Total Productivity and Quality Management

Total Productivity and Quality Management
Natraj Korgaonkar S.Y.B.M.S. (A) !"
Otis Elevators
Elevator Industry with Special Emphasis on Otis
Otis Elevators
Our Company
#T$S %orld&' (arge't...
Otis is the worlds largest manufacturer of elevators, escalators, moving walks and other hori ontal trans!ortation systems" #or architects and contractors, develo!ers and homeowners, Otis is the worlds leading !eo!le mover" $hile we manufacture, install, moderni e and maintain elevators, escalators, moving walks and shuttles, the heart of our %usiness is !ro%lem solving" $hether a customer needs a so!histicated elevator system for the tallest %uilding in the world or a sim!le lift for a two&story home, we are dedicated to !roviding the safest, most relia%le solutions !ossi%le. )*anging t*e '*a+e o, t*e -orld 'n ()*3, Elisha +raves Otis introduced the worlds first safety elevator in ,onkers, -ew ,ork .changing the sha!e of the modern world" #rom that !oint forward, %uildings could rise %eyond the limitations of stairs" /ities would have skylines" Today, our !ioneering s!irit is as strong as it was when we %egan" $ith every new !roduct and service, Otis is moving our industry, our com!any and our customers forward. S*aring 'trengt*' Otis is !art of 0nited Technologies /or!oration, a #ortune *11 com!any and world leader in the %uilding systems and aeros!ace industries" 2haring strengths with 0T/ allows Otis to draw on remarka%le resources in engineering, !roduct testing, !urchasing, marketing and information systems" Otis %rings all these strengths to %ear in creating %etter solutions for our customers"
Otis Elevators
Sa,ety ,ir't.
T*e vertical tran'+ortation o, +eo+le and material' to ot*er-i'e uno/taina/le *eig*t' -a' e0tremely *a1ardou' until 2li'*a 3rave' #ti' invented t*e 42levator 'a,ety5 in 6789. :or age'; man *ad 'truggled -it* variou' mean' to tran'+ort *eavy load' to *ig*er +lace'. By today<' 'tandard'; all -ere un'a,e and mo't un'ucce'',ul. #ti'< 'a,ety con'i'ted o, a -agon '+ring and a rack -it* teet* (ratc*et) on t*e guide rail'. $, t*e *oi't ro+e /roke; t*e ten'ion -a' relea'ed ,rom t*e -agon '+ring allo-ing it to engage t*e ratc*et and /ring t*e car to a 'to+. T*e +ioneering -ork o, 2li'*a 3rave' #ti' -a' carried /y *i' 'on'; )*arle' and Norton. Many re,inement *ave ,ollo-ed; /ut t*e conce+t i' 'till 4Sa,ety :ir't5.
Mr.Elisha Graves Otis displaying the first elevator.
Otis Elevators
Product'=
Otis has mastered itself in the field of elevators since ()*2" Ever since Mr" Otis introduced the first elevator to the world, there has %een develo!ment carried through ages" Otis Elevator has now three main categories of !roducts with different models in each section" They are as follows4 Traction Elevators 5ydraulic Elevators Escalators Each of these sections has around 211 models varying u!on the ca!acity, the ty!e of load %eing carried in the elevator, the height of the %uilding, the s!eed re6uired %y customer and so" 7gain each of these categories has two main su%&grou!s4 Passenger Elevators /argo8 goods Elevators"
The elevator from outside.
The Escalator.
Otis Elevators
Production Proce''
The design and !roduction of any of the elevators is done in Taiwan and in 9orea" 0nfortunately there is no Elevator com!any in 'ndia which has a !roduction !lant or factory in the country" 7ll the com!anies along with Otis have their design and !roduction !lants outside the country" They only assem%le and re&engineer the !roduct at the site where the elevator has to %e erected" This hel!s in saving a lot of technological cost %ecause the com!any fins the technology chea! in the foreign markets" 7nd thus only im!orting the re6uired !arts %ecomes chea!er in 'ndia that !roducing elevators" 7ll the !arts of the elevator or escalators are im!orted stored in the country" Otis Elevators has its own stores de!artment and an official head office in Mum%ai at -e!ensea :oad and 9andivli res!ectively" Thus as !er the re6uirements of the workers working at various sites of the com!any the re6uired goods or s!are !arts or the e6ui!ments are delivered to the site of erection or maintenance or %oth" /urrently the com!any undertakes ;o%s or erection of elevators and escalators at various new !laces and maintenance of erected elevators" 7t times this may also include elevators !roduced %y different com!anied for which Otis charges fee !lus com!ensation"
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Otis Elevators
Proce'' o, 2rection o, 2levator' -it* Time and %ork Mea'urement=

