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!his article is a"out Ashkenazi Jews# For people with Ashkenazi as a surname, see Ashkenazi (surname)# Ashkenazi Jews ($%&'( )*+,) -ehudei Ashkenaz) .saac Asimov / 0liezer 1en2-ehuda / Al"ert 0instein / 3i mund Freud / 4eor e 4ershwin / 0mma 4oldman / 5arl 6ar7 / 4olda 6eir / Feli7 6endelssohn / 1aal 3hem !ov / Joseph 3ti litz / 8eon !rotsky !otal population 9:;< 2 ;;#=:=< million Re ions with si nificant populations >nited 3tates ?@A million:B< .srael B@C million:B< 0urope D;,EBE,EEE:citation needed< Russia CEE,EEE:citation needed< Fanada D =CE,EEE:citation needed< Ar entina =EE,EEE:citation needed< 4ermany ;EE,EEE:citation needed< 3outh Africa 9E,EEE:citation needed< Fhile ;9,?EE:citation needed< 8an ua e(s) 0n lish, Ge"rew, -iddish, Russian Reli ion(s) Judaism Related ethnic roups 3ephardi Jews, 6izrahi Jews, and other Jewish ethnic divisions Ashkenazi Jews, also known as Ashkenazic Jews or Ashkenazim (Ge"rew: H)$ I% J& L' K N( M O , pronounced :akP nazim<, sin # :akPnazi<Q also $% J& L' K N( M O )* R+ L,) M, -ehudei Ashkenaz, Sthe Jews of AshkenazS), are the Jews descended from the medieval Jewish communities of the Rhineland# Ashkenaz is the 6edieval Ge"rew name for the re ion which in modern times encompasses the country of 4ermany and 4erman2 speakin "orderland areas# Ashkenaz is also a Japhetic patriarch in the !a"le of Tations (4enesis ;E)# !hus, Ashkenazim or Ashkenazi Jews are literally S4erman Jews#S !he word SAshkenaziS is pronounced with a :z< sound, rather than with :ts< as in a few similar instances in the 0n lish lan ua e# 6any Ashkenazi Jews later mi rated, lar ely eastward, formin communities in non 4erman2speakin areas, includin Gun ary, Uoland, Russia, 0astern 0urope and elsewhere "etween the ;Eth and ;Vth centuries# With them, they took and diversified -iddish, a 4ermanic Jewish lan ua e that had since medieval times "een the lin ua franca amon Ashkenazi Jews# !o a much lesser e7tent, the JudWo2 French lan ua e Xarphatic and the 3lavic2"ased 5naanic (JudWo2Fzech) were also spoken# !he Ashkenazi Jews developed a distinct culture and litur y influenced, to varyin de rees, "y interaction with surroundin peoples, predominantly 4ermans, Uoles, Fzechs, 3lovaks, 5ashu"ians, Gun arians, >krainians, 8ithuanians, 8etts, 1elarusians, and Russians# Althou h in the ;;th century they comprised only BY of the worldZs Jewish population, Ashkenazi Jews accounted for (at their hi hest) V=Y of the worldZs Jews in ;VB; and today make up appro7imately 9EY of Jews worldwide#:C< 6ost Jewish communities with e7tended histories in 0urope are Ashkenazim, with the e7ception of those associated with the 6editerranean re ion# !he ma[ority of the Jews who mi rated from 0urope to other continents in the past two centuries are Ashekenazim, 0astern Ashkenazim in particular# !his is especially true in the >nited 3tates, where A out of the \ million stron American Jewish population ] the lar est Jewish population in the world when consistent statistical parameters are employed:?< ] is Ashkenazi, representin the worldZs sin le lar est concentration of Ashkenazim#

Fontents :hide< ; Who is an Ashkenazi Jew^ ;#; Reli ious definition ;#= Fultural definition ;#B 0thnic definition ;#C Reali nment in .srael = _ri ins of Ashkenazim =#; 1ack round in the Roman 0mpire =#= Ra""inic Judaism moves to Ashkenaz =#B `TA clues B Ashkenazi mi rations throu hout the Gi h and 8ate 6iddle A es B#; >sa e of the name B#= 6edieval references C Fustoms, laws and traditions ? Relationship to other Jews A Uopulation enetics A#; 3pecific diseases \ 6odern history \#; Ashkenazi Jews and the Golocaust \#= Ashkenazi Jews in .srael \#B Achievement 9 Ashkenazi Fhief Ra""is in the -ishuv and .srael V 3ee also ;E Totes ;; References for SWho is an Ashkenazi Jew^S ;= _ther References ;B 07ternal links

:edit< Who is an Ashkenazi Jew^ !here is currently a de"ate re ardin SWho is a Jew^S#:who^< !his makes it especially difficult to define who is an Ashkenazi Jew, "ecause Ashkenazi Jews have "een defined "y different people usin reli ious, cultural, or ethnic perspectives# 3ince the overwhelmin ma[ority of Ashkenazi Jews no lon er live in 0astern 0urope, the isolation that once favored a distinct reli ious tradition and culture has vanished# Furthermore, the word Ashkenazi is "ein used in non2traditional ways, especially in .srael# :edit< Reli ious definition Reli ious Jews have 6inha im, customs, in addition to Galakha, or reli ious law, and different interpretations of law# `ifferent roups of reli ious Jews in different eo raphic areas historically adopted different customs and interpretations# _n certain issues, _rthodo7 Jews are reauired to follow the customs of their ancestors, and do not re ard themselves as havin the option of pickin and choosin # !herefore, o"servant Jews at times find it important for reli ious reasons to ascertain who their householdZs reli ious ancestors are in order to know what customs their household should follow# !hese times include, for e7ample, when two Jews of different ethnic "ack round marry, when a non2 Jew converts to Judaism and determines what customs to follow for the first time, or when a lapsed or less o"servant Jew returns to traditional Judaism and must determine what was done in his or her familyZs past# .n this sense, SAshkenazicS refers "oth to a family ancestry and to a "ody of customs "indin on Jews of that ancestry# .n a reli ious sense, an Ashkenazi Jew is any Jew whose family tradition and ritual follows Ashkenazi practice# When the Ashkenazi community first "e an to develop in the 0arly 6iddle A es and until the Vth century, the centers of Jewish reli ious authority were in the .slamic world, at 1a hdad and in .slamic 3pain# Ashkenaz (4ermany) was so distant eo raphically that it developed a minha of its own, and Ashkenazi Ge"rew came to "e pronounced in ways distinct from other forms of Ge"rew# .n this respect, the counterpart of Ashkenazi is 3ephardic, since most non2Ashkenazi _rthodo7 Jews follow 3ephardic ra""inical authorities, whether or not they are ethnically 3ephardic# 1y tradition, a

