5 Basic Equations of Fluid Mechanics

5.1 General Considerations

Fluid mechanics considerations are carried out in many domains, especially
in the elds of engineering. Below there is a list which clearly indicates the
far-reaching application of uid-mechanics knowledge. The list lends itself to
show the importance of uid mechanics. While it was usual in the past to
carry out special uid-mechanics considerations on each of the below-listed
domains, today one strives increasingly at developing and introducing gen-
eralized ways of consideration that are applicable unreservedly to all below-
cited domains. This makes it necessary to derive the basic laws formulated
for the application of solving ow problems so generally that they fulll the
requirements for broadest applicability indicated in the below-cited list. The
objective of the derivations in this section is to formulate the conservation
laws for mass, momentum, energy, chemical species etc. such that they can
be applied to all the ow problems occurring in the following domains:
Heat exchanger, cooling and drying technology
Reaction technology and reactor layout
Aerodynamics of vehicles and aero planes
Semiconductor-crystal production, thin-lm technology, vapor-phase sep-
aration processes
Layout and optimization of pumps, valves and nozzles
Usage of ow aggregates like bent pipes, junctions etc.
Development of measuring instruments and production of sensors
Ventilation, heating and air-conditioning techniques, function of labora-
tory vents
Problem solutions in roof ventilation and ows around buildings
Production of electronic components, micro-systems analysis engineering
Layout of stirrer systems, propellers and turbines
Sub-domains of biomedicine and medical engineering
Layout of baking ovens, melting furnaces as well as other re places
Development of engines, catalyzers and exhaust systems
118 5 Basic Equations of Fluid Mechanics
Combustion and explosion processes, energy generation, environmental
engineering
Sprays, atomizing and coating technologies
Concerning the formulation of the basic equations of uid mechanics it is
easy to formulate the conservation equations for mass, momentum, energy
and chemical species for a uid element, i.e. to derive in the Lagrange form
of the equations. In this way the derivations can be represented in an easily
comprehensible way and it is possible to build the derivations upon the basic
knowledge of physics. Derivations of the basic equations in the Lagrange form
are usually followed by transformation considerations whose aim is to strive
at local formulations of the conservation equations and to introduce eld
quantities into the mathematical representations, i.e. the Euler form of the
conservation equations is sought for solutions of ow-mechanical problems.
This requires to express temporal modications of substantial quantities as
temporal modications of eld quantities, which makes it necessary to partly
repeat in this section the considerations cited in chapter 2 or to complement
them in a deepening way.
Figure 5.1: Division of a uid in uid elements
The considerations to be carried out apart from the assumption that at a
certain point in time t = 0 the mass of a uid is subdivided in uid elements
of the mass m

i.e.
M =

.
Here for each uid element m

is to be chosen large enough to make the

assumption m

= const possible with sucient precision in spite of the

molecular structure of the matter, it also allows to assign a arbitrary thermo-
dynamical and uid-mechanics properties

(x

(t), t) =

(t)for a uid
element and with a satisfactory precision for uid-mechanics considerations.
The statement

(x

, t), with x

= x

(t), expresses that the thermo-

dynamical or uid-mechanics property, which is assigned to the considered
uid element and thus only represents a substantial quantity, is only a func-
tion of time. This property of the element is changing with time, also due to
the motion of the uid element and for the description of this modication it
5.2 Mass Conservation (Continuity Equation) 119
is important that one follows the mass m

, i.e. knows x

(t) and also takes

it into consideration as known. It is assumed that this motion of particles
is constant and unequivocal, i.e. that the considered uid element does not
split up during the considerations of its motion. The uid pertaining to the
considered uid element at the moment in time t = 0 remains also at all later
moments in time. This signies that it is not possible for two dierent uid
elements to take the same point in space at an arbitrary time: x

(t) ,= x
L
(t)
for ' ,= L.
When a uid element ' is at the position x
i
, at the time t i.e. x
i
= (x

(t))
i
at the time t, then the substantial thermodynamic property or uid property

(t) is equal to the eld quantity at the point x

i
at time t:

(t) = (x
i
, t) when (x

(t))
i
= x
i
at time t (5.1)
For the temporal change of a quantity

(t) results (see also chapters 2 and

3):
d

dt
=

t
+

x
i
_
dx
i
dt
_

(5.2)
With ( dx
i
/dt)

= (U
i
)