7s said earlier the com!any does not indulge itself in the !roduction of elevators in 'ndia and thus it im!orts all its re6uirements from its !arent com!any across the glo%e, the com!any has a low cost advantage" Thus the com!any only takes orders from their clients and then order for the same and then erects the elevator or escalators at the site given to them" #ollowing is the syno!sis of the erection !rocess of elevators4 #rder= The order of the !roduct is the first main stage of the erection of an elevator" 7s !er the clients re6uirements for the ty!e of elevator, si e com!osition, cost analysis maintenance etc, the com!any advices the clients for any change if re6uired in the order" The time taken for this !rocess de!ends u!on the negotiations and the com!any and the clients relationshi!" )om+any<' re>uirement'= 7s !er the clients re6uirements the com!any !laces its re6uirement of the hall way that would %e re6uired where the elevator would %e !lace, the !lace and the area of the machine room, the !it& its de!th, area, electricity connections, scaff&holding, shafts, etc" The time taken to com!lete all the com!anys re6uirements would %e the time taken %y the %uilder to com!lete the main structure of the %uilding" This would again de!end u!on the height of the %uilding" Actual erection +roce''= 7fter the clients have given the com!anys %asic re6uirements that are necessary for erecting an elevator the actual !rocess of erection %egins" This starts with %uilding the scaff&holdings =%am%oo %uilding structure> inside the hall way where one !laces the elevator and setting&u! the machine room with the machine motor, %rake assem%ly, controller, governor and then the work to construct the shaft %egins" )om/ined -ork ,orce'= ?y the time the machine room is set, other grou! of workers start setting u! the hall %uttons, landing doors on each floor, fi@tures and assem%ling the !it ;ust %elow the ground floor" The setting&u! of the !it is the most im!ortant factor" This is the one which allows the car&lift to rest and !revent it from going further underground" 'n other words, it !revents free&fall of the car&lift %y the use of counter %uffer and oil& %uffers" The time taken for the same !rocess is same as the a%ove as %oth the works is done at the same time"
Otis Elevators
A''em/ling o, t*e main car li,t= This the ne@t stage in the erection of the car&lift in the hall&way" This is done %y first setting&u! the guide rails which are a%out (<m each in height" These are done u!to the ceiling roof" Then the car&lift is set&u! at the to! floor with the counterweight on the ground floor" This is the main !rinci!le stage for the working of the elevator" 'f there is even a single mistake in determining the counterweight or assem%ling it right, the then whole elevator will crash within a second" 'f there is a !erfect %alance then the steel ro!es are attached to the car&lift and the counterweight through the machine motor situated on the terrace ;ust over the hall&way" 2ince this is the most crucial stage, takes around )&(1 days =for < storeyed %uilding> de!ending u!on the height of the %uilding" :i0ture' and /utton'= 7fter setting&u! the main frame of he elevator, the ne@t stage is setting u! the fi@ture, %uttons in the car&lift, coordinating o!en and close doors at each and every floor, testing each floor for reci!rocal call etc" 2ine this is minute %ut energy consuming !rocess takes at least <&) days for a normal < storeyed %uilding
Otis Elevators
Management by Objectives
?e,inition= BManagement by Objectives is a comprehensive managerial system that integrates many key managerial activities in a systematic manner and that is consciously directed towards the effective and efficient achievement of organizational and individual objectives.
2volving )once+t' in MB#=

2arly $m+etu' to MB#=
2ince many centuries !eo!le have used their common sense and given im!ortance to management %y o%;ectives" 't was in (C*3 that Peter. F. Drucker first em!hasi ed that o%;ectives must %e set in all areas where !erformance affects the health of the enter!rise" 7%out at the same time General Electric Co" was using M?O in its reorgani ation 2m+*a'i' #n Per,ormance A++rai'al= 'n traditional a!!raisal !rograms !ersonality traits were used for evaluating su%ordinates" ?ut when M?O was im!lemented em!hasis was given on !erformance rather than !ersonality which lead to self a!!raisal and self develo!ment" The active involvement of su%ordinates leads to commitment and creates an environment for motivation"
2m+*a'i' on '*ort term o/jective' and motivation=

'ndividual goal setting is an im!ortant factor in motivating em!loyees" 't is known that !erformance is higher when !eo!le have s!ecific o%;ectives than when they are asked sim!ly to do their %est"
'n M?O !rograms that em!hasis !erformance a!!raisals and motivation the focus tends to %e on short term o%;ectives, which may lead to undesira%le managerial %ehaviour" Due to these short&comings many organi ation now include long range and strategic !lanning in M?O !rograms"
$nclu'ion #, (ong @ange Plan $n MB#=
T*e Sy'tem A++roac* To MB#

M?O has undergone many changes" 't has %een used in !erformance a!!raisals as an instrument for motivating individual and in strategic !lanning" ?ut there are still other managerial su%systems that can %e integrated into M?O !rocess" Earious managerial activities need to %e integrated into a system" #or M?O to %e a com!rehensive system of managing indicates that most key managerial activities can and should %e integrated with the M?O !rocess" The degree of integration however differs for individual activities" #or M?O to %e effective it has to %e viewed as a com!rehensive system and it must %e considered as a way of managing and not an addiction to the managerial ;o%"
Otis Elevators
T*e Proce'' o, Managing By #/jective'=

The !rocess starts at the to! of an organi ation and has the active su!!ort of the chief e@ecutive, who gives direction to the organi ation" 't is not essential the o%;ective setting starts at the to!" 't can start at the divisional level, at the marketing level or even lower level" 7s in all !lanning, one of the critical need in M?O is the develo!ment and dissemination of consistent !lanning !remises" -o manager can %e e@!ected to set goals or esta%lish !lans and %udgets without guidelines"
Setting +reliminary o/jective' at t*e to+=