3ephardic or 6izrahi woman who marries into an _rthodo7 or Garedi Ashkenazi Jewish family raises her children to "e Ashkenazi Jews, and a entile who converts to Judaism and takes on Ashkenazi reli ious practices "ecomes an Ashkenazi Jew# !raditional Jewish law or Galacha considers a person who has under one a formal reli ious conversion to "e a Jew, "ut it also defines who is a Jew "y ancestry, followin the maternal linea e, irrespective of "elief# Accordin to Galacha, mem"ership in a syna o ue or participation in a local Jewish community does not alone make one a Jew# 8ikewise a person who disassociates themselves from the Jewish community is still considered to "e Jewish "y Galachic standards# _utside the 3tate of .srael, no central authority or rulin "ody in Judaism determines who is a Jew# 6ore reli iously li"eral and secular Jews have different approaches to acceptin the Jewish herita e# 3ince "y tradition, Jewish status is inherited and follows the maternal linea e, someone who is maternally descended from a Jew, even if totally unaware of their Jewish herita e, or even if a practitioner of another reli ion, is from a traditional Jewish le al perspective still a Jew# 8ikewise, a person "orn of a Jewish father and non2Jewish mother is not considered Jewish "y traditional _rthodo7 Jewish law, even if he was raised Jewish, unless he or she converts# As a result of "oth difficulties caused applyin of the traditional rules in the face of wide2spread intermarria e in less traditional Jewish circles and ideolo ical perspectives (e alitarianism), Reform Judaism and Reconstructionist Judaism adopted an approach of sin le2parent descent irrespective of ender# >nder this definition, someone "orn to one Jewish parent who is iven a Jewish up"rin in is considered Jewish, and conversely, someone "orn to one Jewish parent who is not iven a Jewish up"rin in is considered a non2Jew (re ardless of whether it is the father or mother who is Jewish)# !he followin e7amples illustrate Jewish identity issues from the perspective of Galakha: Anton Ru"instein 5arl 6ar7Apostasy# A Jew who converts to another reli ion, thou h an apostate, is still considered a Jew# Anton Ru"instein, who converted to 0astern Fhristianity, was still considered an Ashkenazi Jew# .n the state of .srael, however, an .sraeli Jew who converts to a different reli ion is no lon er considered to "e Jewish# Atheism# A Jew who "ecomes an atheist is still considered a Jew# 5arl 6ar7, an atheist whose Jewish mother and father had converted to Fhristianity "efore he was "orn, would "e considered an Ashkenazi Jew# Gidden .dentity# A Jew whose identity was hidden, who was raised in another reli ion, is still considered a Jew# 6adeleine Al"ri ht, the former >3 3ecretary of 3tate whose Jewish parents converted to Fatholicism to escape persecution in the Golocaust and then hid their ancestry, is considered an Ashkenazi Jew, even thou h she did not know of her SidentityS until she "ecame an adult, and was a professin Fatholic# Renunciation# A Jew who renounces and even condemns Judaism is still considered a Jew# 1o""y Fischer, the international chess star who claimed that the Golocaust was a Jewish invention and a lie, claimed to have only a Jewish mother, thou h evidence has shown to su est that "oth his parents were Jewish#:A< With the reinte ration of Jews from around the world in .srael, Torth America, and other places, the reli ious definition of an Ashkenazi Jew is "lurrin , especially outside of _rthodo7 Judaism# 6any 3ephardic and 6izrahi Jews have [oined li"eral movements that ori inally developed within Ashkenazi Judaism# At least in recent decades, the con re ations they have [oined have often em"raced them, and a"sor"ed new traditions into their minha # Ra""is and Fantors in all non2_rthodo7 movements study Ge"rew in .srael, learnin 3ephardic rather than Ashkenazi Ge"rew pronunciation# Ashkenazi con re ations are adoptin 3ephardic or modern .sraeli melodies for many prayers and traditional son s# 3ince the middle of the =Eth century there has "een a radual syncretism and fusion of traditions, and this is affectin the minha of all "ut the most traditional con re ations# Tew developments in Judaism often transcend differences in reli ious practice "etween Ashkenazi and 3ephardic Jews# .n Torth American cities, social trends such as the chavurah movement, and the emer ence of post2denominational Judaism:\< :9< often "rin to ether youn er Jews of diverse ethnic "ack rounds# .n recent years, there has "een increased interest in 5a""alah, which many Ashkenazi Jews study outside of the -eshiva framework# Another trend is the new popularity of ecstatic worship

in the Jewish Renewal movement and the Farle"ach style minyan, "oth of which are nominally of Ashkenazi ori in#:V< :edit< Fultural definition .n a cultural sense, an Ashkenazi Jew can "e identified "y the concept of -iddishkeit, a word that literally means bJewishnessc in the -iddish lan ua e# _f course, there are other kinds of Jewishness# -iddishkeit is simply the Jewishness of Ashkenazi Jews# 1efore the Gaskalah and the emancipation of Jews in 0urope, this meant the study of !orah and !almud for men, and a family and communal life overned "y the o"servance of Jewish 8aw for men and women# From the Rhineland to Ri a to Romania, most Jews prayed in litur ical Ashkenazi Ge"rew, and spoke -iddish in their secular lives# 1ut with modernization, -iddishkeit now encompasses not [ust _rthodo7y and Gasidism, "ut a "road ran e of movements, ideolo ies, practices, and traditions in which Ashkenazi Jews have participated and somehow retained a sense of Jewishness# Althou h a far smaller num"er of Jews still speak -iddish, -iddishkeit can "e identified in manners of speech, in styles of humor, in patterns of association# 1roadly speakin , a Jew is one who associates