Chapter 1:

1.0 Introduction

Fundamentals of Data Communication

1.1 Data Communication Model 1.2 Data Communications System Tasks 1.3 Communication Network and Services 1.4 Data Communications Networkin 1.4.1 !ide"#rea Networks 1.4.2 $ocal #rea Networks 1.% &rotocols and &rotocol #rc'itecture 1.%.1 T'e (SI model 1.%.2 T'e TC&)I& model

T'is c'a*ter *rovides t'e big picture o+ t'e data communication networks. T'e tasks involved in t'e communication networks, di++erent communication services re-uired, t'e kind o+ networks availa.le, *rotocol arc'itectures and (SI, TC&)I& *rotocol models are discussed in .rie+. In essence +undamental conce*ts o+ t'e data communication networks are discussed .rie+ly, *rovidin t'e .asis +or detailed discussion in later c'a*ters. #t t'e end o+ t'e c'a*ter t'e student will 'ave a conte/t in w'ic' to *lace various to*ics as t'ey *ro ress t'rou ' t'e later c'a*ters.

1.0 Introduction
Basic Communication Model
Communication is t'e conveyance o+ a message +rom one entity, called t'e source or transmitter, to anot'er, called t'e destination or receiver, via a channel o+ some sort.

Data Communication

To ive a very .asic e/am*le o+ suc' a communication system is conversation0 *eo*le commonly e/c'an e ver.al messa es, wit' t'e c'annel consistin o+ waves o+ com*ressed air molecules at +re-uencies, w'ic' are audi.le to t'e 'uman ear. T'is is de*icted in 1i ure 1.1. T'e conveyance o+ a messa e could .e +ollowed .y a reci*rocal response messa e +rom t'e ori inal destination 2now a source3 to t'e ori inal source 2now a destination3 to com*lete one cycle in a dialogue .etween corresponding entities. De*endin on t'e a**lication or need +or t'e in+ormation e/c'an e, eit'er atomic one"way transactions or a two"way dialo ue could .e a**ro*riate.

Figure 1.1: Basic Communication Model T'e only way t'at a messa e source can .e certain t'at t'e destination *ro*erly received t'e messa e is .y some kind o+ acknowledgment res*onse +rom t'e destination. Conversin *eo*le mi 't say 4I understand4 or nod t'eir 'ead in res*onse to a statement made .y t'eir *eer. T'is acknowled ed +orm o+ dialo ue is t'e .asis o+ relia.le communications " some'ow t'e source must et +eed.ack t'at t'e destination correctly received t'e messa e. T'e .asic model e/*lained a.ove w'erein ori inator and destination are 'uman .ein s can .e enerali5ed as in 1i ure 1.2. to suite t'e data communication .etween two systems e/c'an in in+ormation .etween t'em. Source: Device t'at enerates t'e data to .e *assed on to t'e Destination device. It could .e a user com*uter tryin to make a -uery to a server com*uter.

Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Data Communication

Transmitter:

I+ t'e data

enerated .y t'e

ource device 'as to .e transmitted

t'rou ' Transmission Channel or Transmission System t'en it 'as to .e *resented in a +orm t'at is acce*ta.le to t'e !ransmission system. T'is 7o. is done .y t'e Transmitter. 1or e/am*le, a modem takes a di ital .it stream +rom t'e attac'ed com*uter and trans+orms t'at stream o+ .its into an analo si nals w'ic' can .e 'andled .y t'e tele*'one network. Transmission System: T'is can .e a sin le transmission line connectin t'e two systems communicatin or a com*le/ network to w'ic' numerous communicatin systems are connected. Receiver: T'is receives t'e si nal +rom t'e transmission system and converts it into a +orm t'at is suita.le to t'e destination device. 1or e/am*le, a modem acce*ts analo si nal +rom a transmission c'annel and trans+orms it into di ital .it stream. Destination: Device to w'ic' t'e source device sends data.

Figure 1." imple Data Communication model

1.1 Data Communication Model

1i ure 1.3 *rovides a new *ers*ective on t'e data communication model o+ 1i ure1.2. $et us trace t'rou ' t'e details o+ t'is +i ure usin electronic mail as an e/am*le.

Data Communication

Figure 1.# Data Communication model

Consider t'at t'e source in*ut device and transmitter are com*onents o+ a *ersonal com*uter. T'e user o+ t'e &C wis'es to send a messa e to anot'er user9+or e/am*le, 4$ood luck for your e%ams4 2m3. T'e user activates t'e electronic mail *acka e on t'e &C and enters t'e messa e via t'e key.oard 2in*ut device3. T'e c'aracter strin is .rie+ly .u++ered in main memory. !e can view it as a se-uence o+ .its 2 3 in memory. T'e *ersonal com*uter is connected to some transmission medium, suc' as a local network or a tele*'one line .y an I)( device 2transmitter3, suc' as a local network transceiver or a modem. T'e in*ut data are trans+erred to t'e transmitter as a se-uence o+ volta e s'i+ts 2t3 re*resentin .its on some communications .us or ca.le. T'e transmitter is connected directly to t'e medium and converts t'e incomin stream : 2t3; into a si nal :s2t3; suita.le +or transmission. T'e transmitted si nal s2t3 *resented to t'e medium is su.7ect to a num.er o+ im*airments, .e+ore it reac'es t'e receiver. T'us, t'e received si nal r2t3 may di++er to some de ree +rom s2t3. T'e receiver will attem*t to estimate t'e ori inal s2t3, .ased on r2t3 and its knowled e o+ t'e medium, *roducin a se-uence o+ .its <2t3. T'ese .its are sent to t'e out*ut *ersonal com*uter, w'ere t'ey are .rie+ly .u++ered in memory as a .lock o+ .its 2 =3. In many cases, t'e destination system will attem*t to determine i+ an error 'as occurred and, i+ so, will coo*erate wit' t'e source system to eventually o.tain a com*lete, error"+ree .lock o+ data. T'ese data are t'en *resented to t'e user via an out*ut device, suc' as a *rinter or a screen. T'e messa e 2m<3, as viewed .y t'e user, will usually .e an e/act co*y o+ t'e ori inal messa e 2m3. Now consider a tele*'one conversation. In t'is case, t'e in*ut to t'e tele*'one is a messa e 2m3 in t'e +orm o+ sound waves. T'e sound waves are converted .y t'e tele*'one into electrical si nals o+ t'e same +re-uency. T'ese si nals are transmitted Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Data Communication >

wit'out modi+ication over t'e tele*'one line. ?ence, t'e in*ut si nal 2t3 and t'e transmitted si nal s2t3 are identical. T'e si nal s2t3 will su++er some distortion over t'e medium, so t'at r2t3 will not .e identical to s2t3. Nevert'eless, t'e si nal r2t3 is converted .ack into a sound wave wit' no attem*t at correction or im*rovement o+ si nal -uality. T'us m is not an e/act re*lica o+ m. ?owever, t'e received sound messa e is enerally com*re'ensi.le to t'e listener.