+iven a!!ro!riate !lanning !remises, the first ste! in setting o%;ectives is for the to! manager to determine what he or she !erceives to %e the !ur!ose or mission and the more im!ortant goals of the enter!rise for a given !eriod ahead" /ertain goals should %e scheduled for accom!lishment in a much shorter !eriod and others in a much longer !eriod" The goals set %y the su!erior are !reliminary %ased on an analysis and ;udgment as to what can and should %e accom!lished %y the organi ation within a certain !eriod" This re6uires taking into account the com!anys strength and weakness in the light of availa%le o!!ortunities and threats" Most managers also find out the !rocess of working out goals with the su%ordinates reveals %oth !ro%lems they should deal with and the o!!ortunities they were not !reviously aware of" $hen setting o%;ectives, the manager also esta%lishes measure of goal accom!lishment" 'f verifia%le o%;ectives are develo!ed, these measures, whether in sale dollars !rofits, !ercentages, cost level, or !rogram e@ecution, will normally %uilt into o%;ectives"
)lari,ying #rgani1ational @ole'=

The relationshi! %etween e@!ected results and the res!onsi%ility of attaining is often overlooked" 'deally, each goal and su% goal should %e one !articular !ersons res!onsi%ility" 7naly ing an organi ation structure, however, often reveals that the res!onsi%ility is vague and the clarification or reorgani ation is needed" 2ometimes it is im!ossi%le to structure an organi ation so that a given o%;ective is someones !ersonal res!onsi%ility"
Setting Su/ordinate' #/jective'=

7fter making sure that su%ordinate managers have %een informed of !ertinent general o%;ectives, strategies, and !lanning !remises, the su!erior can then !roceed to work with su%ordinates in setting their o%;ectives" The su!eriors ask what goals the su%ordinates %elieve they can accom!lish, in what time !eriod and with what resources" 2u!eriors must also %e !atient counsellors, hel!ing their su%ordinates develo! consistent and su!!ortive o%;ectives and %eing careful not to set goals that are im!ossi%le to
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Otis Elevators
achieve" One of the things that can weaken a !rogram %y o%;ectives is to allow managers to set unrealistic o%;ectives" One of the ma;or advantages of carefully setting u! a network of verifia%le goals and a re6uirement for doing so effectively is trying in the need of ca!ital, materials and human resources at the same time" 7ll managers at all levels re6uire these resources to accom!lish their goals" ?y relating these resources to the goals themselves, su!eriors can %etter see the most effective and the most economical way of allocating them
@ecycling o, o/jective'=
O%;ectives can hardly %e set %y starting at the to! and dividing them u! among su%ordinates nor should they %e started from the %ottom" 7 degree of recycling is a must" To! managers may have some idea of what their su%ordinates o%;ectives should %eF %ut they will almost certainly change these !reconceived goals as the contri%utions of the su%ordinates come into focus" Thus setting o%;ectives is not a ;oint !rocess %ut also an interactive one"
Bene,it' o, Management /y #/jective'=

6. $m+rovement o, managing= Managing 2ense in a Manager 'm!roves" 9. )lari,ication o, organi1ation= Management %y o%;ectives forces managers to clarify roles i"e" organi ational roles and structures" A. 2ncouragement o, Per'onal )ommitment= 't encourages !eo!le to commit themselves to their goals" !. ?evelo+ment o, 2,,ective )ontrol'= M?O hel!s in effective !lanning, it also aids in develo!ing effective controls"
%eakne'' o, Management /y #/jective'=

6. 9. A. !. 8. :ailure to teac* t*e +*ilo'o+*y o, MB#. :ailure to give guideline' to goal 'etter'. ?i,,iculty o, 'etting goal'. MB# +rogram' are 'et ,or '*ort term'. ?anger o, in,le0i/ility.
Total Quality Management