culturally with Jews, supports Jewish institutions, reads Jewish "ooks and periodicals, attends Jewish movies and theater, travels to .srael, visits ancient syna o ues in Ura ue, and so forth# .t is a definition that applies to Jewish culture in eneral, and to Ashkenazi -iddishkeit in particular# Fontemporary population mi rations have contri"uted to a reconfi ured Jewishness amon Jews of Ashkenazi descent that transcends -iddishkeit and other traditional articulations of Ashkenazi Jewishness# As Ashkenazi Jews moved away from 0astern 0urope, settlin mostly in .srael, Torth America, and other 0n lish2speakin areas, the eo raphic isolation which ave rise to Ashkenazim has iven way to mi7in with other cultures, and with non2Ashkenazi Jews who, similarly, are no lon er isolated in distinct eo raphic locales# For Ashkenazi Jews livin in 0astern 0urope, chopped liver and efiltefish were archetypal Jewish foods# !o contemporary Ashkenazi Jews livin "oth in .srael and in the diaspora, 6iddle 0astern foods such as hummus and falafel, neither traditional to the historic Ashkenazi e7perience, have "ecome central to their lives as Ashkenazi Jews in the current era# Ge"rew has replaced -iddish as the primary Jewish lan ua e for some Ashkenazi Jews, e7cept for many Gasidic and Gareidi sects which continue to use -iddish# For e7ample, in 1orou h Uark, Williams"ur , and other cities where lar e ultra2_rthodo7 populations reside -iddish still remains the lan ua e spoken "y Jews# Also, in many reli ious areas of .srael, includin 1nai 1rak and 6eah 3hearim, some conservative Gasidic roups continue usin -iddish, often refusin to use Ge"rew entirely# 4iven the phenomenal rowth of Gasidic Jews all over the world, and in the >nited 3tates in particular, the num"er of -iddish speakers, many sociolo ists predict, will "oom# !he num"er of -iddish speakers today may "e sta nant, or rowin slowly, "ecause of so many elderly Jews dyin , "ut when this older cohort of -iddish speakers dies the lan ua e will e7perience tremendous rowth# .n many yeshivas all over the world, -iddish is the primary lan ua e of instruction# FranceZs "lended Jewish community is typical of the cultural recom"ination that is oin on amon Jews throu hout the world# Althou h France e7pelled its ori inal Jewish population in the 6iddle A es, "y the time of the French Revolution, there were two distinct Jewish populations# _ne consisted of 3ephardic Jews, ori inally refu ees from the .nauisition and concentrated in the southwest, while the other community was Ashkenazi, concentrated in Alsace, and speakin mainly -iddish# !he two communities were so separate and different that the Tational Assem"ly emancipated them separately in ;\V;# 1ut after emancipation, a sense of a unified French Jewry emer ed, especially when France was wracked "y the `reyfuss affair in the ;9VEs# .n the ;V=Es and ;VBEs, Ashkenazi Jews arrived in lar e num"ers as refu ees from antisemitism, the Russian revolution, and the economic turmoil of the 4reat `epression# 1y the ;VBEs, Uaris had a vi"rant -iddish culture, and many Jews were involved in radical political movements# After the dichy years and the Golocaust, the French Jewish population was au mented once a ain, first "y refu ees from 0astern 0urope, and later "y immi rants and refu ees from Torth Africa, many of them francophone# !hen, in the ;VVEs, yet another Ashkenazi Jewish wave "e an to arrive from countries of the former 3oviet >nion and 0astern 0urope# !he result is a pluralistic Jewish community that still has some distinct elements of "oth Ashkenazi and 3ephardic culture# 1ut in France, it is "ecomin much more difficult to sort out the two, and a distinctly French Jewishness has emer ed#:;E<

:edit< 0thnic definition .n an ethnic sense, an Ashkenazi Jew is one whose ancestry can "e traced to the Jews of central and eastern 0urope# For rou hly a thousand years, the Ashkenazim were a reproductively isolated population in 0urope, despite livin in many countries, with little inflow or outflow from mi ration, conversion, or intermarria e with other roups, includin other Jews# Guman eneticists have identified enetic variations that have hi h freauencies amon Ashkenazi Jews, "ut not in the eneral 0uropean population# !his is true for patrilineal markers (-2chromosome haplotypes) as well as for matrilineal markers (mitochondrial haplotypes):;;<# 3ince the middle of the =Eth century, many Ashkenazi Jews have intermarried, "oth with mem"ers of other Jewish communities and with people of other nations and faiths, while some Jews have also adopted children from other ethnic roups or parts of the world and raised them as Jews# Fonversion to Judaism, rare for nearly =,EEE years, has "ecome more common# Jewish women and families who choose artificial insemination often choose a "iolo ical father who is not Jewish, to avoid common autosomal recessive enetic diseases# _rthodo7 reli ious authorities actually encoura e this, "ecause of the dan er that a Jewish donor could "e a mamzer# !hus, the concept of Ashkenazi Jews as a distinct ethnic people, especially in ways that can "e defined ancestrally and therefore traced enetically, has also "lurred considera"ly# A study "y 6ichael 3eldin, a eneticist at the >niversity of Falifornia `avis 3chool of 6edicine, found Ashkenazi Jews to "e a clear, relatively homo enous enetic su" roup# 3trikin ly, re ardless of the place of ori in, Ashkenazi Jews can "e rouped in the same enetic cohort ] that is, re ardless of whether an Ashkenazi JewZs ancestors came from Uoland, Russia, Gun ary, 8ithuania, or any other place with a historical Jewish population, they "elon to the same ethnic roup# !he research demonstrates the endo amy of the Jewish population in 0urope and lends further credence to the idea of Ashkenazi Jews as an ethnic roup# 6oreover, thou h intermarria e amon Jews of Ashkenazi descent has "ecome increasin ly more common, many >ltra2_rthodo7 Jews, particularly mem"ers Gasidic or Gareidi sects, continue