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9 Memory Notes
Key Terms Memory- the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information Flashbulb memory- a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event Encoding- the processing of information into the memory system Storage- the retention of encoded information over time Retrieval- the process of getting information out of memory storage Sensory memory- the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system Short-term memory- activated memory that holds a few items briefly before the information is stored or forgotten Long-term memory- the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system Working memory- a newer understanding of short-term memory that involves conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory Automatic processing- unconscious encoding of incidental information and well-learned information Effortful processing- encoding that requires attention and conscious effort Rehearsal- the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness to encode it for storage Spacing effect- the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than that achieved through massed study or practice Serial position effect-the tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list Visual encoding- the encoding of picture images Acoustic encoding- the encoding of sound, especially the sound of words Semantic encoding- the encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words Imagery- mental pictures; a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding Mnemonics- memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

 Chunking- organizing items into familiar manageable unites; often occurs automatically Iconic memory- a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second Echoic memory- a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds Long-term potentiation (LTP)- an increase in a synapses firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation Amnesia- the loss of memory Implicit memory- retention independent of conscious recollection o AKA procedural memory Explicit memory- memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare o AKA declarative memory

Hippocampus- a neural center that is located in the limbic system and helps process explicit memories for storage Recall- a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier Recognition- a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned Relearning- a memory measure that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time Priming- the activation, often unconsciously, of particular association on memory Dj vu- the eerie sense that a person has experienced the same thing previously because cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience Mood-congruent memory- the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with ones current good or bad mood Proactive interference- the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information Retroactive interference- the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information Repression- in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories Misinformation effect- incorporating misleading information into ones memory of an event Source amnesia- attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined o AKA misattribution

Memory Flashbulb memory ex: San Francisco resident recalling 1989 Earthquake Human memory is like a computer Get info in brain (encoding) 2. Retain info (storage) 3. Get it back later (retrieval) Humans store lots of info in long-term memory Short term memory ex: phone number just dialed Encoding Automatic processing ex: space, time, frequency, well-learned info Effortful processing ex: memorizing notes After practice, effort processing becomes more automatic Memory can be boosted through rehearsal o Like practicing music and memorizing

Info received before sleep is hardly ever remembered o Consciousness fades before able to process

Retain info better when rehearsal distributed over o long-term retention better than cramming

Rehearsal will not encode all info equally Processing of info happens 3 ways o o o Semantic encoding: meaning Acoustic encoding: sound Visual encoding: pictures

Fergus Craik and Endel Tulving o o o o o Conducted experiment where they Flashed a word to people Asking question that required processing either visually, acoustically, or semantically Semantic encoding was found to yield much better memory People remember info. best when able to organize it into meaningful, personal arrangements Forgetting as Encoding Failure Failure to encode info happens because it never entered memory system

 Much of what people sense is never notice Raymond Nickerson and Marilyn Adams o Discovered most people cannot pick the real American penny from different ones

Storage: Retaining Information Short-Term Memory o o without active processing, short-term memories have short life Short-term memory is limited in capacity o ~ 7 chunks of info

Magic Number 2

Long-Term Memory o Capacity for storing long-term memories is more or less limitless Karl Lashley o o o Removed pieces of rats cortex as it ran through maze Found that no matter what part removed, partial memory of solving maze stayed Concluded memories dont reside in one spot

After long-term potential occurs, passing electric current through brain wont disrupt old memories, but get rid of recent experiences Drugs that block neurotransmitters also disrupt info storage o Drunk people hardly remembers previous evening

Stimulating hormones affect memory as more glucose available to fuel brain activity o o More hormones= important memory Ex: first kiss, earthquake

Found that people who dont have memories can still learn 2 memory systems Hippocampus helps process explicit memories for storage Damage to left side of hippocampus difficulty in remembering verbal info; no trouble recalling visual designs and locations Damage to right side of hippocampus difficulty in remembering visual designs and locations; no trouble recalling verbal info Hippocampus removed from monkeys loss of recent memories; old memories intact o Hippocampus not permanent storage Long-term memories scattered across various parts of frontal and temporal lobes Retrieval: Getting Information Out

 Once learned and forgotten, relearning something becomes quicker than when originally first learned Recall: used on fill-in-the-blank test Recognition: used on multiple-choice test Recognition easier than recall To retrieve specific memory, need to prime Retrieval cues ex: photographs Best retrieval cues comes from associations formed at time when one encodes memory Things we learn in one state (joyful, sad, drunk, sober, etc) are more easily recalled when in same state Easily recall memory when mood of that incident same as present Forgetting as Retrieval Failure Learning some items may interfere with retrieving others Researchers think repression occurs rarely