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Otis Elevators
Total Quality Management or TQM is a management strategy to em%ed awareness of 6uality in all organi ational !rocesses" Quality assurance through statistical methods is a key com!onent" TQM aims to do things right the first time, rather than need to fi@ !ro%lems after they emerge or fester" TQM may o!erate within 6uality circles, which encourage the meeting of minds of the workforce in different de!artments in order to im!rove !roduction and reduce wastage" 'n a Otis, TQM generally starts %y sam!ling a random selection of the !roduct" The sam!le is then tested for things that matter to the real customers" The causes of any failures are isolated, secondary measures of the !roduction !rocess are designed, and then the causes of the failure are corrected" The statistical distri%utions of im!ortant measurements are tracked" $hen !artsG measures drift out of the error %and, the !rocess is fi@ed" The error %and is usually tighter than the failure %and" The !roduction !rocess is there%y fi@ed %efore failing !arts can %e !roduced" 'tGs im!ortant to record not ;ust the measurement ranges, %ut what failures caused them to %e chosen" 'n that way, chea!er fi@es can %e su%stituted later, =say, when the !roduce is redesigned>, with no loss of 6uality" 7fter TQM has %een in use, itGs very common for !arts to %e redesigned so that critical measurements either cease to e@ist, or %ecome much wider" 't took !eo!le a while to develo! tests to find emergent !ro%lems" One !o!ular test is a Hlife testH in which the sam!le !roduct is o!erated until a !art fails" 7nother !o!ular test is called Hshake and %akeH" The !roduct is mounted on a vi%rator in an environmental oven, and o!erated at !rogressively more e@treme vi%ration and tem!eratures until something fails" The failure is then isolated and engineers design an im!rovement" 7 commonly&discovered failure is for the !roduct to come a!art" 'f fasteners fail, the im!rovements might %e to use measured&tension nutdrivers to ensure that screws donGt come off, or im!roved adhesives to ensure that !arts remain glued" 'f a gear%o@ wears out first, a ty!ical engineering design im!rovement might %e to su%stitute a %rushless ste!!er motor for a D/ motor with a gear%o@" The im!rovement is that a ste!!er motor has no %rushes or gears to wear out, so it lasts ten times or more longer" The ste!!er motor is more e@!ensive than a D/ motor, %ut chea!er than a D/ motor com%ined with a gear%o@" The electronics is radically different, %ut e6ually e@!ensive" One disadvantage might %e that a ste!!er motor can hum or whine, and usually needs noise&isolating mounts" Often a TQMed !roduct is cheaper to !roduce =%ecause thereGs no need to re!air dead&on& arrival !roducts>, and can yield an immensely more desira%le !roduct" TQM can %e a!!lied to services =such as mortgage issue or insurance underwriting>, or even normal %usiness !a!erwork" TQM is not a focused im!rovement a!!roach" The customer desires and !roduct tests select what to fi@" Theoretical constraints are not considered at all"
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Otis Elevators
Scatter Diagrams
This tutorial is designed to allow the user to develo! and inter!ret scatter diagrams" $hen the scatter diagram has %een !lotted from the data, the user can view several different gra!hs within the 'nter!retations, read the inter!retation of the diagrams !attern, and %e a%le to draw conclusions a%out the !lotted diagram %y com!aring it to one of the five !ossi%le gra!h !atterns"
Overview
2catter diagrams are used to study !ossi%le relationshi!s %etween two varia%les" 7lthough these diagrams cannot !rove that one varia%le causes the other, they do indicate the e@istence of a relationshi!, as well as the strength of that relationshi!" 7 scatter diagram is com!osed of a hori ontal a@is containing the measured values of one varia%le and a vertical a@is re!resenting the measurements of the other varia%le" The !ur!ose of the scatter diagram is to dis!lay what ha!!ens to one varia%le when another varia%le is changed" The diagram is used to test a theory that the two varia%les are related" The ty!e of relationshi! that e@its is indicated %y the slo!e of the diagram"
Key erms
Earia%le & a 6uality characteristic that can %e measured and e@!ressed as a num%er on some continuous scale of measurement" :elationshi! & :elationshi!s %etween varia%les e@ist when one varia%le de!ends on the other and changing one varia%le will affect the other" Data 2heet & contains the measurements that were collected for !lotting the diagram" /orrelation & an analysis method used to decide whether there is a statistically significant relationshi! %etween two varia%les" :egression & an analysis method used to identify the e@act nature of the relationshi! %etween two varia%les"
!onstruction o" Scatter Diagrams

Car (elevator) 1 2 3 4 : : : : 100
/ollect and construct a data sheet of *1 to (11 !aired sam!les of data that you sus!ect to %e related" /onstruct your data sheet as follows4
Age (In Years) 2 4 1 5 : : : : 7 Price (In Dollars) 4000 2500 5000 1250 : : : : 1000
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Otis Elevators
Draw the a@es of the diagram" The first varia%le =the inde!endent varia%le> is usually located on the hori ontal a@is and its values should increase as you move to the right" The vertical a@is usually contains the second varia%le =the de!endent varia%le> and its values should increase as you move u! the a@is" Plot the data on the diagram" The resulting scatter diagram may look as follows4
'nter!ret the diagram" 2ee inter!retation section of tutorial"
Interpretations
The scatter diagram is a useful tool for identifying a !otential relationshi! %etween two varia%les" The sha!e of the scatter diagram !resents valua%le information a%out the gra!h" 't shows the ty!e of relationshi! which may %e occurring %etween the two varia%les" There are several different !atterns =meanings> that scatter diagrams can have" The following descri%e five of the most common scenarios4 (" The first !attern is !ositive correlation, that is, as the amount of varia%le @ increases, the varia%le y also increases" 't is tem!ting to think this is a cause8effect relationshi!" This is an incorrect thinking !attern, %ecause correlation does not necessarily mean causality" This sim!le relationshi! could %e caused %y something totally different" #or instance, the two varia%les could %e related to a third, such as curing time or stam!ing tem!erature" Theoretically, if @ is controlled, we have a chance of controlling y"
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Otis Elevators
2" 2econdly, we have !ossi%le !ositive correlation, that is, if @ increases, y will increase somewhat, %ut y seems to %e caused %y something other than @" Designed e@!eriments must %e utili ed to verify causality"
3" $e also have the no correlation category" The diagram is so random that there is no a!!arent correlation %etween the two varia%les"
3" There is also !ossi%le negative correlation, that is, an increase in @ will cause a tendency for a decrease in y, %ut y seems to have causes other than @"
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Otis Elevators
*" #inally, we have the negative correlation category" 7n increase in @ will cause a decrease in y" Therefore, if y is controlled, we have a good chance of controlling @"
9ey O%servations I7 strong relationshi! %etween the two varia%les is o%served when most of the !oints fall along an imaginary straight line with either a !ositive or negative slo!e" I-o relationshi! %etween the two varia%les is o%served when the !oints are randomly scattered a%out the gra!h"
#$% !&'# S( IME )*O ( #E%D !&'#
PB@P#S2
'n&de!th view into :un /harts&&a 6uality im!rovement techni6ueF how :un charts are used to monitor !rocessesF how using :un charts can lead to im!roved !rocess 6uality
BSA32
:un charts are used to analy e !rocesses according to time or order" :un charts are useful in discovering !atterns that occur over time"
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Otis Elevators
K2Y T2@MS
Trends
Trends are !atterns or shifts according to time" 7n u!ward trend, for instance, would contain a section of data !oints that increased as time !assed"
Population
7 !o!ulation is the entire data set of the !rocess" 'f a !rocess !roduces one thousand !arts a day, the !o!ulation would %e the one thousand items"
!ample
7 sam!le is a su%grou! or small !ortion of the !o!ulation that is e@amined when the entire !o!ulation can not %e evaluated" #or instance, if the !rocess does !roduce one thousand items a day, the sam!le si e could %e !erha!s three hundred"
$NST@B)T$#NS :#@ )@2AT$N3 A )CA@T