to marry e7clusively fellow Ashkenazi Jews# !his trend keeps Ashkenazi enes prevalent and will also help researchers further study the enes of Ashkenazi Jews with relative ease# .t is also noteworthy that these >ltra2_rthodo7 Jews often have e7tremely lar e families too#:;=<# :edit< Reali nment in .srael .n .srael the term Ashkenazi is now used in ways that have nothin to do with its ori inal meanin # .n practice, the la"el Ashkenazi is often applied to all Jews of 0uropean "ack round livin in .srael, includin those whose ethnic "ack round is actually 3ephardic# Jews of any non2Ashkenazi "ack round, includin 6izrahi, -emenite, 5urdish, and others havin no connection at all with the ."erian Ueninsula, have similarly come to "e lumped to ether as 3ephardic# Jews of mi7ed "ack round are increasin ly common, partly "ecause of intermarria e "etween Ashkenazi and non2Ashkenazi, and partly "ecause some do not see such historic markers as relevant to their life e7periences as Jews# Reli ious Ashkenazi Jews livin in .srael are o"li ed to follow the authority of the chief Ashkenazi ra""i in halakhic matters# .n this respect, a reli iously Ashkenazi Jew is an .sraeli who is more likely to support certain reli ious interests in .srael, includin certain political parties# !hese political parties result from the fact that a portion of the .sraeli electorate votes for Jewish reli ious parties: althou h the electoral map chan es from one election to another, there are enerally several small parties associated with the interests of reli ious Ashkenazi Jews# !he role of reli ious parties, includin small reli ious parties which play important roles as coalition mem"ers, results in turn from .sraelZs composition as a comple7 society in which competin social, economic, and reli ious interests stand for election to the 5nesset, a unicameral le islature with ;=E seats# :edit< _ri ins of Ashkenazim Althou h the historical record itself is very limited, there is a consensus of cultural, lin uistic, and enetic evidence that the Ashkenazi Jewish population ori inated in the 6iddle 0ast# When they arrived in northern France and the Rhineland sometime around 9EE2;EEE A`, the Ashkenazi Jews "rou ht with them "oth Ra""inic Judaism and the 1a"ylonian !almudic culture that underlies it#

-iddish, once spoken "y the vast ma[ority of Ashkenazi Jewry, is a Jewish lan ua e which developed from the 6iddle Gi h 4erman vernacular, heavily influenced "y Ge"rew and Aramaic# (1y comparison, the 4reek or 8atin influence on -iddish was much less si nificant)# 0uropean Jews came to "e called SAshkenazS "ecause the main centers of Jewish learnin were located in 4ermany# Ashkenaz is a 6edieval Ge"rew name for 4ermany# (3ee >sa e of the name for the termZs etymolo y#) :edit< 1ack round in the Roman 0mpire After the forced Jewish e7ile from Jerusalem in \E A` and the complete Roman takeover of Judea followin the 1ar 5och"a re"ellion of ;B=2;B? A`, Jews continued to "e a ma[ority of the population in Ualestine for several hundred years# Gowever, the Romans no lon er reco nized the authority of the 3anhedrin or any other Jewish "ody, and Jews were prohi"ited from livin in Jerusalem# _utside the Roman 0mpire, a lar e Jewish community remained in 6esopotamia# _ther Jewish populations could "e found dispersed around the 6editerranean re ion, with the lar est concentrations in the 8evant, 0 ypt, Asia 6inor, 4reece, and .taly, includin Rome itself# 3maller communities are recorded in southern 4aul (France), 3pain, and Torth Africa#:;B< Jews were denied full Roman citizenship until =;= A`, when 0mperor Faracalla ranted all free peoples this privile e# Gowever as a penalty for the first Jewish Revolt, Jews were still reauired to pay a poll ta7 until the rei n of 0mperor Julian in BAB A`# .n the late Roman 0mpire, Jews were still free to form networks of cultural and reli ious ties and enter into various local occupations# 1ut after Fhristianity "ecame the official reli ion of Rome and Fonstantinople, Jews were increasin ly mar inalized, and "rutally persecuted# .n Ualestine and 6esopotamia, where Jewish reli ious scholarship was centered, the ma[ority of Jews were still en a ed in farmin , as demonstrated "y the preoccupation of early !almudic writin s with a riculture# .n diaspora communities, trade was a common occupation, facilitated "y the easy mo"ility of traders throu h the dispersed Jewish communities# !hrou hout this period and into the early 6iddle A es, some Jews assimilated into the dominant 4reek and 8atin cultures, mostly throu h conversion to Fhristianity#:;C< .n Ualestine and 6esopotamia, the spoken lan ua e of Jews continued to "e Aramaic, "ut elsewhere in the diaspora, most Jews spoke 4reek# Fonversion and assimilation were especially common within the Gellenized or 4reek2speakin Jewish communities, amon st whom the 3eptua int and Aauila of 3inope (4reek translations and adaptations of the !anakh or Ge"rew 1i"le) were the source of scripture# A remnant of this 4reek2 speakin Jewish population (the Romaniotes) survives to this day# !he 4ermanic invasions of the Western Roman 0mpire in the ?th century "y tri"es such as the disi oths, Franks, 8om"ards, and dandals caused massive economic and social insta"ility within the western 0mpire, contri"utin to its decline# .n the late Roman 0mpire, Jews are known to have lived in Folo ne and !rier, as well as in what is now France# Gowever, it is unclear whether there is any continuity "etween these late Roman communities and the distinct Ashkenazi Jewish culture that "e an to emer e a"out ?EE years later# 5in `a o"ert of the Franks e7pelled the Jews from his 6erovin ian kin dom in A=V# Jews in former Roman territories now faced new challen es as harsher anti2Jewish Fhurch rulin s were enforced# :edit< Ra""inic Judaism moves to Ashkenaz .n 6esopotamia, and in Uersian lands free of Roman imperial domination, Jewish life fared much "etter# 3ince the conauest of Judea "y Te"uchadrezzar .., this community had always "een the leadin diaspora community, a rival to the leadership of Ualestine# After conditions for Jews "e an to deteriorate in Roman controlled lands, many of the reli ious leaders of Judea and the 4alilee fled to the east# At the academies of Uum"editha and 3ura near 1a"ylon, Ra""inic Judaism "ased on !almudic learnin "e an to emer e and assert its authority over Jewish life throu hout the diaspora# Ra""inic Judaism created a reli ious mandate for literacy, reauirin all Jewish males to learn Ge"rew and read from the !orah# !his emphasis on literacy and learnin a second lan ua e would eventually "e of reat "enefit to the Jews, allowin them to take on commercial and financial roles within 4entile societies where literacy was often auite low#