= U
i
holds:
d

dt
=
D
Dt
=

t
+ U
i

x
i
(5.3)
The operator (x
i
, t) applied to the eld quantity D/Dt = /t + U
i
/x
i
is often dened as the substantial derivatve and will be applied in the subse-
quent derivations. Signicance of individual terms are:
/t = (/t)
xi
= change with time at a xed location,
partial dierentiation with respect to time
d/dt = total change with time (for a uid element),
total dierentiation with respect to time
for e.g. for a uid when

= const i.e. the density is constant, then it

holds:
d

dt
=
D
Dt
= 0 or

t
= U
i

x
i
(5.4)
When at a certain point in space /t ()
xi
= 0 indicate of stationary condi-
tions, i.e. the eld size (x
i
, t) is stationary and thus has no time dependency.
On the other hand d(

)/ dt = D/Dt = 0, is

(t) = (x
i
, t) = const. i.e
the eld is independent of space and time.
5.2 Mass Conservation (Continuity Equation)
For uid-mechanics considerations a closed uid system can always be
found, i.e. a system for whose total mass holds M = const. This is easily seen
for a uid mass, which is stored in a container. For uid setups as shown in
120 5 Basic Equations of Fluid Mechanics
Fig. 5.2, control volumes can always be dened, within which the systemic
total mass can be stated as constant. If necessary these control volumes can
comprise the whole earth.
When one subdivides the uid mass within the considered system in uid
elements ' with the sub-masses m

, then it holds true for the temporal

change of the total mass:
0 =
dM
dt
=
d
dt

(m

) =

d
dt
(m

) (5.5)
M const
M const M const
Aquarium mit
konstanter
Wassermenge
Geblse mit Ansaugung
und Ausla
Umstrmung eines TragIlgels
m
.
aus
m
.
ein
Flow around a wing Air-blast system/ventilator
with suction and outlet
Aquarium with
constant
quantity of water
Figure 5.2: : Dierent Fluid setups and aero foil within control volumes where
M = const
This equation expresses that the mass conservation in the total uid system
is preserved when each individual uid element conserves its mass m

. With
this the balance equation for the mass conservation can be stated as follows
in Lagrange notation:
d (m

)
dt
= 0 (5.6a)
The basic molecular structure of matter and thermal motion connected with
it indicates that to full the above relation absolutely, it is necessary that
m

0 The consideration carried out in this book therefore requires that

all the m

are considered as nite but nevertheless as very small. In Fig.

5.3 a uid element with position coordinates (x
i
)

is shown.
1
The estimation of m

is referred to considerations that are listed in chapter

3, where it is shown what dimensions a volume of an ideal gas has to have
in order to dene suciently clearly e.g. a density of the gas within the
volume. The considerations carried out there would have to be repeated here
in order to guarantee m

= const, in spite of the molecular structure of the

matter. With the choice of m

= const the conditions are set to carry out

1
see the considerations carried out in chapter 3.2
5.2 Mass Conservation (Continuity Equation) 121
continuum-mechanics considerations for the motion of uids, although the
uids show a molecular structure.
In this context it is often referred to the continuum considerations in which
usually uid-mechanics considerations are carried out. Strictly speaking this
means that the properties of the molecules, especially their transport prop-
erties, can only be introduced in uid-mechanics considerations in integral
form.
Figure 5.3: m

= const, condition for the mass of a uid element

Because of the above explanations the mass conservation can be stated as
follows:
dM
dt
= 0 und
dm

dt
= 0 (5.6b)
The above considerations conrm that it is very simple to formulate the mass-
conservation law in Lagrange variables. Working practically with the law of
mass conservation, however, requires its representation in eld quantities, i.e.
the Lagrange form of mass-conservation law has to be brought into the Euler
form.
Transformed into Euler variables (i.e. into eld quantities) one obtains from
(5.6a) for the mass conservation:
0 =
d
dt
(m

) =
d
dt
(

) =

d (V

)
dt
. .
I
+V

d (

)
dt
. .
II
. (5.7)
For term I in equation (5.7) using

= and (x

(t))
i
= x
i
at the time t:
yields (according to equation 4.89):

d (V

)
dt
= V

U
i
x
i
. (5.8)
122 5 Basic Equations of Fluid Mechanics
For term II one obtains:
V

d (

)
dt
= V

t
+ U
i

x
i
_
. (5.9)
With the above derivations the substantial derivation of the corresponding
eld quantity d (