1.2 Data Communications System Tasks

Some o+ t'e @ey tasks to .e *er+ormed .y a Data Communications System are listed .elow. Si nal Aeneration Inter+acin Sync'ronisation B/c'an e Mana ement Transmission System Ctilisation Brror Detection and Correction 1low Control #ddressin Doutin Messa e 1ormattin system *ro*a ate as

#ll t'e data t'at are transmitted over t'e transmittin

Blectroma netic si nals. ?ence t'e communicatin device must .e a.le to enerate and receive t'ese si nals. Si nal eneration s'ould .e suc' t'at t'e resultant si nal is ca*a.le o+ .ein *ro*a ated t'rou ' t'e transmission medium and inter*reta.le as data at t'e receiver. # device must inter!ace wit' t'e transmission system in order to communicate. Cnless t'e receiver and transmitter are in Sync"ronisation t'e receiver will not .e a.le to make sense out o+ received si nals. Deceiver s'ould know w'en t'e transmission o+ data starts, w'en it ends.

Data Communication

1or meanin +ul data transaction t'ere s'ould .e some kind mana ement o+ data .ein e/c'an ed. Fot' t'e transmitter and receiver s'ould ad'ere to some common convention a.out t'e +ormat o+ data, amount o+ data t'at can .e sent at a time and so on. T'is re-uires a *rior de+inition o+ messa e !ormattin . Transmission System #tilisation re+ers to t'e need to make e++icient use o+ Transmission C'annel, w'ic' are enerally s'ared .y many communicatin devices. Garious tec'ni-ues 2Multi$le%in 3 are availa.le to allocate t'e total ca*acity o+ a transmission c'annel amon connected devices. Care s'ould .e taken to avoid *ro.a.le Con estion in some kind o+ multi*le/in . In any communication system transmitted data is *rone to error. Bit'er it is .ecause o+ transmitted si nal ettin distorted in t'e transmission medium leadin to misinter*retation o+ si nal or errors introduced .y t'e intermediate devices. &rror detection and Correction is re-uired in cases w'ere t'ere is no sco*e +or error in t'e data transaction. !e can t'ink o+ +ile trans+er .etween two com*uters w'ere t'ere is a need +or t'is. Fut in some cases it may not .e very im*ortant as in t'e case o+ tele*'onic conversation. T'ere is a *ossi.ility o+ transmitter eneratin data +aster t'an t'e receiver device ca*a.le o+ 'andlin . To 'andle t'is t'ere s'ould .e some kind o+ !lo' control mec'anism a reed u*on .etween t'e two communicatin devices. !'en more t'an two devices s'are a transmittin +acility, a source system must some'ow indicate t'e identity 2or address3 o+ t'e destination. T'e transmission system must ensure t'at t'e data .ein sent are routed only to t'e destination system. T'e list o+ tasks e/*lained a.ove is not e/'austive one. Fut sure it indicates t'e com*le/ities involved in a communication system. T'e data communication system must .e desi ned to 'andle t'e a.ove tasks as re-uired so t'at meanin +ul communication can take *lace .etween two devices e++iciently.

1.( Communication )et'ork and Services

# communication net'ork, in its sim*lest +orm, is a set o+ e-ui*ment and +acilities t'at *rovides a communication serviceH t'e trans+er o+ in+ormation .etween users located at various eo ra*'ical *oints. ?ere we +ocus on networks t'at use electronic

Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Data Communication

10

or o*tical tec'nolo ies. B/am*les o+ suc' networks include tele*'one networks, com*uter networks, television .roadcast networks, cellular tele*'one networks, and t'e Internet. T'e a.ility o+ communication network to trans+er in+ormation at e/tremely 'i ' s*eeds allows users to at'er in+ormation in lar e volumes, nearly instantaneously and, wit' t'e aid o+ com*uters, to almost immediately e/ercise action at a distance. T'ese two uni-ue ca*a.ilities +orm t'e .asis +or many e/istin services and an unlimited num.er o+ +uture network".ased services. !e will now discuss several services t'at are su**orted .y current networks. T'e services are e/amined +rom t'e *oint o+ view o+ user re-uirements, t'at is, -uality o+ service, +eatures, and ca*a.ilities. T'e view*oint 'ere is t'at networks s'ould ultimately .e desi ned to meet t'e re-uirements o+ t'e user a**lications. Radio and television *roadcastin are *ro.a.ly t'e most common communication services. Garious stations transmit an ensem.le o+ si nals simultaneously over radio or ca.le distri.ution networks. #side +rom selectin t'e station o+ interest, t'e role o+ t'e user in t'ese services is *assive. Delatively 'i ' audio and video -uality is e/*ected, .ut a si ni+icant amount o+ delay 2in t'e order o+ seconds or more3 can .e tolerated even in live .roadcasts. Tele$"one service is t'e most common real"time service *rovided .y a network. Two *ersons are a.le to communicate .y transmittin t'eir voices across t'e network. T'e service is connection&oriented in t'e sense t'at t'e users must +irst interact wit' t'e network to set u* a connection. T'e tele*'one service 'as t'e real"time re-uirement in t'at users cannot interact as in +ace"to"+ace conversation i+ t'e delays are reater t'an a +raction o+ second 2a**ro/imately 2%0 milliseconds3. T'e service must also .e relia.le in t'e sense t'at once t'e connection is esta.lis'ed it must not .e interru*ted .ecause o+ +ailures in t'e network. #t t'e minimum t'e delivered voice si nal must .e intelli i.le, .ut in most situations t'e users e/*ect a muc' 'i 'er -uality t'at ena.les t'e listener not only to reco ni5e w'at t'e s*eaker says .ut also to discern su.tleties in intonation, mood, and so on. # 'i ' de ree o+ availa.ility is anot'er re-uirementH Tele*'one users e/*ect t'e network to .e ca*a.le o+ com*letin t'e desired connection almost all t'e time. Security and *rivacy o+ t'e conversation are consideration in some situations. Data Communication 11