After the .slamic conauest of the 6iddle 0ast and Torth Africa, new opportunities for trade and commerce opened "etween the 6iddle 0ast and Western 0urope# !he vast ma[ority of Jews in the world now lived in .slamic lands# >r"anization, trade, and commerce within the .slamic world allowed Jews, as a hi hly literate people, to a"andon farmin and live in cities, en a in in occupations where they could use their skills#:;?< !he influential, sophisticated, and well or anized Jewish community of 6esopotamia, now centered in 1a hdad, "ecame the center of the Jewish world# .n the Faliphate of 1a hdad, Jews took on many of the financial occupations that they would later hold in the cities of Ashkenaz# Jewish traders from 1a hdad "e an to travel to the west, renewin Jewish life in the western 6editerranean re ion# !hey "rou ht with them Ra""inic Judaism and 1a"ylonian !almudic scholarship# After 9EE A`, Fharlema neZs unification of former Frankish lands with northern .taly and Rome "rou ht on a "rief period of sta"ility and unity in Western 0urope# !his created opportunities for Jewish merchants to settle once a ain north of the Alps# Fharlema ne ranted the Jews in his lands freedoms similar to those once en[oyed under the Roman 0mpire# Returnin once a ain to Frankish lands, many Jewish merchants took on occupations in finance and commerce, includin moneylendin or usury# (Fhurch le islation "anned Fhristians from lendin money in e7chan e for interest#) From Fharlema neZs time on to the present, there is a well documented record of Jewish life in northern 0urope, and "y the ;;th century, when Rashi of !royes wrote his commentaries, Ashkenazi Jews had emer ed also as interpreters and commentators on the !orah and !almud# :edit< `TA clues 0fforts to identify the ori ins of Ashkenazi Jews throu h `TA analysis "e an in the ;VVEs# 8ike most `TA studies of human mi ration patterns, these studies have focused on two se ments of the human enome, the - chromosome (inherited only "y males), and the mitochondrial enome (mt`TA, `TA which passes from mother to child)# 1oth se ments are unaffected "y recom"ination# !hus, they provide an indicator of paternal and maternal ori ins, respectively# A study of haplotypes of the - chromosome, pu"lished in =EEE, addressed the paternal ori ins of Ashkenazi Jews# Gammer et al:;A< found that the - chromosome of some Ashkenazi and 3ephardic Jews contained mutations that are also common amon 6iddle 0astern peoples, "ut uncommon in the eneral 0uropean population# !his su ested that the male ancestors of the Ashkenazi Jews could "e traced mostly to the 6iddle 0ast# !he proportion of male enetic admi7ture in Ashkenazi Jews amounts to less than E#?Y per eneration over an estimated 9E enerations, with Srelatively minor contri"ution of 0uropean - chromosomes to the Ashkenazim,S and a total admi7ture estimate Svery similar to 6otulskyZs avera e estimate of ;=#?Y#S !his supported the findin that S`iaspora Jews from 0urope, Torthwest Africa, and the Tear 0ast resem"le each other more closely than they resem"le their non2Jewish nei h"ors#S >ntil recently, eneticists had lar ely attri"uted the enesis of most of the worldZs Jewish populations, includin the Ashkenazim of Torthern and Fentral 0urope, to have "een founded "y the males who mi rated from the 6iddle 0ast and S"y the women from each local population whom they took as wives and converted to JudaismS#:;\< 1ut new studies su est that in addition to the male founders, si nificant female founder ancestry may also derive from the 6iddle 0ast#:;\< Recent research indicates that a si nificant portion of Ashkenazi maternal ancestry is also likely of 6iddle 0astern ori in# A =EEA study "y 1ehar et al:;<, "ased on haplotype analysis of mitochondrial `TA (mt`TA), su ested that a"out CEY of the current Ashkenazi population is descended matrilineally from [ust four women, or Sfounder linea esS, that were Slikely from a Ge"rewe8evantine mt`TA poolS ori inatin in the Tear 0ast in the first and second centuries F0# Accordin to the authors, Sthe o"served lo"al pattern of distri"ution renders very unlikely the possi"ility that the four aforementioned founder linea es entered the Ashkenazi mt`TA pool via ene flow from a 0uropean host population#S 1oth the e7tent and location of the maternal ancestral deme from which the Ashkenazi Jewry arose remain o"scure# Gere, usin complete seauences of the maternally inherited mitochondrial `TA (mt`TA), we show that close to one2half of Ashkenazi Jews, estimated at 9,EEE,EEE people, can "e traced "ack to only four women carryin distinct mt`TAs that are virtually a"sent in other