Ste+ 6= 3at*ering ?ata
To %egin any run chart, some ty!e of !rocess or o!eration must %e availa%le to take measurements for analysis" Measurements must %e taken over a !eriod of time" The data must %e collected in a chronological or se6uential form" ,ou may start at any !oint and end at any !oint" #or %est results, at least 2* or more sam!les must %e taken in order to get an accurate run chart"
Ste+ 9= #rgani1ing ?ata

Once the data has %een !laced in chronological or se6uential form, it must %e divided into two sets of values @ and y" The values for @ re!resent time and the values for y re!resent the measurements taken from the manufacturing !rocess or o!eration"
Ste+ A= )*arting ?ata

Plot the y values versus the @ values %y hand or %y com!uter, using an a!!ro!riate scale that will make the !oints on the gra!h visi%le" -e@t, draw vertical lines for the @ values to se!arate time intervals such as weeks" Draw hori ontal lines to show where trends in the !rocess or o!eration occur or will occur"
Ste+ != $nter+reting ?ata

7fter drawing the hori ontal and vertical lines to segment data, inter!ret the data and draw any conclusions that will %e %eneficial to the !rocess or o!eration" 2ome !ossi%le outcomes are4 Trends in the chart /yclical !atterns in the data O%servations from each time interval are consistent
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Otis Elevators
@BN )CA@T 2DAMP(2

Pro/lem Scenario
$e use the run chart for data analysis of workers time&in and time&out" This is illustrated in the given data where we have shown the days and time taken %y a worker to reach his office"
Ste+ 6= 3at*ering ?ata

/ollect measurements each day over the ne@t four weeks" Organi e and record the data in chronological or se6uential form"
M ##$ ##$ ##$ ##$ 1 2 3 4 33 35 34'5 34 T 2% 30'5 2( 2('5 2&'5 2% 2% 27 T! 2% 2& 2& 27 " 2& 25'5 25 25'5
Ste+ 9= #rgani1ing ?ata

Determine what the values for the @ =time, day of week> and day =data, minutes to work> a@is will %e"
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Otis Elevators
Ste+ A= )*arting ?ata

Plot the y values versus the @ values %y hand or %y com!uter using the a!!ro!riate scale" Draw hori ontal or vertical lines on the gra!h where trends or inconsistencies occur"
Ste+ != $nter+reting ?ata