) /dt could be applied for , d. h. D/Dt in order to

achieve the transition from the substantial quantity

(t) to the eld quantity

(x
i
, t). The same procedure is not possible with d (V

) /dt since there are

no volume elds. From section 4, equation (4.89), concerning the temporal
change of a uid element is equal to the divergence of the velocity eld is
known, however:

d (V

)
dt
= V

U
i
x
i
. (5.10)
When one inserts the equations (5.8) and (5.9) in (5.7) one obtains:
V

t
+
U
i
x
i
+ U
i

x
i
_
= 0, (5.11)
As V

,= 0 it follows for the continuity equation in the most general form:

t
+
U
i
x
i
+ U
i

x
i
=

t
+
(U
i
)
x
i
= 0. (5.12)
The equation can, also be written as follows:

t
+ U
i

x
i
+
U
i
x
i
=
D
Dt
+
U
i
x
i
= 0. (5.13)
This form of the continuity equation is not very useful for the solution of
ow problems. However it is very well suited for presentation of the basic
equations of uid-mechanics in dierent ways, in order to bring out special
physical facts. As an example the special form of the continuity equation for

= const, i.e. D/Dt = 0, from equation (5.13):

U
i
x
i
= 0, (5.14)
i.e. the divergence of the velocity eld is zero for elds of constant density.
since the divergence of the velocity eld is zero, the change in volume is also
zero from equation (5.10), this can also be obtained from the equations (3.90)
and (3.93).
1

D
Dt
=
1

T
_
P
. .

DT
Dt
+
1

_

P
_
T
. .
+
DP
Dt
=
U
i
x
i
(5.15)
5.3 Second Newtonian Law (Momentum Equation) 123
This relation expresses for a uid in the thermodynamic sense, = const, i.e
if the uid density is constant, then it has to be thermodynamically incom-
pressible.
1

D
Dt
=
U
i
x
i
= 0 =
DP
Dt

DT
Dt
with = 0 and = 0 (5.16)
where and are:
=
1
v
_
v
P
_
T
=
1

_

P
_
T
= isothermal compressibility coecient
=
1
v
_
v
T
_
P
=
1

T
_
P
= thermal expansion coecient
Thus the continuity equation holds in one of the two forms listed below:

t
+
(U
i
)
x
i
= 0 (compressible ows) (5.17)
U
i
x
i
= 0 (incompressible ows) (5.18)
5.3 Second Newtonian Law (Momentum Equation)
The derivations of the equations of momentum for the three coordinate di-
rections j = 1, 2, 3 in uid mechanics, the second Newtonian law to a uid
element, i.e. the Lagrange formulation of the equation of momentum is cho-
sen. For a uid element it is stated that the time derivative of the momentum
in the j-direction is equal to the sum of the external forces acting in this di-
rection on the uid element, plus the molecular-dependent input per unit
time. The forces can be stated as inertia forces caused by gravitation forces
(M
j
)

and electromagnetic forces

2
as well as the surface forces caused by
pressure (O
j
)

. After addition of a temporal change of momentum fed in

by the molecular movement, the equation of motion can be formulated as
follows:
d(J
j
)

dt
=

(M
j
)

. .
Inertia forces
+

(O
j
)

. .
surface forces
+
_
d
dt
(J
M
)
j
_

. .
molecular-dependent
momentum input
(5.19)
Here, as stated in Fig. 5.4 , (J
j
)

= m

(U
j
)

2
(the latter are not taken into consideration in the following)
124 5 Basic Equations of Fluid Mechanics
x
2
x
3
x
1
(U
f
)

@m

(@J
f
)

Figure 5.4: For the derivation of momentum equations

The uid element acts like a rigid body since it does not change its state
of motion, i.e. its momentum, when no inertia or surfaces forces act on the
uid element and a molecular-dependent momentum input fails to appear.
However, when forces are present, or when a momentum has input, the uid
element changes its momentum in accordance with the above-stated relation
(5.19). It represents the Lagrange form of the equations of momentum (j =
1, 2, 3) of uid mechanics.
In order to conserve the Euler form of the equation of momentum, it is
important to express each of the terms contained in equation (5.19) in eld
quantities. For the left side of the equation (5.19) can be written as:
d(J
j
)

dt
=
d
dt
[m

(U
j
)

] = m

d ((U
j
)

)
dt
+ (U
j
)

d ((m)

)
dt
(5.20)
Because of the universal mass conservation in formulation (5.6a), the last
term in equation (5.20) ) is equal to zero:
d(J
j
)

dt
= m

d ((U
j
)

)
dt
= m

_
U
j
t
+ U
i
U
j
x
i
_
(5.21)
This can be written as follows: m

= V

applying

= when:
(x

(t))
i
= x
i
at the time t,
d(J
j
)

dt
= V

_
U
j
t
+ U
i
U
j
x
i
_
(5.22)
Owing to the above derivations it is possible to state the left side of the
equation of momentum (5.19)) in eld quantities. For the right side the below-
cited considerations can be carried out. The inertia forces can be represented
in an easy way by the acceleration vector g
j
, i.e. by its components g
j
.