populations, with the important e7ception of low freauencies amon non2Ashkenazi Jews# We conclude that four foundin mt`TAs, likely of Tear 0astern ancestry, underwent ma[or e7pansion(s) in 0urope within the past millennium#:;<:;9<:;V< :edit< Ashkenazi mi rations throu hout the Gi h and 8ate 6iddle A es Gistorical records show evidence of Jewish communities north of the Alps and Uyrenees as early as the 9th and Vth century# 1y the early VEEs, Jewish populations were well2esta"lished in Torthern 0urope, and later followed the Torman Fonauest into 0n land in ;EAA, also settlin in the Rhineland# With the onset of the Frusades, and the e7pulsions from 0n land (;=VE), France (;BVC), and parts of 4ermany (;CEEs), Jewish mi ration pushed eastward into Uoland, 8ithuania, and Russia# _ver this period of several hundred years, some have su ested, Jewish economic activity was focused on trade, "usiness mana ement, and financial services, due to Fhristian 0uropean prohi"itions restrictin certain activities "y Jews, and preventin certain financial activities (such as SusuriousS loans) "etween Fhristians#:=E< !he Uolish28ithuanian Fommonwealth at its reatest e7tent#1y the ;CEEs, the Ashkenazi Jewish communities in Uoland were the lar est Jewish communities of the `iaspora#:=;< Uoland in this time was a decentralized medieval monarchy, incorporatin lands from 8atvia to Romania, includin much of modern 8ithuania and >kraine# !his area, which eventually fell under the domination of Russia, Austria, and Urussia (4ermany), would remain the main center of Ashkenazi Jewry until the Golocaust# :edit< >sa e of the name .n reference to the Jewish peoples of Torthern 0urope and particularly the Rhineland, the word Ashkenazi is often found in medieval ra""inic literature# References to Ashkenaz in -osippon and Gasdai i"n 3haprutZs letter to the kin of the 5hazars would date the term as far "ack as the tenth century, as would also 3aadia 4aonZs commentary on `aniel \:9# !he word Ashkenaz first appears in the enealo y in the !anakh (4enesis ;E) as a son of 4omer and randson of Japheth# .t is thou ht that the name ori inally applied to the 3cythians (.shkuz), who were called Ashkuza in Assyrian inscriptions, and lake Ascanius and the re ion Ascania in Anatolia derive their names from this roup# Ashkenaz in later Ge"rew tradition "ecame identified with the peoples of 4ermany, and in particular to the area alon the Rhine where the Alamanni tri"e once lived (compare the French and 3panish words Allema ne and Alemania, respectively, for 4ermany)# !he autonym was usually -idn, however# Ashkhenaz is also recorded as "ein an ancient Armenian kin dom,:citation needed< and Armenians speak of themselves in their literature as bthe Ashkenazi nationc as putative descendants of Toahfs randson Ashkenaz#:citation needed< Jewish literature, too, sometimes eauates the eo raphic place Ashkenaz with Armenia#:citation needed< !he SAshkuzaS have also "een linked to the _ huz "ranch of !urks includin nearly all !urkic peoples today from !urkey to !urkmenistan#:citation needed< :edit< 6edieval references .n the first half of the ;;th century, Gai 4aon refers to auestions that had "een addressed to him from Ashkenaz, "y which he undou"tedly means 4ermany# Rashi in the latter half of the ;;th century refers to "oth the lan ua e of Ashkenaz:==< and the country of Ashkenaz#:=B< `urin the ;=th century the word appears auite freauently# .n the 6ahzor ditry, the kin dom of Ashkenaz is referred to chiefly in re ard to the ritual of the syna o ue there, "ut occasionally also with re ard to certain other o"servances#:=C< .n the literature of the ;Bth century references to the land and the lan ua e of Ashkenaz often occur# 3ee especially 3olomon "en AderetZs Responsa (vol# i#, To# BV?)Q the Responsa of Asher "en Jehiel (pp# C, A)Q his Galakot (1erakot i# ;=, ed# Wilna, p# ;E)Q the work of his son Jaco" "en Asher, !ur _rach Fhayim (chapter ?V)Q the Responsa of .saac "en 3heshet (num"ers ;VB, =A9, =\E)#

.n the 6idrash compilation 4enesis Ra""ah, Ra""i 1erechiah mentions Ashkenaz, Riphath, and !o armah as 4erman tri"es or as 4erman lands# .t may correspond to a 4reek word that may have e7isted in the 4reek dialect of the Ualestinian Jews, or the te7t is corrupted from S4ermanica#S !his view of 1erechiah is "ased on the !almud (-oma ;EaQ Jerusalem !almud 6e illah \;"), where 4omer, the father of Ashkenaz, is translated "y 4ermamia, which evidently stands for 4ermany, and which was su ested "y the similarity of the sound# .n later times the word Ashkenaz is used to desi nate southern and Western 4ermany, the ritual of which sections differs somewhat from that of 0astern 4ermany and Uoland# !hus the prayer2"ook of .saiah Gorowitz, and many others, ive the piyyutim accordin to the 6inha of Ashkenaz and Uoland# Accordin to ;Ath century mystic Ra""i 0li[ah of Fhelm, Ashkenazi Jews lived in Jerusalem durin the ;;th century# !he story is told that a 4erman2speakin Ualestinian Jew saved the life of a youn 4erman man surnamed `ol"er er# 3o when the kni hts of the First Frusade came to sie e Jerusalem, one of `ol"er erfs family mem"ers who was amon them rescued Jews in Ualestine and carried them "ack to Worms to repay the favor#:=?< Further evidence of 4erman communities in the holy city comes in the form of halakic auestions sent from 4ermany to Jerusalem durin the second half of the eleventh century#:=A< :edit< Fustoms, laws and traditions !he Galakhic practices of Ashkenazi Jews may differ from those of 3ephardi Jews, particularly in matters of custom# `ifferences are noted in the 3hulkhan Arukh itself, in the loss of 6oses .sserles# Well known differences in practice include: _"servance of Uesach (Uassover): Ashkenazi Jews traditionally refrain from eatin le umes, corn, millet, and rice (guinoa, however, has "ecome accepted as food rain in the Torth American communities), whereas 3ephardi Jews typically do not prohi"it these foods# Ashkenazi Jews freely mi7 and eat fish and milk productsQ some 3ephardic Jews refrain from doin so# Ashkenazim are more permissive toward the usa e of wi s as a hair coverin for married and widowed women# .n the case of kashrut for meat, conversely, 3ephardi Jews have stricter reauirements]this level is commonly referred to as 1eth -osef# 6eat products which are accepta"le to Ashkenazi Jews as kosher may therefore "e re[ected "y 3ephardi Jews# Totwithstandin stricter reauirements for the actual slau hter, 3ephardi Jews permit the rear portions of an animal after proper Galakhic removal of the sciatic nerve, while many Ashkenazi Jews do not# !his