T'e tele*'one service can .e en'anced in a num.er o+ ways. 1or e/am*le, t'e toll" +ree service is *rovided w'erein t'e caller will not .e .illed .ut costs o+ t'e call are automatically .illed to t'e su.scri.er o+ t'e service. Similarly, in credit"card or callin "card services, t'e cost o+ a call is automatically .illed to t'e 'older o+ t'e card. Clearly, security and +raud are issues 'ere. Tele*'one networks *rovide a .road class o+ call mana ement services t'at use t'e ori inatin num.er or t'e destination num.er to determine t'e 'andlin o+ a call. Caller 'D allows t'e ori inatin num.er, and sometimes name, o+ t'e ori inatin call to .e dis*layed to t'e destination user w'en t'e receivin device is dis*lay ca*a.le. Goice mail allows a destination user to 'ave calls +orwarded to a messa e"receivin device w'en t'e destination user is not availa.le. Cellular tele$"one service e/tends t'e normal tele*'one service to mo.ile users w'o are +ree to move wit'in a re ional area covered .y an interconnected array o+ smaller eo ra*'ical areas called cells. Bac' cell 'as a radio transmission system t'at allows it to communicate wit' users in its area. T'e use o+ radio transmission im*lies desi n com*romises t'at may result in lower voice -uality, lower availa.ility, and reater e/*osure to eavesdro**in . In addition, t'e cellular system must 'andle t'e handing off o+ users as t'ey move +rom one cell to anot'er so t'at an on oin conversation is not terminated a.ru*tly. Some cellular *roviders also su**ort a roamin service w'ere a su.scri.er is a.le to *lace calls w'ile visitin re ional areas ot'er t'an t'e su.scri.er<s 'ome .ase. Note t'at t'e mo.ility as*ect to t'e roamin service is not limited to cellular 2or wireless3 communications. Indeed, t'e need +or mo.ility arises w'enever a su.scri.er wis'es to access a service +rom anyw'ere in t'e world. &lectronic mail 2e"mail3 is anot'er common network service. T'e user ty*ically *rovides a te/t messa e and a name and)or address to a mail a**lication. T'e a**lication interacts wit' a local mail server, w'ic' in turn transmits t'e messa e to a destination server across a com*uter network. T'e destination user retrieves t'e messa e .y usin a mail a**lication, suc' as (utlook )%press so+tware *acka e o+ Microso+t. B"mail is not a real"time service in t'at +airly lar e delays can .e tolerated. It is also not necessarily connection"oriented in t'at a network connection does not need to .e set u* e/*ressly +or eac' individual messa e. T'e service re-uires Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Data Communication 12

relia.ility in terms o+ t'e likeli'ood o+ deliverin t'e messa e wit'out errors and to t'e correct destination. In some instances t'e user may .e a.le to re-uest delivery con+irmation. # ain security and *rivacy may .e a concern. Many a**lications t'at involve an interaction .etween *rocesses runnin in two com*uters may .e c'aracteri5ed .y client*server interaction. 1or e/am*le, a user likes to view a document +ile o+ a *articular com*any and 'e initiates a *rocess " client & to access a iven +ile on t'e server w'ic' 'osts t'at *articular document. T'e +orld +ide +e* ,+++- a**lication ty*i+ies t'is interaction. T'e +++ consists o+ a +ramework +or accessin documents t'at are located in com*uters connected to t'e Internet. T'ese documents consist o+ te/t, ra*'ics, and ot'er media and are interconnected .y links t'at a**ear wit'in t'e documents. T'e !!! is accessed t'rou ' a .rowser *ro ram t'at dis*lays t'e documents and allows t'e user to access ot'er documents .y clickin on one o+ t'ese links. Bac' link *rovides t'e .rowser wit' a #ni!orm resource locator ,#R.- t'at s*eci+ies t'e name o+ t'e system w'ere t'e document is located as well as t'e name o+ t'e +ile t'at contains t'e re-uested document. 1or e/am*le t'e CD$ http:**www.ksouonline.org*prog.html s*eci+ies t'e document in t'e 'nternet+ w'ic' *rovides t'e details a.out IT *ro rammes o++ered .y , (-. T'e +irst term, "tt$, s*eci+ies t'e retrieval mec'anism to .e used, in t'is case, t'e /y$er Te%t Trans!er 0rotocol ,/TT0-. Ne/t t'e CD$ s*eci+ies t'e name o+ t'e 'ost mac'ine, namely, www.ksouonline.org. T'e remainin data ives t'e *at' to t'e document wit'in t'e 'ost mac'ine, t'at is, t'e CD$ identi+ies t'e document +ile on t'e server 'ostin t'e desired document. Fy enterin t'e a.ove CD$ in t'e address +ield o+ a .rowser suc' as 'nternet )%plorer or .etscape .avigator+ user can view t'e document. In addition to te/t t'e +iles t'e !!! may contain audio and ima es t'at involve lar e amounts o+ in+ormation. !'ile t'e user does not re-uire real"time res*onse, e/cessive delay in retrievin +iles reduces t'e de ree o+ interactivity o+ t'e overall a**lication w'ere t'e user seeks in+ormation, reads it, and a ain seeks additional in+ormation .y clickin on ot'er items or on links to ot'er !e. sites. T'e overall

Data Communication

13

delay is determined .y t'e delays in accessin t'e servers as well as t'e time re-uired to transmit t'e +iles t'rou ' t'e network. T'ere are many ot'er network services like 1ideo on demand2 Streamed 3udiovisual Services2 3udio Con!erencin 2 3udio41isual Con!erencin . T'e .asic in+ormation in t'ese services is o+ audio and visual in nature and t'ey re-uire 'u e data to convey t'e in+ormation. #*art +rom 'avin 'u e data to .e trans*orted .etween communicatin systems, since t'ese services are o+ real"time in nature t'e .andwidt' o+ t'e underlyin communication network re-uired +or t'ese services is also 'u e. $ookin at t'e tec'nolo ical develo*ment 'a**enin in t'e data communication +ield, days are not +or o++ w'en t'ese services are *rovided to common user over t'e Internet at a++orda.le cost.