(M
j
)

= Mass forces acting on a uid element

The mass forces acting on a uid element can be stated by means of the
5.3 Second Newtonian Law (Momentum Equation) 125
Mass forces:
Figure 5.5: Mass force on a uid element
acceleration g
j
= g
1
, g
2
, g
3
acting per measuring unit. The mass force
acting on a uid element in j-direction can be stated as follows:
(M
j
)

= (m

) g
j
= V

g
j
(5.23)
Even when only gravitational acceleration is present, depending on the posi-
tion of the coordinate system, several components of g
j
may not be equal to
zero
Surface forces:
Figure 5.6: Considerations concerning surface force on a uid element

(O
j
)

= Surface forces on a uid element

Fluids as they are treated in this book, i.e. uids (e.g. water) and gases (e.g.
air) are characterized by the way they can apply surface forces on a uid
element only by the molecular pressure. The pressure force acting on a uid
element is calculated as the dierence of the forces acting on the areas that
stand vertically on the considered axes. It holds since
126 5 Basic Equations of Fluid Mechanics
d

K
P
= P d

F
The surface force resulting for the motion of the uid element in jdirection
is the sum of the attacking forces acting on jplanes.
(O
j
)

= P(x
j
)([F
j
[)

P(x
j
+ x
j
)([F
j
[)

(5.24a)
If one applies a Taylor series expansion for P(x
i
+ x
j
) one obtains:
(O
j
)

= +P(x
j
)([F
j
[)

[P(x
j
) +
P
x
j
x
j
+ ]([F
j
[)

(5.24b)
From this results for the surface force on a uid element, neglecting all second
and higher order terms:
(O
j
)

=
P
x
j
V

(5.25)
Molecular-dependent momentum input:
x
3
x
2
x
1
x
1
x
f
- J
ij
(x
i
) (- @F
i
)

- J
if
(x
i
@x
i
) @F
i
Figure 5.7: Considerations on the molecular- dependent momentum input
_
d
dt
(J
M
)
j
_

=
molecular-dependent momentum input per
unit time
When one denes the momentum j-fed into the direction i-per unit time and
surface as
ij
, the input inuencing the momentum j-of a uid element is
calculated as an input at the position x
i
and as an output at the position
(x
i
+ x
i
), i.e. it holds:
_
d(J
M
)
j
dt
_
j
=
ij
(x
i
)([F
j
[)

ij
(x
i
+ x
i
)([F
i
[)

(5.26a)
By a Taylor series expansion one obtains for the term
ij
(x
i
+ x
i
) :
_
d(J
M
)
j
dt
_

= +
ij
(x
i
)([F
i
[)

[
ij
(x
i
) +

ij
x
i
x
i
](F
i
)

(5.26b)
This results in:
5.4 The Navier-Stokes Equations 127
_
d(J
M
)
j
dt
_

ij
x
i
V

(5.27)
When one inserts all these derived relations (5.22), (5.23), (5.25) and (5.27)
in (5.19) after division by V

the equation of momentum of uid mechanics

in direction j results, i.e. for j = 1, 2, 3 three equations result:

_
U
j
t
+ U
i
U
j
x
i
_
= g
j

P
x
j

ij
x
i
(5.28)
As in this equation the volume of the uid element V

appearing in all
terms was eliminated, the equation of momentum hold per unit volume. The
momentum equation in the three coordinate directions results:

_
U
1
t
+ U
1
U
1
x
1
+ U
2
U
1
x
2
+ U
3
U
1
x
3
_
=
P
x
1

11
x
1

21
x
2

31
x
3
+ g
1

_
U
2
t
+ U
1
U
2
x
1
+ U
2
U
2
x
2
+ U
3
U
2
x
3
_
=
P
x
2

12
x
1

22
x
2

32
x
3
+ g
2

_
U
3
t
+ U
1
U
3
x
1
+ U
2
U
3
x
2
+ U
3
U
3
x
3
_
=
P
x
3

13
x
1

23
x
2

33
x
3
+ g
3
(5.29)
From the uid mechanics point of view only for ideal uids
ij
= 0,
For uids in general
ij
,= 0 but for ideal uids in terms of uid mechanics

ij
= 0. Hence the following forms of the momentum equations can be stated:

_
U
j
t
+ U
i
U
j
x
i
_
=
P
x
j

ij
x
i
+ g
j
(viscous Fluide) (5.30)