is not "ecause of different interpretations of the lawQ rather, slau hterhouses could not find adeauate skills for correct removal of the sciatic nerve and found it more economical to separate the hindauarters and sell them as non2kosher meat# Ashkenazi Jews freauently name new"orn children after deceased family mem"ers, "ut not after livin relatives# 3ephardi Jews, on the other hand, often name their children after the childrenZs randparents, even if those randparents are still livin # (3ee 3ephardi Tames)# A nota"le e7ception to this enerally relia"le rule is amon `utch Jews, where Ashkenazim for centuries used the namin conventions otherwise attri"uted e7clusively to 3ephardim# (3ee Fhuts#) Ashkenazi tefillin "ear some differences from 3ephardic tefillin# .n the traditional Ashkenazic rite the tefillin are wound towards the "ody, not away from it# Ashkenazim traditionally don tefillin while standin whereas other Jews enerally do so while sittin down# Ashkenazic traditional pronunciations of Ge"rew differ from those of other roups# !he most prominent consonantal difference from 3ephardic and 6izrahic Ge"rew dialects is the pronunciation of the Ge"rew letter tav in certain Ge"rew words (historically, in postvocalic undou"led conte7t) as an ese and not a ete or ehe sound# !he prayer shawl, or talit (or talis in ashkenazi Ge"rew) is worn over the shoulders in Ashkenazi Judaism# .n 3ephardi or 6izrahi Judaism, the prayer shawl is commonly worn over the head# :edit< Relationship to other Jews Uart of a series of articles on Jews and Judaism Who is a Jew^ i 0tymolo y i Fulture

Judaism i Fore principles 4od i !anakh (!orah, TeviZim, 5etuvim) i 6itzvot (A;B) i !almud i Galakha i Golidays i Urayer i !zedakah i 0thics i 5a""alah i Fustoms i 6idrash Jewish ethnic diversity Ashkenazi i 3ephardi i 6izrahi Uopulation (historical) i 1y country .srael i >3A i Russiae>33R i .raa i 3pain i Uortu al i Uoland i 4ermany i 1osnia i 8atin America (Ar entina, 1razil, Fhile, Fu"a, 0l 3alvador, 6e7ico, Ticara ua, Ueru, denezuela) i France i 0n land i Fanada i Australia i Gun ary i .ndia i !urkey i Africa i .ran i Fhina Repu"lic of 6acedonia i Romania 8ists of Jews i Frypto2Judaism Jewish denominations i Ra""is _rthodo7 i Fonservative i Reform i Reconstructionist i 8i"eral i 5araite i Gumanistic i Renewal i Alternative Jewish lan ua es Ge"rew i -iddish i Judeo2Uersian i 8adino i Judeo2Aramaic i Judeo2Ara"ic Gistory i !imeline i 8eaders Ancient i !emple i 1a"ylonian e7ile i Jerusalem (in Judaism i !imeline) i Gasmoneans i 3anhedrin i 3chisms i Uharisees i Jewish2Roman wars i Relationship with FhristianityQ with .slam i `iaspora i 6iddle A es i 3a""ateans i Gasidism i Gaskalah i 0mancipation i Golocaust i Aliyah i .srael (Gistory) i Ara" conflict i 8and of .srael i 1aal teshuva Uersecution i Antisemitism Gistory of antisemitism i Tew antisemitism Uolitical movements i Xionism 8a"or Xionism i Revisionist Xionism i Reli ious Xionism i 4eneral Xionism i !he 1und i World A udath .srael i Jewish feminism i .sraeli politics v/d/e !he term Ashkenazi also refers to the nusach Ashkenaz (Ge"rew, Slitur ical traditionS, or rite) used "y Ashkenazi Jews in their 3iddur (prayer "ook)# A nusach is defined "y a litur ical traditionZs choice of prayers, order of prayers, te7t of prayers and melodies used in the sin in of prayers# !wo other ma[or forms of nusach amon Ashkenazic Jews are Tusach 3phard (not to "e confused with 3ephardi), which is the same as the eneral Uolish (Gasidic) TusachQ and Tusach Fha"ad, otherwise known as 8u"avitch Fhasidic, Tusach Arizal or Tusach haZAri# !his phrase is often used in contrast with 3ephardi Jews, also called 3ephardim, who are descendants of Jews from 3pain and Uortu al# !here are some differences in how the two roups pronounce certain Ge"rew letters and in points of ritual# 3everal famous people have Ashkenazi as a surname, such as dladimir Ashkenazi# .ronically, most people with this surname hail from within 3ephardic communities, particularly from the 3yrian Jewish community# !he 3ephardic carriers of the surname would have some Ashkenazi ancestors since the surname was adopted "y families who were initially of Ashkenazic ori ins who move to 3ephardi countries and [oined those communities# Ashkenazi would "e formally adopted as the family surname havin started off as a nickname imposed "y their adopted communities# 3ome have shortened the name to Ash# _ther spellin s e7ist, such as 0skenazi or 0sauenazi "y the 3yrian Jews who relocated to Uanama and other 3outh2American Jewish communities# 8iterature a"out the alle ed !urkic ori in of the Ashkenazi population, as descendants of the Jewish population, converts or otherwise, appeared mainly after ;V?E# Althou h it has "een speculated that the peaceful life lived "y the Jews of 5hazaria was contrived or e7a erated, and pu"licized primarily in an effort to shame 0uropean leaders into treatin their Jewish populations "etter, the Jewish25hazar

thesis is used today primarily as a whippin horse for antisemites claimin that the Ashkenazim are actually not semites# !his du"ious theory holds that Ashkenazim should "e hated for pretendin to "e SrealS Jews, instead of "ecause they are actually Jewish# .n any case, most scholarship on the su"[ect dismisses the 5hazar2Ashkenazi relationship, if not re[ectin the portrayed Jewish olden a e of 5hazaria alto ether# 3ee also: Jew, Judaism, Ra""enu 4ershom :edit< Uopulation enetics !here are many references to Ashkenazi Jews in the literature of medical and population enetics# .ndeed, much awareness of SAshkenazi JewsS as an ethnic roup or cate ory stems from the lar e num"er of enetic studies of disease, includin many that are well reported in the media, that have "een conducted amon Jews# Accordin to `aphna 1iren"aum Farmeli at the >niversity of Gaifa, Jewish populations have "een studied more thorou hly than most other human populations, for a variety of reasons: Jewish populations, and particularly the lar e Ashkenazi