had done this was hel!ing to carry 3a44aro in now. 5done this 1 broken his right arm and knocked him unconscious'The #hancellor has had to face very difficult economic circumstances both abroad- which affects us- and at home-' he said. '%e has done so with great courage.' 5done so 1 $aced ver di$$icult economic circumstances2otice that e#pressions like do this and do so can substitute $or a large number o$ words. B Main verb do as an intransitive pro-verb In 'ritish English conversation a$ter an au#iliar verb, do as an intransitive proverb provides an alternative to ellipsis" A: .o- no signs of him resigning. &: 0ell they "ic"ed him out. A: They should have done, but they won+t. 5done 6 kicked him out(owever, it is more common $or speakers to use ellipsis rather than do (i.e. they should have rather than they should have done). 2 Auxiliary verb do A Do-support in negatives and interrogatives 2o $unctions as an au#iliar verb when le#ical main verbs are made negative or used in interrogatives. +or e#ample" negative" %e doesn't smo"e or drin". yes,no interrogative" Do you li"e scallo!s1 wh7interrogative" So what did you bring for us this time1 &his use o$ do is known as do-support because do is added merel to support the construction o$ the negative or interrogative! &he do does not contribute an Anca Cehan 2008-2009 3

independent meaning. In these constructions, present or past tense is marked on the verb do, not on the main verb. &hus compare" negative clause__________________ / didn't reali4e it was from smo"ing interrogative clause Did you see Andy today1 B "mp#atic do Emphatic do occurs as an au#iliar verb in a clause that is not negated and is not a .uestion. It is used to emphasi3e that the meaning o$ the main verb (or the rest o$ the clause) is positive, in contrast with what one might e#pect. In speech, emphatic do is usuall stressed. It most commonl occurs in conversation and $iction. 1 2 3 4 side. Emphatic do cannot be combined with another au#iliar . +or e#ample, it is ungrammatical to sa 9't does might hel!. Emphatic do usuall marks a state o$ a$$airs that contrasts with an e#pected state o$ a$$airs. &he contrast is sometimes e#plicitl marked b connectives such as buthowever- nevertheless- though, and although, as in 4 and 5 above and the $ollowing" .evertheless-great changes do occurand have been well documented. A special use o$ emphatic do is in commands (or suggestions6invitations that use the imperative $orm). Although this use sounds conversational, it occurs more commonl in $ictional dialog than in actual conversation" O h do shut up! Do comeand see me some time. Do get on with your wor"- &eth. ' do beg you to consider seriously the !oints ''ve !ut to you. 2ormall the copula be behaves like an au#iliar , and there$ore does not take emphatic do in declarative clauses" 9They do be. . . )ith imperative clauses, however, do + be is possible" 'Do be sensible- #harles-' whis!ered /iona. ' did have a !rotractor- but it bro"e. ' really did go to see him. &ut in the final hour he did deliver the goods. $ascoigne- though- does have a !roblem 7 his 3a4io team is not a good . positive clause_________ ' reali4ed it was from smo"ing. declarative 8ou saw Andy today.

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$ Auxiliary do as a pro-verb 7ike main verb do, au#iliar do can act as a pro-verb, standing in $or the whole verb phrase % complement. It is used in both positive and negative clauses" A: %e doesn't even "now you. &: He does!5does 1 does know m e' thin" his m om wants him to com e bac" but his dad doesn't.5doesn't1 doesn0t want him to come backIn these e#amples, do can be considered a stranded operator. &hat is, do, as the empt au#iliar , is le$t 0stranded0 without the main verb which normall $ollows an au#iliar . &he rest o$ the clause, as with other au#iliaries, is missing through ellipsis. % Auxiliary do in &uestion tags 2o $unctions as an au#iliar in &uestion tags' &ut /annyloo"ed after you-didn't she1 This delaysolves nothing-does it1 &his construction is obviousl related to do-support (as in A above)" it occurs where the preceding main verb (underlined above) has no au#iliar . $onclusions &he three primar verbs8be- have, and do8can serve as both main verbs and au#iliar verbs. &he di$$er, however, in their speci$ic main and au#iliar $unctions. &e" o As copula (a main verb), be is the most common copular verb in English. o As an au#iliar verb, be marks progressive aspect and passive voice. %ave: o As a main verb, have is one o$ the most common le#ical verbs in English. o It has a particularl wide range o$ meanings. o As an au#iliar , have marks per$ect aspect. 2o: o As a main verb, do is a general transitive verb o$ action (e.g. do some wor") o It o$ten combines with a noun phrase to $orm idiomatic e#pressions (e.g. do the dishes). o As a main verb, do can also $unction as a transitive pro-verb (do it- do that) or an intransitive pro-verb (e.g. ' must have done.) o As an au#iliar verb, do is used in the do-support construction $or $orming negation and .uestions (e.g. 2idn't you "now1). o Au#iliar do is also used $or emphatic meaning (e.g. Oh do shut u!:).