_
U
j
t
+ U
i
U
j
x
i
_
=
P
x
j
+ g
j
(ideal Fluide) (5.31)
5.4 The Navier-Stokes Equations
In the above equation (5.30) the molecular-dependent momentum input

ij
occurring per surface and unit time, is an unknown term, i.e. it is
introduced formally in derivations, without details being considered, as it
can be formulated for several uids. When one takes into consideration the
symmetry of the term
ij
i.e. [
ij
[ = [
ji
[, holds, one notices/ascertains that
there are the following unknowns in the equations:
U
1
, U
2
, U
3
, P,
11
,
12
,
13
,
22
,
23
,
33
= 10 unknowns
128 5 Basic Equations of Fluid Mechanics
@F
Figure 5.8: Momentum input due to ow through the plane Fj
For these unknowns there are only four partial dierential equations, the
continuity equation and three equations of momentum, i.e. an incomplete
equation system exists that does not permit the solution of ow problems.
It is therefore necessary to state additional equations, i.e. to express the
unknown terms
ij
physically well-founded, as functions of U
j
/x
i
. This is
done below for ideal gases, as their properties are known to a large extent
from considerations in physics. From the below-stated derivations, relations
for
ij
= f (U
j
/x
i
) result, that are valid also for non-ideal gases and for
a whole class of uids whose molecular momentum-transport properties can
be classied as Newtonian. Thus the derived relations
ij
are valid far
beyond ideal gases and represent in this book the basic equations to describe
the molecular-dependent momentum transport in Newtonian uids.
When one considers a uid element, as shown in Fig. 5.8 one can see that
the momentum j fed in direction i by a velocity eld and can be stated as
follows:

I
ij
=

U
i

U
j
F
i
(5.32)
Assuming that the instantaneous velocity components are composed of the
velocity of the uid ow U
i
and the share of the molecular motion u
i
one
obtains:

U
i

U
j
= (U
i
+ u
i
)(U
j
+ u
j
)
= (U
i
U
j
+ u
i
U
j
+ u
j
U
i
+ u
i
u
j
)
(5.33)
By time averaging, one obtains for the time-averaged total momentum change
of the uid element:

U
i

U
j
= [U
i
U
j
. .
I
+u
i
U
j
..
II
+u
j
U
i
..
III
+u
i
u
j
..
IV
] (5.34)
The total momentum input consists of four terms that can be interpreted
physically as follows:
5.4 The Navier-Stokes Equations 129
Term I: Momentum input j in direction in i due to the velocity eld of
the Fluid.
Term II: Momentum input j in direction i due to the molecular motion
in i-direction.
Term III: Momentum input j in direction i due to the molecular motion
in j-direction.
Term IV: For i ,= j is u
i
u
j
= 0 as the molecular motion in
the three coordinate directions - are not correlated; for i = j
results the pressure treated in chapter 3
The molecular motion is distinguished by the presence of free path lengths
with nite dimensions, i.e. l ,= 0, the time averages u
i
U
j
and u
j
U
i
are un-
equal to zero. In order to calculate these contributions to
ij
considerations
on the molecular momentum transport, ideal gases are recommended. For
the number of molecules moving in direction x
i
and passing the plane A in
Fig. 5.9 in the time t when x
1
= x
2
= x
3
= a it can be written:
z
i
=
1
6
na
2
u
i
t (5.35)
Where n is equal to the number of molecules per unit volume, a
2
the volume
of area F
i
and u
i
the mean velocity of the molecules in direction i. Connected
to z
i
, a mass transport through F
i
, can be stated as follows:
mz
i
=
1
6
(mn)
. .

a
2
u
i
t (5.36)
where m represents the mass of a molecule and thus can be set mn = .
Figure 5.9: Momentum input in xidirection with the molecular velocity ui
When one considers now the auxiliary planes in Fig. 5.9 located to F
i
in
the distance l and introduced for the derivations, in which the mean ow
eld owns the velocity components U
j
(x
i
+l) and U
j
(x
i
l). In positive and
negative i-directions, jdirectional momentum input and discharge can be
stated s follows:
130 5 Basic Equations of Fluid Mechanics
i
+
ij
= +z
i
mU
j
(x
i
l) Momentum input over area F
i
i

ij
= z
i
mU
j
(x
i
+ l) Momentum discharge over area F
i
(5.37)
Therefore the sum of the molecular-dependent input and discharge results:
i
ij
= z
i
m[U
j
(x
i
l) U
j
(x
i
+ l)] (5.38)
or with z
i
inserted from equation (5.35):
i
ij
=
1
6
(mn)
. .

a
2
u
i
t[U
j
(x
i
l) U
j
(x
i
+ l)] (5.39)
The momentum ow per unit area and time can be obtained by Taylor series
expansion of velocity at around x
i
by neglecting the higher order terms:

II
ij
=
1
a
2
i
ij
t
=
1
6
u
i
_
U
j
(x
i
)
U
j
x
i
l U
j
(x
i
)
U
j
x
i
l
_
, (5.40)
so that for Term II in equation (5.34) results:

II
ij
=
1
3
u
i
l
. .