1.5 Data Communications )et'orkin

In its sim*lest +orm, data communication takes *lace .etween two devices t'at are directly connected .y some +orm o+ *oint"to"*oint transmission medium. (+ten, 'owever, it is im*ractical +or two devices to .e directly, *oint"to"*oint connected. T'is is so +or one 2or .ot'3 o+ t'e +ollowin contin enciesH T'e devices are very +ar a*art. It would .e inordinately e/*ensive, +or e/am*le, to strin a dedicated link .etween two devices t'ousands o+ miles a*art. T'ere is a set o+ devices, eac' o+ w'ic' may re-uire a link to many o+ t'e ot'ers at various times. B/am*les are all o+ t'e tele*'ones in t'e world and all o+ t'e terminals and com*uters owned .y a sin le or ani5ation. B/ce*t +or t'e case o+ a very +ew devices, it is im*ractical to *rovide a dedicated wire .etween eac' *air o+ devices. T'e solution to t'is *ro.lem is to attac' eac' device to a communications network. 1i ure 1.4 relates t'is area to t'e communications model o+ 1i ure l.2a and also su ests t'e two ma7or cate ories into w'ic' communications networks are traditionally classi+iedH /ide&0rea .etworks 2!#Ns3 and 1ocal&0rea .etworks 2$#Ns3. T'e distinction .etweens t'e two, .ot' in terms o+ tec'nolo y and

Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Data Communication

14

a**lication, 'as .ecome somew'at .lurred in recent years, .ut it remains a use+ul way o+ or ani5in t'e discussion.

Figure 1.2 implified .etwork models

1.5.1 +ide43rea )et'orks

!ide"area networks 'ave traditionally .een considered to .e t'ose t'at cover a lar e eo ra*'ical area, re-uire t'e crossin o+ *u.lic ri 't"o+"ways, and rely at least in *art on circuits *rovided .y a common tele*'one carrier. Ty*ically, a !#N consists o+ a num.er o+ interconnected switc'in nodes. Transmission +rom any one device is routed t'rou ' t'ese internal nodes to t'e s*eci+ied destination device. T'ese nodes 2includin t'e .oundary nodes to w'ic' t'e devices are connected3 are not concerned wit' t'e content o+ t'e data0 rat'er, t'eir *ur*ose is to *rovide a switc'in +acility t'at will move t'e data +rom node to node until t'ey reac' t'eir destination. Traditionally, !#Ns 'ave .een im*lemented usin one o+ two tec'nolo iesH circuit switc'in and *acket switc'in . More recently, +rame relay and #TM networks 'ave assumed ma7or roles. Data Communication 1%

Circuit S'itc"in
In a circuit"switc'ed network, a dedicated communication *at' is esta.lis'ed .etween two stations t'rou ' t'e nodes o+ t'e network. T'at *at' is a connected se-uence o+ *'ysical links .etween nodes. (n eac' link, a lo ical c'annel is dedicated to t'e connection. Data enerated .y t'e source station are transmitted alon t'e dedicated *at' as ra*idly as *ossi.le. #t eac' node, incomin data are routed or switc'ed to t'e a**ro*riate out oin c'annel wit'out delay. T'e most common e/am*le o+ circuit switc'in is t'e tele*'one network.

0acket S'itc"in
# -uite di++erent a**roac' is used in a *acket"switc'ed network. In t'is case, it is not necessary to dedicate transmission ca*acity alon a *at' t'rou ' t'e network. Dat'er, data are sent out in a se-uence o+ small c'unks, called *ackets. Bac' *acket is *assed t'rou ' t'e network +rom node to node alon some *at' leadin +rom source to destination. #t eac' node, t'e entire *acket is received, stored .rie+ly, and t'en transmitted to t'e ne/t node. &acket"switc'ed networks are commonly used +or terminal"to"com*uter and com*uter"to"com*uter communications.

6rame Relay
&acket switc'in was develo*ed at a time w'en di ital lon "distance transmission +acilities e/'i.ited a relatively 'i ' error rate com*ared to today<s +acilities. #s a result, t'ere is a considera.le amount o+ over'ead .uilt into *acket"switc'ed sc'emes to com*ensate +or errors. T'e over'ead includes additional .its added to eac' *acket to introduce redundancy and additional *rocessin at t'e end stations and t'e intermediate switc'in nodes to detect and recover +rom errors. !it' modern 'i '"s*eed telecommunication systems, t'is over'ead is unnecessary and counter*roductive. It is unnecessary .ecause t'e rate o+ errors 'as .een dramatically lowered and any remainin errors can easily .e cau 't in t'e end systems .y lo ic t'at o*erates a.ove t'e level o+ t'e *acket"switc'in lo ic0 it is counter*roductive .ecause t'e over'ead involved soaks u* a si ni+icant +raction o+ t'e 'i ' ca*acity *rovided .y t'e network. 1rame relay was develo*ed to take advanta e o+ t'ese 'i ' data rates and low error rates. !'ereas t'e ori inal *acket"switc'in networks were desi ned wit' a data rate to t'e end user o+ a.out 64 k.*s2kilo .its *er second, 1 kiloI10 33, +rame relay Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Data Communication 16

networks are desi ned to o*erate e++iciently at user data rates o+ u* to 2 M.*s 2Me a .its *er second, 1 Me aI1063. T'e key to ac'ievin t'ese 'i ' data rates is to stri* out most o+ t'e over'ead involved wit' error control.