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$opular verbs (#e copula be and ot#er copular verbs

9opular verbs are used to associate an attribute with the subject o$ the clause. &he attribute is usuall e#pressed b the subject predicative $ollowing the verb. +or e#ample, in the clause" 8ou're very stu!id. you is the subject, and the phrase very stu!id is the subject predicative that speci$ies the attribute that is associated with the subject. &he copula be (contracted as 're) links this attribute to the subject. :an copular verbs are also used to locate the subject o$ the clause in time or space. &imes and places are e#pressed b ' was in the "itchen *everal verbs8like go- grow- and come8can $unction as either a copular verb or a transitive6intransitive verb, depending on the conte#t" copular verb" 't ma"es your teeth and your bones grow strong and healthy. 't's beginning to go bad for you. 8our !ro!hecy of last night has come true. transitive verb" So you said she started to grow sesame herbs. intransitive verb" 't was when ;ac" and ' went to *e(ico. %e came from the far north. &here are man verbs that can $unction as copular verbs. &he $all into two main categories" current copular verbs and result copular verbs. A $urrent copular verbs 9urrent copular verbs have two subclasses. &he $irst subclass identi$ies attributes that are in a continuing state o$ e#istence. &his includes" be- seem- a!!ear- "ee!- remainstay. &he other subclass reports sensor perceptions. &his includes" loo"- feel- soundsmell- taste. state-o$-e#istence" 0e are all human. ' may have appeared a little short with my daughter that morning. 2avid seemed <uite satisfied with the !erformance of &arnie. Anca Cehan 2008-2009 6 an obligator adverbial o$ position, duration, or direction that occurs a$ter the copula. +or e#ample"

 sensor perception" ' really do look awful. Ooh that feels good. They )ust sound really bad when they're recorded on. B )esult copular verbs ;esult copular verbs identi$ an attribute that is the result o$ a process o$ change" She'll end up !regnant. %is breathing became less frantic. *y heart grew sic" and ' couldn't eat. <ther result copular verbs include" become- get- go- grow- !rove- come- turnturn out- end u!- wind u!.

*unctions o+ copular verbs

9opular verbs di$$er in their meanings and in the complements that the take. <verall, most copular verbs occur with an adjective phrase as the subject predicative, but some verbs are also strongl associated with other structures, such as a noun phrase or complement clause. *ome verbs are limited to one t pe o$ complement, while others occur with man . In the $ollowing subsections, we review the associations between the most common copular verbs and their complements, and discuss how these associations re$lect the di$$erences in meaning and $unction o$ the verbs. 1 $urrent copular verbs' state o+ existence A Be &he copula be is b $ar the most common verb in English. *urprisingl , the copula be di$$ers $rom most le#ical verbs because it is much more $re.uent in academic prose than in conversation, newspapers, or $iction. &e also occurs with a wide range o$ complements. =nlike most copular verbs, be occurs most commonl with a noun phrase as subject predicative. In these structures, the noun phrase $ollowing be has two common $unctions" to characteri3e the subject noun phrase in some wa , or to identi$ subject noun phrase" characteri3ing" Oh- my dad was a great guy- too. Tomorrow could be a sunny day. identi$ ing" That's our bac" yard. The "ernel is the !art of the !lant of greatest value. Anca Cehan 2008-2009 7 the

Adjective phrases are also ver common as subject predicatives o$ be. &he most common o$ these predicative adjectives e#press stance! In conversation, these are mostl general evaluative terms, such as right- good- sure- nice, and funny. In most cases, these adjectives occur without complements a$ter them" That wasn't very nice. 't was funny though. In contrast, academic prose uses a larger range o$ predicative adjectives that e#press more speci$ic evaluations, such as im!ortant- !ossible- necessary- difficult- and useful. In most cases, these adjectives occur with a complement clause or prepositional phrase. &he predicative adjective e#presses an evaluation that applies to the $ollowing clause or phrase" 't is also im!ortant to gain the coo!eration of wor"sho! !artici!ants. 't is !ossible to have more than one ma)or hy!othesis. /repositional phrases are much less common as complements o$ be. &he are used $or two $unctions" as a subject predicative describing a characteristic o$ the subject" The town was in a festival mood. The resistive voltage dro! is in !hase with the current. as an adverbial e#pressing position or direction" ' wish you were at the shac" with me last night. The houses are in a conservation area. +inall , be sometimes occurs with a complement clause as subject predicative" The ca!ital is to be !rovided by the /rench government. &ut the danger was that the !ound would fall further than !lanned. B ,t#er state-o+-existence copular verbs &he table below summari3es the patterns o$ use $or $ive other state-o$-e#istence copular verbs. &hese verbs are all relativel common but $ar less common than be. Seem and a!!ear have a variet o$ $unctions, while remain- "ee!, and stay all mark the continuation o$ a state. -tate-o+-existence copular verbs .in addition to be/
verb seem +re&uency most common copular verb other than be most common complements to-complement clause examples This seemed to wor".