U
j
x
i
=
U
j
x
i
. (5.41)
Analogous to this it can be carried out considerations on
III
ij
where for z
j
can
be written:
z
j
=
1
6
na
2
u
j
t (5.42)
Figure 5.10: Momentum input in xjdirection with molecular velocity ujand
uid velocityUi
In accordance with term III in equation (5.34) a momentum input j-results
which can be stated as follows:
i
+
ij
= z
j
mU
i
(x
j
l)
i

ij
= z
j
mU
i
(x
j
+ l)
(5.43)
5.4 The Navier-Stokes Equations 131
or.
i
ij
= z
j
m[U
i
(x
j
l) U
i
(x
j
+ l)] (5.44)
Analogous to the derivations in equations (5.38) to (5.41) yields:

III
ij
=
1
3
(u
j
l)
. .

U
i
x
j
=
U
i
x
j
(5.45)
For reasons of symmetry
ij
=
ji
, so that u
i
= u
j
has to hold, i.e. the mean
velocity eld of the molecules is isotropic (no preferred velocity direction), so
that it can be written:

ij
=
II
ij
+
III
ij
=
_
U
j
x
i
+
U
i
x
j
_
for i ,= j (5.46)
This is the total momentum input
ij
for = const, i.e. when d/dt(V

) = 0,
the thermodynamic state equation for an ideal uid is assumed. For ,=
const, an additional term needs to be added which is conditioned by the
volume increase of a uid element. For the volume increase of a uid element
at point x
i
and time t, (see section 4):
d(V

)
dt
= (V

)
U
i
x
i
(5.47)
For the corresponding surface increase holds:
d(F

)
dt
=
2
3
(F

)
U
i
x
i
(5.48)
With surface increase an increased momentum input results:

ij
= +
2
3

ij
U
k
x
k
(5.49)
This term has to be added to obtain general formulas of the total momentum
input per unit time and unit area for ideal gases. It can be stated as follows:

ij
=
_
U
j
x
i
+
U
i
x
j
_
+
2
3

ij

U
k
x
k
(5.50)
When one considers this relation for
ij
, the basic equations of uid mechanics
can be stated as follows:
Continuity equation:

t
+
(U
i
)
x
i
= 0 (5.51)
132 5 Basic Equations of Fluid Mechanics
Momentum equations:
(j = 1, 2, 3)

_
U
j
t
+ U
i
U
j
x
i
_
=
P
x
j

ij
x
i
+ g
j
(5.52)
For Newtonian uids

ij
=
_
U
j
x
i
+
U
i
x
j
_
+
2
3

ij

U
k
x
k
(5.53)
With
ij
from (5.53) there exist equations for the 6 unknown terms
ij
in
the momentum equations. The four equations, one continuity equation and
three Navier-Stokes equations, contain ve unknowns: P, , U
j
, so that an
incomplete system of partial dierential equations exists still. With the aid
of the thermal energy equation and the thermodynamic state equation valid
for the considered uid, it is possible to obtain a complete system of partial
dierential equations that permits general solutions for ow problems, when
initial and boundary conditions are present.
For = const and = const, using

2
Ui
xixj
=

2
Ui
xjxi
=

xj
_
Ui
xi
_
= 0 can be
stated:
Continuity equation:
U
i
x
i
= 0 (5.54)
Navier-Stokes equations (j = 1, 2, 3):

_
U
j
t
+ U
i
U
j
x
i
_
=
P
x
j
+

2
U
j
x
2
i
+ g
j
This system of equations comprises four equations for the four unknowns
P, U
1
, U
2
, U
3
. In principle, it can be solved for all ow problems to be investi-
gated, when suitable initial and boundary conditions are given. For thermo-
dynamic ideal uids, i.e. = const, a complete system of partial dierential
equations exists with the continuity equation and the momentum equations,
which can be used for solutions of ow problems.
5.5 Mechanical Energy Equation
In many domains in which uid-mechanic considerations are carried out,
the mechanical energy equation is employed which can be derived from the
momentum equation j-For this purpose one multiplies equation (5.52) with
U
j
:

_
U
j
U
j
t
+ U
i
U
j
U
j
x
i
_
= U
j
P
x
j
U
j

ij
x
i
+ U
j
g
j
(5.55)
5.5 Mechanical Energy Equation 133
This equation can be transcribed as follows:

_

t
_
1
2
U
2
j
_
+ U
i

x
i
_
1
2
U
2
j
__
=
(PU
j
)
x
j
+ P
U
j
x
j

(
ij
U
j
)
x
i
+
ij
U
j
x
i
+g
j
U
j
(5.56)
The equation states how the kinetic energy of a uid element is changing at
a location due to energy-production and dissipation terms that occur on the
right side of the above equation (5.56). In order to discuss the signicance of
the dierent terms, the following modication of the last term is carried out,
introducing a potential G from which the gravity is derived:
g
j
=
G
x
j
;g
j
U
j
=
G
x
j
U
j
(5.57)
Thus, employing
G
t
= 0 :
g
j
U
j
=
_
G
t
+ U
j
G
x
j
_
=
DG
Dt
(5.58)
The combined equations (5.56) and (5.58) ) yield for the temporal change of
the kinetic and potential energy of a uid element:

D
Dt
_
1
2
U
2
j
+ G
_
=
(PU
j
)
x
j
. .
I
+P
U
j
x
j
. .
II

(
ij
U
j
)
x
i
. .
III
+
ij
U
j
x
i
. .
IV
(5.59)
where the terms I to IV have the following physical signicance:
134 5 Basic Equations of Fluid Mechanics
Term I: This term describes the dierence between input and
discharge of pressure energy. Here it is referred to the
considerations on ideal gases, in the framework of which
was shown that P =
1
3

u
2
, i.e. expresses an energy per unit
volume. Therefore the following can be said:
(PU
j
(x
i
)) = Input of pressure energy per unit
area
(PU
j
(x
i
+ x
i
)) = Discharge of pressure energy per
unit area
Taylor series expansion and forming the dierence yields
for the energy per unit volume:
PU
j
(x
i
)
_
PU
j
(x
i
) +
(PU
j
)
x
j
+
_

(PU
j
)
x
j
(5.60)
Term II: Considering:
U
j
x
j
=
1
V

d(V

)
dt
(5.61)
the term:
P
U
j
x
j
=
P
V

d(V

)
dt
(5.62)
proves to be the work done during expansion, occurring per
unit volume .
Term III: When taking into consideration that
ij
repre-
sents the molecular-dependent momentum transport
per unit area and unit time into a uid element:

(
ij
U
j
)
x
j
= dierence from the molecular-dependent
input and discharge of the kinetic energy of
the uid
Term IV: The term
ij
U
j
x
i
describes the dissipation of mechanical
energy into heat.
The above presentations show that the mechanical energy equation can be
derived from the j momentum equation by multiplication with U
j
. It is to
make sure that no independent equation and should be employed along with
the momentum equation for the solution of uid-mechanical problems.
A special form of the mechanical energy equation is the Bernoulli equation
which can be derived from the general form of the mechanical energy equa-
tion:

D
Dt
_
1
2
U
2
j
+ G
_
=
P
x
j
U
j


ij
x
i
U
j
(5.63)
5.6 Thermal Energy Equation 135
For
ij
= 0 and
P
t
= 0, as well as = const. Holds:

D
Dt
_
1
2
U
2
j
+ G
_
=
_
_

_
P

_
t
+ U
j

_
P

_
x
j
_
_
=
D
P

Dt
(5.64)

D
Dt
_
1
2
U
2
j
+
P

+ G
_
= 0 ;
1
2
U
2
j
+
P

+ G = const. (5.65)
This form of mechanical energy equation can be employed in many engineer-
ing applications for an imputation estimate of ow processes.
5.6 Thermal Energy Equation
The derivations in chapter 5 showed that the mechanical energy equation is
derivable from the momentum equation, so that both equations have to be
considered as not being independent from the another. From the derivations
resulted the equation in the following form:

_
D
Dt
_
1
2
U
2
j
__
=
(PU
j
)
x
j
+ P
U
j
x
j

(
ij
U
j
)
x
i
+
ij
U
j
x
i
+ g
j
U
j
(5.66)
When one sets up the equation for the total energy balance, the consideration
stated below results, which starts from the entire internal kinetic and poten-
tial energy of a uid element and considers its evolution as a function of time:
d
dt
_
m

_
1
2
U
2
j
+ e + G
_
. .