3TM
#sync'ronous Trans+er Mode 2#TM3, sometimes re+erred to as cell relay, is a culmination o+ all o+ t'e develo*ments in circuit switc'in and *acket switc'in over t'e *ast 2% years. #TM can .e viewed as an evolution +rom +rame relay. T'e most o.vious di++erence .etween +rame relay and #TM is t'at +rame relay uses varia.le"len t' *ackets, called +rames, and #TM uses +i/ed"len t' *ackets, called cells. #s wit' +rame relay, #TM *rovides little over'ead +or error control, de*endin on t'e in'erent relia.ility o+ t'e transmission system and on 'i 'er layers o+ lo ic in t'e end systems to catc' and correct errors. Fy usin a +i/ed"*acket len t', t'e *rocessin over'ead is reduced even +urt'er +or #TM com*ared to +rame relay. T'e result is t'at #TM is desi ned to work in t'e ran e o+ 10s and 100s o+ M.*s, com*ared to t'e 2"M.*s tar et o+ +rame relay. #TM can also .e viewed as an evolution +rom circuit switc'in . !it' circuit switc'in , only +i/ed"data"rate circuits are availa.le to t'e end system. #TM allows t'e de+inition o+ multi*le virtual c'annels wit' data rates t'at are dynamically de+ined at t'e time t'e virtual c'annel is created. Fy usin +ull, +i/ed"si5e cells, #TM is so e++icient t'at it can o++er a constant"data"rate c'annel even t'ou ' it is usin a *acket" switc'in tec'ni-ue. T'us, #TM e/tends circuit switc'in to allow multi*le c'annels wit' t'e data rate on eac' c'annel dynamically set on demand.

ISD) and Broad*and ISD)

Mer in and evolvin communications and com*utin tec'nolo ies, cou*led wit' increasin demands +or e++icient and timely collection, *rocessin , and dissemination o+ in+ormation are leadin to t'e develo*ment o+ inte rated systems t'at transmit and *rocess all ty*es o+ data J *lain te/t data, audio, video. # si ni+icant out rowt' o+ t'ese trends is t'e 'ntegrated ervices Digital .etwork 3' D.4. T'rou ' t'is user wit' a sin le access *oint to ISDN network can avail o+ di++erent kinds o+

Data Communication

18

communication J 'is com*uter can access t'e Internet, 'e can use t'e network +or 'is tele*'one usa e and also *ro.a.ly video communication. T'e ISDN is intended to .e a worldwide *u.lic telecommunications network to re*lace e/istin *u.lic telecommunications networks and deliver a wide variety o+ services. T'e ISDN is de+ined .y t'e standardi5ation o+ user inter+aces and im*lemented as a set o+ di ital switc'es and *at's su**ortin a .road ran e o+ tra++ic ty*es and *rovidin value"added *rocessin services. In *ractice, t'ere are multi*le networks, im*lemented wit'in national .oundaries, .ut, +rom t'e user<s *oint o+ view, t'ere is intended to .e a sin le, uni+ormly accessi.le, worldwide network. Des*ite t'e +act t'at ISDN 'as yet to ac'ieve t'e universal de*loyment 'o*ed +or, it is already in its second eneration. T'e +irst eneration, sometimes re+erred to as narro'*and ISD), is .ased on t'e use o+ a 64"k.*s c'annel as t'e .asic unit o+ switc'in and 'as a circuit"switc'in orientation. T'e ma7or tec'nical contri.ution o+ t'e narrow.and ISDN e++ort 'as .een +rame relay. T'e second eneration, re+erred to as *road*and ISD), su**orts very 'i ' data rates 2100s o+ M.*s3 and 'as a *acket" switc'in orientation. T'e ma7or tec'nical contri.ution o+ t'e .road.and ISDN e++ort 'as .een async'ronous trans+er mode 2#TM3, also known as cell relay.

1.5.2 .ocal 3rea )et'orks ,.3)#s wit' !ide"#rea Networks, a $ocal"#rea Network or $#N is a communications network t'at interconnects a variety o+ devices and *rovides a means +or in+ormation e/c'an e amon t'ose devices. T'ere are several key distinctions .etween $#Ns and !#Ns0 T'e sco*e o+ t'e $#N is small, ty*ically a sin le .uildin or a cluster o+ .uildin s. T'is di++erence in eo ra*'ic sco*e leads to di++erent tec'nical solutions. It is usually t'e case t'at t'e $#N is owned .y t'e same or ani5ation t'at owns t'e attac'ed devices. 1or !#Ns, t'is is less o+ten t'e case, or at least a si ni+icant +raction o+ t'e network assets are not owned. T'is 'as two im*lications. 1irst, care must .e taken in t'e c'oice o+ $#N, as t'ere may .e a su.stantial ca*ital investment 2com*ared to dial"u* or leased c'ar es +or wide

Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Data Communication

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area networks3 +or .ot' *urc'ase and maintenance. Second, t'e network mana ement res*onsi.ility +or a local network +alls solely on t'e user. T'e internal data trans+er rates o+ $#Ns are ty*ically muc' reater t'an t'ose o+ wide"area networks. Traditionally, $#Ns make use o+ a .roadcast network a**roac' rat'er t'an a switc'in a**roac'. !it' a .roadcast communication network, t'ere are no intermediate switc'in nodes. #t eac' station, t'ere is a transmitter ) receiver t'at communicates over a medium s'ared .y ot'er stations. # transmission +rom any one station is .roadcast to and received .y all ot'er stations. !e will .e concerned wit' networks used to link com*uters, workstations, and ot'er di ital devices. #lso in t'e case o+ $#Ns, data are usually transmitted in *ackets. Fecause t'e medium is s'ared, only one station at a time can transmit a *acket. More recently, e/am*les o+ switc'ed $#Ns 'ave a**eared, t'e two most *rominent e/am*les are #TM $#Ns, w'ic' sim*ly use an #TM network in a local area, and 1i.er C'annel. Garious to*olo ies are *ossi.le +or .roadcast $#Ns. 1i ure 1.% s'ows two o+ t'em.