adjectives, especiall conve ing attitudes,

Sometimes it seemed im!ossible that he should

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surprise and possibilit in $iction adjectives o$ likelihood in academic prose, with e#traposed that-clauses

fail. %e seemed sur!rised by that. 't seems li"ely that !ractical wor" has hel!ed to develo! these s"ills in some students. 't seems clear that more meals will be coo"ed over charcoal in the future.

noun phrase as subject predicative, especiall with perceptions that are not necessaril accurate prepositional phrase e#pressing an attribute o$ the subject a!!ear less common than seem to-complement clause adjectives o$ likelihood in academic prose and news

/i)isan"ei- itself !rivately owned and inde!endentseems the ideal !artner. .ow he seemed in control. *ost of the time he seems li"e such a normal guy. The inheritance of leaf angle appears to be !olygenic. There was never a moment when it appeared li"ely that we could get them. The courts have appeared willing to go beyond the rules of neutral )ustice.

remain

most common o$ the three continuation verbs> particularl common in academic prose and news

adjectives, o$ten reporting absence o$ change t pical adjectives" unchanged- constantintact- motionlessimmobile- low- higho!en- closedcontroversial- uncertainun"nown- obscur e t pical adjectives" aliveawa"e- <uiet- silentsecret- busy- fit- closewarm subject o$ "ee! is usuall an animate being

2e#t +rida 0s date $or the $inal remains unchanged. The o!ening of the oviduct remains intact.

"ee!

less common than remain

't's funny how he manages to keep awa"e. %e was )ust trying to keep warm. ' mean- if you sta sober. *eanwhile- *illie's mistress sta ed loyal to her husband's ambitions.

stay

least common o$ the three continuation verbs

t pical adjectives" awa"edry- sober- alive- clearloyal- healthy sub)ect of sta is usually human

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2 $urrent copular verbs' sensory perceptions &he patterns o$ use $or sensor copular verbs are summari3ed in the table below. *ensor copular verbs8loo"- feel- sound- smell- taste8occur with adjectival complements to report positive or negative evaluations. +or e#ample" 2o ' loo" nice1 The food smelt good to her. -ensory copular verbs
verb loo" +re&uency ver common in $iction> relativel common in conversation most common complements o$ten evaluates ph sical appearance common adjectives" awfuldifferent- ha!!y- lovely!ale- !u44led- sad- smallsur!rised- terrible- tiredwell- young reports an assessment o$ ph sical or mental state o$ being common adjectives" ashamed- bad- better- coldgood- guilty- sic"- suretired- uncomfortable- uneasy literal use" evaluations o$ sound perceptions common adjectives" goodnice- silly- stu!idinteresting- awful- angrysad- strange additional use" reactions to ideas6suggestions examples Oh he does look sad- doesn't he1 =uite fran"ly she looked terrible. !ou look lovel .

feel

ver common in $iction> moderatel common in news and conversation

't'll ma"e you feel better. *y hands feel cold. ' always feel guilty !assing *i"e's house.

sound

most common in $iction and conversation

She doesn't sound angry anymore. %e loo"ed and sounded aw$ul. Oh how nice. That sounds good to me. ' "now it sounds stu!id- but ' wanted to go. "t smells funny in here.

smell

generall rare

reports evaluations o$ smell perceptions common adjectives" awfulbad- funny- musty- oddrotten- terrible- deliciousfresh- good- lovely- nice reports evaluations o$ taste perceptions common adjectives" awfulhorrible- nice- wonderful

taste

rare> occasional occurrences in conversation and $iction

They )ust taste awful .