'nter!ret results and draw any conclusions that are im!ortant" 7n overall decreasing trend occurs each week with Mondays taking the most amounts of time and #ridays generally taking the least amount of time" Therefore you accordingly allow yourself more time on Mondays to arrive to work on time"
&istograms
The histogram will !rovide information on 6uality !rocess control =Q"/">" The histogram evolved to meet the need for evaluating data that occurs at a certain fre6uency" This is !ossi%le %ecause the histogram allows for a concise !ortrayal of information in a %ar gra!h format" The histogram is a !owerful engineering tool when routinely and intelligently used" The histogram clearly !ortrays information on location, s!read, and sha!e that ena%les the user to !erceive su%tleties regarding the functioning of the !hysical !rocess that is generating the data" 't can also hel! suggest %oth the nature of, and !ossi%le im!rovements for, the !hysical mechanisms at work in the !rocess"
Pur+o'e=
The !ur!ose is to %ecome familiar with gra!hical histograms which are used widely in 6uality control =Q"/">" 5istograms are effective Q"/" tools which are used in the analysis of data" They are used as a check on s!ecific !rocess !arameters to determine where the greatest amount of variation occurs in the !rocess, or to determine if !rocess s!ecifications are e@ceeded" This statistical method does not !rove that a !rocess is in a state of control" -onetheless, histograms alone have %een used to solve many !ro%lems in 6uality control"
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Key Term'=
Ci'togram
7 vertical %ar chart of a fre6uency distri%ution of data Q.). Met*odology & 7 statistical tool used in the analysis and determination of !ossi%le solutions to 6uality control !ro%lems in industry
:re>uency ?i'tri/ution
7 variation in a numeric sam!le of data
!reating a &istogram
(" Determine the range of the data %y su%tracting the smallest o%served measurement from the largest and designate it as :" 2" E@am!le4 3" Jargest o%served measurement K ("(()* inches 4' 2mallest o%served measurement K ("(131 inches *" : K ("(()* inches & ("(131 inches K"1(** inch <" :ecord the measurement unit =M0> used" This is usually controlled %y the measuring instrument least count" A" E@am!le4 M0 K "111( inch )" Determine the num%er of classes and the class width" The num%er of classes, k, should %e no lower than si@ and no higher than fifteen for !ractical !ur!oses" Trial and error may %e done to achieve the %est distri%ution for analysis" C" E@am!le4 kK) (1" Determine the class width =5> %y dividing the range, :, %y the !referred num%er of classes, k" ((" E@am!le4 :8k K "1(**8) K "11(C3A* inch (2" The class width selected should %e an odd&num%ered multi!le of the (3" Measurement unit, M0" This value should %e close to the 5 value4 (3" M0 K "111( inch (*" /lass width K "11(C inch or "112( inch (<" Esta%lish the class mid!oints and class limits" The first class mid!oint should %e located near the largest o%served measurement" 'f !ossi%le, it should also %e a convenient increment" 7lways make the class widths e6ual in si e and e@!ress the class limits in terms which are one&half unit %eyond the accuracy of the original measurement unit" This avoids !lotting an o%served measurement on a class limit" (A" E@am!le4 #irst class mid!oint K ("(()* inches, and the ()" /lass width is "11(C inch" Therefore, limits would %e (C" ("(()* L or & "11(C82" 21" Determine the a@es for the gra!h" The fre6uency scale on the vertical a@is should slightly e@ceed the largest class fre6uency, and the measurement scale along the hori ontal a@is should %e at regular intervals which are inde!endent of the class width" =2ee e@am!le %elow ste!s"> 2(" Draw the gra!h" Mark off the classes, and draw rectangles with heights corres!onding to the measurement fre6uencies in that class"
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22" Title the histogram" +ive an overall title and identify each a@is"
Interpretations
$hen com%ined with the conce!t of the normal curve and the knowledge of a !articular !rocess, the histogram %ecomes an effective, !ractical working tool in the early stages of data analysis" 7 histogram may %e inter!reted %y asking three 6uestions4 (" 's the !rocess !erforming within s!ecification limitsM 2" Does the !rocess seem to e@hi%it wide variationM 3" 'f action needs to %e taken on the !rocess, what action is a!!ro!riateM The answer to these three 6uestions lies in analy ing three characteristics of the histogram" (" 5ow well is the histogram centredM The centring of the data !rovides information on the !rocess aim a%out some mean or nominal value" 2" 5ow wide is the histogramM Jooking at histogram width defines the varia%ility of the !rocess a%out the aim" 3" $hat is the sha!e of the histogramM :emem%er that the data is e@!ected to form a normal or %ell&sha!ed curve" 7ny significant change or anomaly usually indicates that there is something going on in the !rocess which is causing the 6uality !ro%lem"
E+amples o" ypical Distributions