Figure 1.5 !wo broadcast networks. 3a4 Bus+ 3b4 6ing

&t"ernet
In a .us 2i.e. a linear ca.le3 network, at any instant one mac'ine is t'e master and is allowed to transmit. #n ar.itration mec'anism is needed to resolve con+licts w'en two or more mac'ines want to transmit simultaneously. T'e ar.itration mec'anism may .e centrali5ed or distri.uted. IBBB >02.3 CSM#)CD *o*ularly known as Ethernet, +or e/am*le, is a .us .ased .roadcast network wit' decentrali5ed control o*eratin at 10 or 100 M.*s. Com*uters on an Bt'ernet can transmit w'enever t'ey Data Communication 1E

want to0 i+ two or more *ackets collide, eac' com*uter 7ust waits a random time and tries a ain later.

Token Rin
# second ty*e o+ .roadcast system is t'e token rin network. # rin really consists o+ a collection o+ rin inter+aces connected .y *oint"to"*oint lines. Bac' .it arrivin at an inter+ace is co*ied .ack onto t'e rin at t'e ot'er inter+ace. In a token rin , a s*ecial *attern o+ .its called token, circulates around t'e rin w'enever all stations are idle. !'en a station wants to transmit a +rame, it is re-uired to sei5e t'e token and remove it +rom t'e rin .e+ore transmittin . Fecause t'ere is only one token, only one station can transmit at a iven instant, t'us solvin t'e c'annel access *ro.lem.

1.7 0rotocols and 0rotocol 3rc"itecture

!'en com*uters, terminals, and)or ot'er data *rocessin devices e/c'an e data, t'e sco*e o+ concern is muc' .roader t'an t'e concerns we 'ave discussed so +ar. Consider, +or e/am*le, t'e trans+er o+ a +ile .etween two com*uters. T'ere must .e a data *at' .etween t'e two com*uters, eit'er directly or via a communication network. Fut more is needed. Ty*ical tasks to .e *er+ormed are 1. T'e source system must eit'er activate t'e direct data communication *at' or in+orm t'e communication network o+ t'e identity o+ t'e desired destination system. 2. T'e source system must ascertain t'at t'e destination system is *re*ared to receive data. 3. T'e +ile trans+er a**lication on t'e source system must ascertain t'at t'e +ile mana ement *ro ram on t'e destination system is *re*ared to acce*t and store t'e +ile +or t'is *articular user. 4. I+ t'e +ile +ormats used on t'e two systems are incom*ati.le, one or t'e ot'er system must *er+orm a +ormat translation +unction. It is clear t'at t'ere must .e a 'i ' de ree o+ cooperation between the two computer systems. T'e e/c'an e o+ in+ormation .etween com*uters +or t'e *ur*ose o+ coo*erative action is enerally re+erred to as computer communications. Similarly, w'en two or more com*uters are interconnected via a communication network, t'e set o+ com*uter stations is re+erred to as a computer network. Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Data Communication 20

In discussin com*uter communications and com*uter networks, two conce*ts are *aramountH &rotocols &rotocol arc'itecture or Com*uter Communications arc'itecture

# network protocol is a set o+ rules +or communicatin .etween com*uters. &rotocols overn +ormat, timin , se-uencin , and error control. !it'out t'ese rules, t'e com*uter cannot make sense o+ t'e stream o+ incomin .its. # *rotocol is used +or communication between entities in di++erent systems. 1or two entities to communicate success+ully, t'ey must speak the same language. !'at is communicated, 'ow it is communicated, and w'en it is communicated must con+orm to some mutually acce*ta.le convention or *rotocol .etween t'e entities involved. T'e key elements o+ a *rotocol are Synta% Includes suc' t'in s as data +ormat and si nal levels. Semantics Includes control in+ormation +or coordination and error 'andlin . Timin Includes s*eed matc'in and se-uencin .

!'at is a *rotocol, reallyK It is so+tware t'at resides eit'er in a com*uter<s memory or in t'e memory o+ a transmission device, like a network inter+ace card. !'en data is ready +or transmission, t'is so+tware is e/ecuted. T'e so+tware *re*ares data +or transmission and sets t'e transmission in motion. #t t'e receivin end, t'e so+tware takes t'e data o++ t'e wire and *re*ares it +or t'e com*uter .y takin o++ all t'e in+ormation added .y t'e transmittin end. ?avin introduced t'e conce*t o+ a *rotocol, we can now introduce t'e conce*t o+ *rotocol arc'itecture.

Figure 1.7 0 simplified architecture for file transfer

Data Communication

21

It is clear t'at t'ere must .e a 'i ' de ree o+ coo*eration .etween t'e two com*uters. Instead o+ im*lementin t'e lo ic +or t'is as a sin le module, t'e task is .roken u* into su.tasks, eac' o+ w'ic' is im*lemented se*arately. #s an e/am*le, 1i ure 1.6 su ests t'e way in w'ic' a +ile trans+er +acility could .e im*lemented. T'ree modules are used. Tasks 3 and 4 in t'e *recedin list could .e *er+ormed .y a +ile trans+er module. T'e two modules on t'e two systems e/c'an e +iles and commands. ?owever, rat'er t'an re-uirin t'e +ile trans+er module to 'andle t'e details o+ actually trans+errin data and commands, t'e +ile trans+er modules eac' rely on a communications service module. T'is module is res*onsi.le +or makin sure t'at t'e +ile trans+er commands and data are relia.ly e/c'an ed .etween systems. #mon ot'er t'in s, t'is module would *er+orm task 2. Now, t'e nature o+ t'e e/c'an e .etween systems s'ould .e inde*endent o+ t'e nature o+ t'e network t'at interconnects t'em. T'ere+ore, rat'er t'an .uildin details o+ t'e network inter+ace into t'e communications service module, it makes sense to 'ave a t'ird module, a network access module t'at *er+orms task 1 .y interactin wit' t'e network. T'e +ile trans+er module contains all o+ t'e lo ic t'at is uni-ue to t'e +ile trans+er a**lication, suc' as transmittin *asswords, +ile commands, and +ile records. T'ere is a need to transmit t'ese +iles and commands relia.ly. ?owever, t'e same sorts o+ relia.ility re-uirements are relevant to a variety o+ a**lications 2e. ., electronic mail, document trans+er3. T'ere+ore, t'ese re-uirements are met .y a se*arate communications service module t'at can .e used .y a variety o+ a**lications. T'e communications service module is concerned wit' assurin t'at t'e two com*uter systems are active and ready +or data trans+er and +or kee*in track o+ t'e data t'at are .ein e/c'an ed to assure delivery. ?owever, t'ese tasks are inde*endent o+ t'e ty*e o+ network t'at is .ein used. T'ere+ore, t'e lo ic +or actually dealin wit' t'e network is se*arated out into a se*arate network access module. T'at way, i+ t'e network to .e used is c'an ed, only t'e network access module is a++ected. T'us, instead o+ a sin le module +or *er+ormin communications, t'ere is a structured set o+ modules t'at im*lements t'e communications +unction. T'at structure is re+erred to as protocol architecture. Bac' module in a layer is de+ined .y a *rotocol and a set o+ *rotocols w'ic' work to et'er are termed as protocol stack. T'e terms *rotocol arc'itecture and *rotocol stack are used interc'an ea.ly. Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Data Communication 22