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(ere, the copular verb identi$ies the sense (e.g. sight, hearing), while the predicative adjective reports the evaluation. &he general evaluating adjectives nicegood- and bad occur commonl as subject predicative with all $ive sensor copular 0 )esult copular verbs &he verbs become, get- go- grow- !rove- come- turn- turn out- end u! , and wind u! are all used to describe a process o$ change. (owever, despite this general similarit , these verbs di$$er greatl register distributions. A Become &he result copular verb become is especiall common in academic prose and $iction. It is used to describe the process involved in changing $rom one state to another. In academic prose, it o$ten re$ers to an impersonal process o$ moving $rom a state o$ ignorance or disbelie$ to one o$ knowledge or belie$ (i.e. without mentioning individual people who e#perience the change). &he adjectives clear and a!!arent are most common with this $unction, but there are a number o$ other adjectives that occur with become, including difficult- evident- im!ortant- !ossible. 'n the )oint7stoc" com!any- the social character of !roduction has become a!!arent. 't soon becomes clear that there is much more to com!rehension than vocabulary. >erformance and functionality only become im!ortant with Release ?. In $iction, become usuall re$ers to a speci$ic person. It describes a change in that person0s state o$ awareness or state o$ being" Raymond soon became aware that his strategy and hard wor" was !aying dividends. 't all became clear to me when ' reached street level. ' became silent- overwhelmed suddenly by the great gulf between us. B #et &he result copular verb get is usuall used to describe a person changing to a new state. $et is ver common, especiall in conversation and $iction, and it has man uses, describing both ph sical and mental changes. &he adjectives ready and worse are the most common subject predicatives with get, but a number o$ other adjectives recur" angry- bigger- better- bored- cold- dressed (u!@- drun"- lost- mad- mi(ed (u!@- old- older- !issed (off@- sic"- tired- u!set- wet. :an o$ these mark some a$$ective or attitudinal stance. +or e#ample" 0ell he's only gonna get worse. And if she doesn't win- she either gets u!set and cries or gets angry. Anca Cehan 11 in their speci$ic meanings, collocational pre$erences, and

And !eo!le get !issed off- don't they1 ,note" !issed off is slang and ma be o$$ensive to some people$ #o &he copular verb go is usuall undesirable state, especiall used to describe a change towards an in conversation and $iction. $o describes changes

e#perienced b humans and other natural processes. &he adjectives cra4y- madand wrong are the most common complements o$ go, but several other adjectives recur" bad- cold- deaf- funny- lim!- <uiet- red- wild. 8ou can't go wrong with that- can you1 8eah ' "now. ' would go mad. *ama will go cra4y. % Less common result copular verbs Although become- get- and go are the most common result copular verbs, several others deserve mention. &hese verbs and their $unctions are summari3ed in the table below.
verb come +re&uency generall rare, occurs mainl in $iction and news most common complements usuall describes a change to a better condition recurring adjectives" aliveawa"e- clean- looseshort- true- unstuc" grow primaril used in $iction describes gradual change o$ten makes an implicit comparison with an earlier state through use o$ comparative adjective as complement recurring adjectives" angry- big- bright- colddar"- hot- large- old!ale- tall- tired- warmwea"- bigger- dar"erlarger- louder- oldershorter- smallerstronger- warmerwea"er- worse prove used primaril in academic prose and news reports an assessment recurring adjectives" costly- decisive- difficultfatal- necessary- !o!ular!ossible- successfulsuitable- useful- wrong examples 't literally is a dream come true. Slowly his face came alive and he grinned.

0e should grow old here together. The wind dro!!ed and it suddenly grew cold. The girl's dee! blac" eyes grew dar"er. She continued to lose weight and grow wea"er.

3oo"ing for tourist highlights in *onte!ulciano can prove difficult. %e was confident the units would prove !o!ular with travellers.

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8et it has proved necessary to attem!t this tas". turn occasionall used turn + adjective describes in $iction> rare in change in appearance> other registers t picall re$ers to color changes recurring adjectives" blac"- brown- (bright@ red- white- !ale turnout generall rare emphasi3es the end-point o$ a process with simple positive or negative evaluation recurring adjectives" good- nastynice- (all@ right- wrong describe an unintended negative event or state A lot of times they turned out wrong. The marriage will turn out all right. 2anny ended up in tears and ' ended up really angry. %e says *arilyn ended up !regnant after her affair with >resident Aennedy. And the young buc"s who tore the !lace a!art invariably wound up dead. The canals in the suburbs a!!ear to turn blac". She had turned !ale and her voice shoo"

end u! and wind u!

generall rare

$onclusions 9opular verbs are used to e#press a relationship between the subject o$ the clause and an attribute. 9opular verbs usuall take an obligator subject predicative. *ome copular verbs can also occur with an obligator adverbial. :an di$$erent verbs can $unction as copulas. &hese verbs can be grouped into two major categories" current copular verbs and result copular verbs. o 9urrent copular verbs e#press states o$ e#istence or sensor perceptions (e.g. be- feel). o ;esult copular verbs e#press the result o$ a process o$ change (e.g. become- turn out). &he copular verbs di$$er in their meanings and in the complements that the can take. &here are highl s stematic patterns o$ use associated with copular verbs % complements.

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