Jewish population, are ideal for such research studies, "ecause they e7hi"it a hi h de ree of endo amy, yet they are siza"le# 4eneticists are intrinsically interested in Jewish populations, and a disproportionate percenta e of enetics researchers are Jewish#:citation needed< .srael in particular has "ecome an international center of such research# Jewish populations are overwhelmin ly ur"an, and are concentrated near "iomedical centers where such research has "een carried out# 3uch research is especially easy to carry out in .srael, where cradle2 to2 rave medical insurance is availa"le, to ether with universal screenin for enetic disease# Jewish communities are comparatively well informed a"out enetics research, and have "een supportive of community efforts to study and prevent enetic diseases# Uarticipation of Jewish scientists and support from the Jewish community alleviates ethical concerns that sometimes hinder such enetic studies in other ethnic roups# !he result is a form of ascertainment "ias# !his has sometimes created an impression that Jews are more suscepti"le to enetic disease than other populations# Farmeli writes, SJews are over2represented in human enetic literature, particularly in mutation2related conte7ts#S :=\< :edit< 3pecific diseases `iseases that are inherited in an autosomal recessive pattern often occur in endo amous populations# Amon Ashkenazi Jews, a hi her incidence of specific hereditary diseases has "een reported: 1loom syndrome:citation needed< 1reast cancer and ovarian cancer (due to hi her distri"ution of 1RFA; and 1RFA=):citation needed< Fanavan disease:citation needed< Folorectal cancer due to hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer (GTUFF):citation needed< Fon enital adrenal hyperplasia (non2classical form):citation needed< FrohnZs disease (the T_`=eFAR`;? locus appears to "e implicated):citation needed< Fystic fi"rosis:citation needed< Familial dysautonomia (Riley2`ay 3yndrome):citation needed< Fanconi anemia:citation needed< 4aucherZs disease:citation needed< Gemophilia F:citation needed< 5aposiZs sarcoma (chronic form):citation needed< 6ucolipidosis .d:citation needed< Tiemann2Uick disease:citation needed< Uemphi us vul aris:citation needed< !ay23achs disease:citation needed< !orsion dystonia:citation needed< don 4ierke disease:citation needed< 4enetic counselin and enetic testin are recommended for couples where "oth partners are of Ashkenazi ancestry# 3ome or anizations, most nota"ly `or -eshorim, or anize screenin pro rams to prevent homozy osity for the enes that cause these diseases# 3ee Jewish 4enetics Fenter for more information on testin pro rammes#

:edit< 6odern history .n an essay on 3ephardi Jewry, `aniel 0lazar at the Jerusalem Fenter for Uu"lic Affairs:C< summarized the demo raphic history of Ashkenazi Jews in the last thousand years, notin that at the end of the ;;th century, V\Y of world Jewry was 3ephardic and BY AshkenaziQ in the mid2;\th century, S3ephardim still outnum"ered Ashkenazim three to twoS, "ut "y the end of the ;9th century, SAshkenazim outnum"ered 3ephardim three to two, the result of improved livin conditions in Fhristian 0urope versus the _ttoman 6uslim world#S:C< 1y ;VB;, Ashkenazi Jews accounted for nearly V=Y of world Jewry#:C< Ashkenazi Jews developed the Gasidic movement as well as ma[or Jewish academic centers across Uoland, Russia, and 8ithuania in the enerations after emi ration from the west# After two centuries of comparative tolerance in the new nations, massive westward emi ration occurred in the ;9EEs and ;VEEs in response to po roms and the economic opportunities offered in other parts of the world# Ashkenazi Jews have made up the ma[ority of the American Jewish community since ;\?E#:=;< Ashkenazi cultural rowth led to the Gaskalah or Jewish 0nli htenment, and the development of Xionism in modern 0urope# :edit< Ashkenazi Jews and the Golocaust _f the estimated 9#9 million Jews livin in 0urope at the "e innin of World War .., the ma[ority of whom were Ashkenazi, a"out A million ] more than two2thirds ] were systematically murdered in the Golocaust# !hese included B million of B#B million Uolish Jews (V;Y)Q VEE,EEE of ;#; million in >kraine (9=Y)Q and ?E@VEY of the Jews of other 3lavic nations, 4ermany, France, Gun ary, and the 1altic states# 3ephardi communities suffered similar depletions in a few countries, includin 4reece, the Tetherlands and the former -u oslavia#:=9< 6any of the survivin Ashkenazi Jews emi rated to countries such as .srael, Australia:citation needed<, and the >nited 3tates after the war# :edit< Ashkenazi Jews in .srael !oday, Ashkenazi Jews constitute the lar est roup amon Jews,:C< "ut pro"a"ly a"out a half of .sraeli Jews (see `emo raphics of .srael)# Gowever, they have played a prominent role in the economy, media, and politics of .srael since its foundin # !ensions have sometimes arisen "etween the traditional Jews of the 6iddle 0ast (the 3ephardim and 6izrahim) and the mostly 0uropean Ashkenazim who founded .srael# 8ater mi rants hailin from the various non2Ashkenazi roups sometimes claim that they are discriminated a ainst in terms of education, [o"seincome, housin and in other areas# :edit< Achievement Ashkenazi Jews have a noted history of achievement in western societies#:=V< !hey have won a disproportionate share of the To"el awards#:BE<:B;< .n those societies where they have "een free to enter any profession, they have a record of hi h occupational achievement, enterin professions and fields of commerce where hi her education is reauired#:B=< For more details on this topic, see Ashkenazi intelli ence# :edit< Ashkenazi Fhief Ra""is in the -ishuv and .srael A"raham .saac 5ook : (=B Fe" ;V=; 2 ; 3ep ;VB?) .saac Galevi Gerzo : (;VB\ 2 =? Jul ;V?V) .sser -ehuda >nterman : (;VAC 2 ;V\=) 3hlomo 4oren : (;V\= 2 ;V9B) Avraham 3hapira : (;V9B 2 ;VVB) .srael 6eir 8au : (;VVB 2 B Apr =EEB) 3heZar2-ashuv Fohen (actin ): (B Apr =EEB 2 ;C Apr =EEB) -ona 6etz er : (;C Apr =EEB 2 present)