Two *rotocol arc'itectures 'ave served as t'e .asis +or t'e develo*ment o+ intero*era.le communications standardsH t'e TC&)I& *rotocol suite and t'e (SI re+erence model. !C8*'8 is the most widely used interoperable architecture+ and ( ' has become the standard model for classifying communication functions. ?ence a .rie+ introduction to .ot' o+ t'em is iven .elow.

1.7.1 T"e 8SI 0rotocol 3rc"itecture

T'e (pen ystem 'nterconnection 3( '4 model includes a set o+ *rotocols t'at attem*t to de+ine and standardi5e t'e data communications *rocess. T'e (SI *rotocols were de+ined .y t'e 'nternational (rgani9ation for tandardi9ation 3' (4. T'e (SI model is not a sin le de+inition o+ 'ow data communications actually takes *lace in t'e real world. Numerous *rotocols may e/ist at eac' layer. T'e (SI model states 'ow t'e *rocess s'ould .e divided and w'at *rotocols s'ould .e used at eac' layer. I+ a network vendor im*lements one o+ t'e *rotocols at eac' layer, its network com*onents s'ould work wit' ot'er vendors< o++erin s. T'e (SI model 'as seven layers. #**lication
&resentation Session Trans*ort Network Data $ink &'ysical

1. T'e 8hysical layer *rovides t'e electrical and mec'anical inter+ace to t'e network medium 2t'e ca.le3. T'is layer ives t'e data"link layer 2layer 23 its a.ility to trans*ort a stream o+ serial data .its .etween two communicatin systems0 it conveys t'e .its t'at move alon t'e ca.le. It is res*onsi.le +or makin sure t'at t'e raw .its et +rom one *lace to anot'er, no matter w'at s'a*e t'ey are in, and deals wit' t'e mec'anical and electrical c'aracteristics o+ t'e ca.le. 2. T'e Data&1ink layer 'andles t'e *'ysical trans+er, +ramin 2t'e assem.ly o+ data into a sin le unit or .lock3, +low control and error"control +unctions over

Data Communication

23

a sin le transmission link0 it is res*onsi.le +or ettin t'e data *acka ed +or t'e &'ysical layer. T'e data link layer *rovides t'e network layer 2layer 33 relia.le in+ormation"trans+er ca*a.ilities. T'e data"link layer is o+ten su.divided into two *arts"$o ical $ink Control 2$$C3 and Medium #ccess Control 2M#C3"de*endin on t'e im*lementation. 3. T'e .etwork layer *rovides +or t'e trans+er o+ data in t'e +orm o+ *ackets across the communication networks. It esta.lis'es, maintains, and terminates lo ical and *'ysical connections across multi*le interconnected networks. # key as*ect o+ t'is trans+er is t'e routing of packets +rom t'e source to t'e destination mac'ine ty*ically traversin a num.er o+ transmission links and network nodes w'ere routin is carried out. Doutin is t'e *rocess .y w'ic' a *at' is selected out o+ many availa.le *at's to t'e destination so t'at data *acket reac'es t'e destination +ast, e++iciently, relia.ly as re-uired. T'is +unction makes t'e network most com*le/ layer in t'e re+erence model. #lso network layer is res*onsi.le +or translatin lo ical addresses, or names, into *'ysical 2or data"link3 addresses. It *rovides +low"control +unctions across t'e com*uter"network inter+ace. 4. T'e !ransport layer ensures data is success+ully sent and received .etween two end nodes. I+ data is sent incorrectly, t'is layer 'as t'e res*onsi.ility to ask +or retransmission o+ t'e data. #lso it ensures data are *assed onto t'e u**er layers in t'e same order in w'ic' t'ey were sent. S*eci+ically, it *rovides a relia.le, network"inde*endent messa e"interc'an e service to t'e to* t'ree a**lication"oriented layers. T'is layer acts as an inter+ace .etween t'e .ottom and to* t'ree layers. Fy *rovidin t'e session layer 2layer %3 wit' a relia.le messa e trans+er service, it 'ides t'e detailed o*eration o+ t'e underlyin network +rom t'e session layer. %. T'e ession layer decides w'en to turn communication on and o++ .etween two com*uters. It *rovides t'e mec'anisms t'at control t'e data"e/c'an e *rocess and coordinates t'e interaction .etween t'em. It sets u* and clears communication c'annels .etween two communicatin com*onents. Cnlike t'e

Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Data Communication

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network layer 2layer 33, it deals wit' t'e *ro rams runnin in eac' mac'ine to esta.lis' conversations .etween t'em. Some o+ t'e most commonly encountered *rotocol stacks, includin layer. 6. T'e 8resentation layer *er+orms code conversion and data re+ormattin 2synta/ translation3. It is t'e translator o+ t'e network, makin sure t'e data is in t'e correct +orm +or t'e receivin a**lication. (+ course, .ot' t'e sendin and receivin a**lications must .e a.le to use data su.scri.in to one o+ t'e availa.le a.stract data synta/ +orms. Most commonly, a**lications 'andle t'ese sorts o+ data translations t'emselves rat'er t'an 'andin t'em o++ to a &resentation layer. 8. T'e 0pplication layer *rovides t'e inter+ace .etween t'e so+tware runnin in a com*uter and t'e network. It *rovides +unctions to t'e user<s so+tware, includin +ile trans+er access and mana ement 21T#M3 and electronic mail service. Cn+ortunately, *rotocols in t'e real world do not con+orm *recisely to t'ese neat de+initions. Some network *roducts and arc'itectures com.ine layers. (t'ers leave layers out. Still ot'ers .reak t'e layers a*art. Fut no matter 'ow t'ey do it, all workin network *roducts ac'ieve t'e same result " ettin data +rom 'ere to t'ere. TC&)I&, don<t im*lement a session

1.7.2 T"e TC09I0 0rotocol 3rc"itecture

TC&)I& is a result o+ *rotocol researc' and develo*ment conducted on t'e e/*erimental *acket"switc'ed network, #D&#NBT, +unded .y t'e De+ense #dvanced Desearc' &ro7ects # ency 2D#D&#3 in t'e C.S, and is enerally re+erred to as t'e TC)I& *rotocol suite. T'is *rotocol suite consists o+ a lar e collection o+ *rotocols t'at 'ave .een issued as Internet standards .y t'e Internet #ctivities Foard 2I#F3. T'ere is no o++icial TC&)I& *rotocol model as t'ere is in t'e case o+ (SI. ?owever, .ased on t'e *rotocol standards t'at 'ave .een develo*ed, we can or ani5e t'e communication task +or TC&)I& into +ive relatively inde*endent layers0 #**lication layer

Data Communication

2%

Trans*ort layer 2TC&3 Internet layer 2I&3 Network access layer &'ysical layer T'e $"ysical layer covers t'e *'ysical inter+ace .etween a data transmission

device 2e. ., workstation, com*uter3 and a transmission medium or network. T'is layer is concerned wit' s*eci+yin t'e c'aracteristics o+ t'e transmission medium, t'e nature o+ t'e si nals, t'e data rate, and related matters. T'e net'ork access layer is concerned wit' t'e e/c'an e o+ data .etween an end system and t'e network to w'ic' it is attac'ed. T'e sendin com*uter must *rovide t'e network wit' t'e address o+ t'e destination com*uter, so t'at t'e network may route t'e data to t'e a**ro*riate destination. T'e s*eci+ic so+tware used at t'is layer de*ends on t'e ty*e o+ network to .e used0 di++erent standards 'ave .een develo*ed +or circuit"switc'in , *acket"switc'in 2e. ., L.2%3, local area networks 2e. ., t'is, t'e remainder o+ t'e Bt'ernet3, and ot'ers. T'us, it makes sense to se*arate t'ose +unctions 'avin to do wit' network access into a se*arate layer. Fy doin communications so+tware, a.ove t'e network access layer, need not .e concerned a.out t'e s*eci+ics o+ t'e network to .e used. T'e same 'i 'er"layer so+tware s'ould +unction *ro*erly re ardless o+ t'e *articular network to w'ic' t'e com*uter is attac'ed. T'e network access layer is concerned wit' access to and routin data across a network +or two end systems attached to the same network. In t'ose cases w'ere two devices are attac'ed to di++erent networks, *rocedures are needed to allow data to traverse multi*le interconnected networks. T'is is t'e +unction o+ t'e Internet layer. T'e Internet Protocol (IP) is used at t'is layer to *rovide t'e routin +unction across multi*le networks. T'is *rotocol is im*lemented not only in t'e end systems .ut also in routers. # router is a *rocessor t'at connects two or more networks and w'ose *rimary +unction is to relay data +rom one network to t'e ot'er on its route +rom t'e source to t'e destination end system. De ardless o+ t'e nature o+ t'e a**lications t'at are e/c'an in data, t'ere is usually a re-uirement t'at data .e e/c'an ed relia.ly. T'at is, we would like to .e assured t'at

Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Data Communication

26

all o+ t'e data arrive at t'e destination a**lication and t'at t'e data arrive in t'e same order in w'ic' t'ey were sent. #s we s'all see, t'e mec'anisms +or *rovidin relia.ility are essentially inde*endent o+ t'e nature o+ t'e a**lications. T'us, it makes sense to collect t'ose mec'anisms in a common layer s'ared .y all a**lications0 t'is is re+erred to as t'e trans$ort layer. T'e Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is t'e most commonly used *rotocol to *rovide t'is +unctionality. T'is *rotocol model TC&)I& derived its name +rom t'e a.ove two *rotocols. 1inally, t'e a$$lication layer contains t'e lo ic needed to su**ort t'e various user a**lications. 1or eac' di++erent ty*e o+ a**lication, suc' as +ile trans+er, se*arate module is needed t'at is *eculiar to t'at a**lication.

1i ure 1.8 TC&)I& &rotocol #rc'itecture Model 1i ure1.8 s'ows 'ow t'e TC&)I& *rotocols are im*lemented in end systems. Note t'at t'e *'ysical and network access layers *rovide interaction .etween t'e end system and t'e network, w'ereas t'e trans*ort and a**lication layers are w'at is known as end"to"end *rotocols0 t'ey su**ort interaction .etween two end systems. T'e internet layer 'as t'e +lavor o+ .ot'. #t t'is layer, t'e end system communicates routin in+ormation to t'e network .ut also must *rovide some common +unctions .etween t'e two end systems.

&%ercise
1. Discuss t'e di++erent entities involved in a sim*le communication network model. 2. $ist t'e various tasks involved in data communication system and .rie+ly e/*lain t'em.

Data Communication

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3. $ist t'e cate ories into w'ic' communication networks are classi+ied. $ist di++erent kind o+ networks under eac' cate ory and .rie+ly discuss one network eac' under a cate ory. 4. !'at is *rotocolK !'at are t'e elements o+ a *rotocolK %. B/*lain t'e conce*t o+ *rotocol arc'itecture usin 1ile trans+er a**lication as an e/am*le. 6. Frie+ly discuss t'e (SI and TC&)I& *rotocol models.

Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Data Communication

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