-O:M7J
De!icted %y a %ell&sha!ed curve o most fre6uent measurement a!!ears as centre of distri%ution o less fre6uent measurements ta!er gradually at %oth ends of distri%ution
2(
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'ndicates that a !rocess is running normally =only common causes are !resent>"
B$ M#?A(
Distri%ution a!!ears to have two !eaks May indicate that data from more than !rocess are mi@ed together o materials may come from two se!arate vendors o 2am!les may have come from two se!arate machines"
)($:: ($K2
7!!ears to end shar!ly or a%ru!tly at one end 'ndicates !ossi%le sorting or ins!ection of non&conforming !arts"
SA% T##TC2?
7lso commonly referred to as a com% distri%ution, a!!ears as an alternating ;agged !attern Often indicates a measuring !ro%lem o im!ro!er gage readings o +age not sensitive enough for readings"
SK2%2?
7!!ears as an uneven curveF values seem to ta!er to one side" 't is worth mentioning again that this or any other !hase of histogram analysis must %e married to knowledge of the !rocess %eing studied to have any real value" 9nowledge of the data analysis itself does not !rovide sufficient insight into the 6uality !ro%lem"
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#TC2@ )#NS$?2@AT$#NS
Num/er o, 'am+le'" #or the histogram to %e re!resentative of the true !rocess %ehaviour, as a general rule, at least fifty =*1> sam!les should %e measured"
"imitations of techni#ues.
5istograms are limited in their use due to the random order in which sam!les are taken and lack of information a%out the state of control of the !rocess" ?ecause sam!les are gathered without regard to order, the time&de!endent or time&related trends in the !rocess are not ca!tured" 2o, what may a!!ear to %e the central tendency of the data may %e deceiving" $ith res!ect to !rocess statistical control, the histogram gives no indication whether the !rocess was o!erating at its %est when the data was collected" This lack of information on !rocess control may lead to incorrect conclusions %eing drawn and, hence, ina!!ro!riate decisions %eing made" 2till, with these considerations in mind, the histogramGs sim!licity of construction and ease of use make it an invalua%le tool in the elementary stages of data analysis"
Example
The following e@am!le shows data collected from an e@!eriment measuring !ellet !enetration de!th from a !ellet drill machine in inches and the corres!onding histogram4
Penetration )e*t+ (inc+es), 2-3-3-3-3-4-4-4-5-5-&-&'
2ome im!ortant things to remem%er when constructing a histogram4 0se intervals of e6ual length" 2how the entire vertical a@es %eginning with ero" Do not %reak either a@is" 9ee! a uniform scale across the a@is" /entre the histogram %ars at the mid!oint of the intervals =in this case, the !enetration de!th intervals>"
,*O- !&'# S
OVERVIEW Quality $m+rovement Tool=
#low charts used s!ecifically for a !rocess" 7 flow chart is defined as a !ictorial re!resentation descri%ing a !rocess %eing studied or even used to !lan stages of a !ro;ect" #low charts tend to !rovide !eo!le with a common language or reference !oint when dealing with a !ro;ect or !rocess" #our !articular ty!es of flow charts have !roven useful when 23
Otis Elevators
dealing with a !rocess analysis4 to!&down flow chart, detailed flow chart, work flow diagrams, and a de!loyment chart" Each of the different ty!es of flow charts tends to !rovide a different as!ect to a !rocess or a task" #low charts !rovide an e@cellent form of documentation for a !rocess, and 6uite often are useful when e@amining how various ste!s in a !rocess work together" $hen dealing with a !rocess flow chart, two se!arate stages of the !rocess should %e considered4 the finished !roduct and the making of the !roduct" 'n order to analy e the finished !roduct or how to o!erate the !rocess, flow charts tend to use sim!le and easily recogni a%le sym%ols" The %asic flow chart sym%ols %elow are used when analy ing how to o!erate a !rocess"
'n order to analy e the second condition for a flow !rocess chart, one should use the 7-2' standard sym%ols" The 7-2' standard sym%ols used most often include the following4
Drive -ail, /ement, Ty!e Jetter"
Move Material %y truck, conveyor, or hand"
:aw Material in %ins, finished !roduct on !allets, or filed documents"
$ait for elevator, !a!ers waiting, material waiting
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:ead gages, read !a!ers for information, or check 6uality of goods"
7ny com%ination of two or more of these sym%ols show an understanding for a ;oint !rocess"
INSTRUCTIONS
2te!&%y&2te! !rocess of how to develo! a flow chart" +ather information of how the !rocess flows4 use a> conservation, %> e@!erience, or c> !roduct develo!ment codes" Trial !rocess flow" 7llow other more familiar !ersonnel to check for accuracy" Make changes if necessary" /om!are final actual flow with %est !ossi%le flow" -ote4 Process should follow the flow of 2te!(, 2te! 2""" 2te! -" 2te! -K End of Process /O-2T:0/T'O-8'-TE:P:ET7T'O- ti! for a flow chart" Define the %oundaries of the !rocess clearly" 0se the sim!lest sym%ols !ossi%le" Make sure every feed%ack loo! has an esca!e" There is usually only one out!ut arrow out of a !rocess %o@" Otherwise, it may re6uire a decision diamond"
INTERPRETATION

7naly e flow chart of actual !rocess" 7naly e flow chart of %est !rocess" /om!are %oth charts, looking for areas where they are different" Most of the time, the stages where differences occur is considered to %e the !ro%lem area or !rocess" Take a!!ro!riate in&house ste!s to correct the differences %etween the two se!arate flows"
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)rocess ,low !hart. &ow a process wor/s

=7ssem%ling of oil&filled %uffer>
!ause and E""ect Diagram

PURPOSE and USAGE
To !rovide a !ictorial dis!lay of a list in which you identify and organi e !ossi%le causes of !ro%lems, or factors needed to ensure success of some effort" 't is an effective tool that allows !eo!le to easily see the relationshi! %etween factors to study !rocesses, situations, and for !lanning"
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HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
The cause&and&effect diagram is also called the 'shikawa diagram =after its creator, 9aoru 'shikawa of Na!an>, or the fish%one diagram =due to its sha!e>" 't was created so that all !ossi%le causes of a result could %e listed in such a way as to allow a user to gra!hically show these !ossi%le causes" #rom this diagram, the user can define the most likely causes of a result" This diagram was ado!ted %y Dr" $" Edwards Deming as a hel!ful tool in im!roving 6uality" Dr" Deming has taught Total Quality Management in Na!an since $orld $ar ''" 5e has also hel!ed develo! statistical tools to %e used for the census and taught the military his methods of 6uality management" ?oth 'shikawa and Deming use this diagram as one the first tools in the 6uality management !rocess"
USEFUL SOFTWARE
/ause and Effect Diagrams are ty!ically constructed through %rainstorming techni6ues" 7s a result, they are often drafted %y hand on !a!er" 5owever, two software !ackages ca!a%le of dis!laying the diagram !rofessionally are 7uto/7D and /7D9E,"
)ontrol )*art' a' a tool in SQ) 0Statistical 1uality !ontrol2

Overv e!
This !age has %een designed to hel! in understanding and learning the use, design and analysis of /ontrol /harts, which is the most im!ortant tool of 2tatistical Quality /ontrol" The information has %een formatted in the form of a tutorial, which will guide you through the !rocess" 't includes the history, %ackground information, the uses, and the ty!es with e@am!les, analysis of !atterns, related software and additional sources of information a%out control charts"
Ba"#$r%&nd In'%rma( %n
7 ty!ical control chart is a gra!hical dis!lay of a 6uality characteristic that has %een measured or com!uted from a sam!le versus the sam!le num%er or time" The chart contains a centre line that re!resents the average value of the 6uality characteristic corres!onding to the in&control state" Two other hori ontal lines, called the u!!er control limit =0/J> and the lower control limit =J/J> are also drawn" These control limits are chosen so that if the !rocess is in control, nearly all of the sam!le !oints will fall %etween them" 7s long as the !oints !lot within the control limits, the !rocess is assumed to %e in control, and no action is necessary" 5owever, a !oint that !lots outside of the control limits is inter!reted as evidence that the !rocess is out of control, and investigation and corrective action is re6uired to find and eliminate the assigna%le causes res!onsi%le for this %ehavior" The control !oints are connected with straight line segments for easy visuali ation" Even if all the !oints !lot inside the control limits, if they %ehave in a systematic or nonrandom manner, then this is an indication that the !rocess is out of control"
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U)e) %' C%n(r%l "*ar()

/ontrol chart is a device for descri%ing in a !recise manner what is meant %y statistical control" 'ts uses are (" 't is a !roven techni6ue for im!roving !roductivity" 2" 't is effective in defect !revention" 3" 't !revents unnecessary !rocess ad;ustments" 3" 't !rovides diagnostic information" *" 't !rovides information a%out !rocess ca!a%ility"
T+pe) %' "%n(r%l "*ar()

(" /ontrol charts for 7ttri%utes" (" p chart 2" c chart 3" u chart /ontrol charts for Earia%les" (" O %ar chart 2" : chart
2"
Anal+) ) %' Pa((ern) %n C%n(r%l C*ar()

7 control chart may indicate an out&of&control condition either when one or more !oints fall %eyond the control limits, or when the !lotted !oints e@hi%it some non&random !attern of %ehaviour" The !rocess is out of control if any one or more of the criteria is met" (" One or more !oints outside of the control limits" This !attern may indicate4 o 7 s!ecial cause of variance from a material, e6ui!ment, method, or measurement system change" o Mismeasurement of a !art or !arts" o Miscalculated or mis!lotted data !oints" o Miscalculated or mis!lotted control limits" 2" 7 run of eight !oints on one side of the centre line" This !attern indicates a shift in the !rocess out!ut from changes in the e6ui!ment, methods, or materials or a shift in the measurement system" 3" Two of three consecutive !oints outside the 2&sigma warning limits %ut still inside the control limits" This may %e the result of a large shift in the !rocess in the e6ui!ment, methods, materials, or o!erator or a shift in the measurement system" 3" #our of five consecutive !oints %eyond the (&sigma limits" *" 7n unusual or non random !attern in the data" 1' 7 trend of seven !oints in a row u!ward or downward" This may show +radual deterioration or wear in e6ui!ment" 'm!rovement or deterioration in techni6ue" 2' /ycling of data can indicate Tem!erature or other recurring changes in the environment" Differences %etween o!erators or o!erator techni6ues" :egular rotation of machines"
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Differences in measuring or testing devices that are %eing used in order" 2" 2everal !oints near a warning or control limit"
Sign' and Sym/ol' B'ed /y t*e )om+any at 'ite'

The following signs and sym%ols are used at the site of erection of the elevators" These signs are !laced at various necessary !laces that hel! the workers as well as the elevator users
The various types of signs and sym$ols used in the company site during erection of elevators and also during the time of their maintenance.
Ackno-ledgement
5ow many of our courses teach us to %ecome entre!reneursM 2ince childhood its %een grilled into our head to study hard 8 score well and get a P+ood No%Q"
2C
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This !ro;ect has given me an o!!ortunity to %e a confident, 6ualified individual to venture out to %e a master of oneself and our lives" This is a field where we on our own start a venture with clear vision, of the direction to %e taken %oth for the activities as well as to guide the !eo!le working under" 'f a T7T7, ?7N7N, M75'-D:7 can %ecome household name, so can we with a clear vision, sense and meaning can emulate over time" 7ccording to me, an entre!reneur is the one who has an idea with the will of %eing different and has the ca!acity to take risks in his life" ' feel that there is an entre!reneur in all those !eo!le who think larger than life and who have the em!loyer mind set and %elieve in following their heart" 7n entre!reneur is the one who ignores the trend, does not say Pme tooQ and %ecomes a trend setter %y starting a new and uni6ue %usiness which makes a difference in the world"
31

Total Productivity and Quality Management

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Total Productivity and Quality Management

Natraj Korgaonkar S.Y.B.M.S. (A) !"