_
= m

d
dt
[. . . ] + [. . . ]
dm

dt
For the temporal change of the total energy of a uid element results with
m

= const, d.h.
d
dt
(m

) = 0:
d
dt
_
m

_
1
2
U
2
j
+ e + G
__
= m

D
Dt
_
1
2
U
2
j
+ e + G
_
This is the total energy change which has to be considered concerning the
derivation of the total energy equation.
The change of the total energy of the uid element can emanate from the
heat conduction, which yields the following inputs minus the discharges of
heat:

q
i
x
i
V

= Energy input per unit time by heat conduction

136 5 Basic Equations of Fluid Mechanics
can originate from the convective transport of pressure energy :

x
j
(PU
j
)V

= Input of pressure energy through convection

and by the input of kinetic energy due to molecular transport into the uid
element:

x
i
(
ij
U
j
)V

= molecular-dependent input of kinetic energy

The following total energy balance is thus resulting:
V

D
Dt
_
1
2
U
2
j
+ e + G
_
=
q
i
x
i
V

(PU
j
)
x
j
V

(
ij
U
j
)
x
i
V

, (5.67)
as V

,= 0 follows:

D
Dt
_
e +
_
1
2
U
2
j
+ G
__
=
q
i
x
i

(PU
j
)
x
j

(
ij
U
j
)
x
i
. (5.68)
When one deducts from this the mechanically derived parts, i.e. by subtract-
ing the equation (5.68) from the equation for the mechanical energy, given
here once again:

D
Dt
_
1
2
U
2
j
+ G
_
=
(PU
j
)
x
j
+ P
U
j
x
j

(
ij
U
j
)
x
i
+
ij
U
j
x
i
, (5.69)
one obtains the thermal energy equation:

De
Dt
. .
I
=
q
i
x
i
. .
II
P
U
j
x
j
. .
III

ij
U
j
x
i
. .
IV
(5.70)
Term I : Temporal change of the internal energy of a uid per unit volume.
Term II : Heat supply per time and unit area .
Term III : Work done per unit volume and unit time.
Term IV : Irreversible transfer of mechanical energy into heat, per unit
volume and unit time.
Considering the energy equation from technical thermodynamics
dq

= de

+ P

dv

dl
diss
(5.71)
and the sign convention is usual in technical thermodynamics, that the energy
to be dissipated by a uid element has to be regarded as negative, it results:
de

dt
=
De
Dt
;
dq

dt
=
1

q
i
x
i
; P

dv

dt
=
1

P
U
j
x
j
and
dl
diss
dt
=
1

ij
U
j
x
i
(5.72)
5.6 Thermal Energy Equation 137
The above derivations thus lead to the form of energy equation used in ther-
modynamics.
Dierent forms of the thermal energy equation can be derived from the re-
lation (5.70), this is advantageous for most of the uid-mechanical computa-
tions, to substitute the internal energy (e) by pressure and temperature, the
following relations being employed.
Generally it can be written for thermodynamically simple systems (uids):
de

=
_
e

_
T
d +
_
e
T
_

dT =
_
e

_
T
d + c

dT (5.73)
Considering the Maxwell relations of thermodynamics it can be written:
_
e

_
T
= P + T
_
P
T
_

(5.74)
so that it holds:

De
Dt
=
_
P + T
_
P
T
_

_
U
i
x
i
+ c

DT
Dt
(5.75)
The thermal energy equation thus can be written:
c

DT
Dt
=
q
i
x
i
T
_
P
T
_

U
i
x
i

ij
U
j
x
i
(5.76)
For an Ideal gas, as
_
P
T
_

=
P
T
and q
i
=
T
xi
yields
c

DT
Dt
=

2
T
x
2
i
P
U
i
x
i

ij
U
j
x
i
(5.77)
For an ideal uid as
Ui
xi
= 0 and c

= c
p
therefore:
c
p
DT
Dt
=

2
T
x
2
i

ij
U
j
x
i
(5.78)
Therefore the equation for the change of the total energy can be derived by
addition of the equations for the mechanical and thermal energies:
Equation for mechanical energy:

D
Dt
_
1
2
U
2
j
+ G
_
=

x
j
(PU
j
) + P
U
j
x
j

x
i
(
ij
U
j
) +
ij
U
j
x
i
(5.79)
Equation for thermal energy:
138 5 Basic Equations of Fluid Mechanics

De
Dt
=
q
i
x
i
P
U
i
x
i

ij
U
i
x
i
(5.80)
Equation for the total energy:

D
Dt
_
1
2
U
2
j
+ G + e
_
=
q
i
x
i

x
j
(PU
j
)

x
i
(
ij
U
j
)
=

2
T
x
2
i

x
j
(PU
j
)

x
i
(
ij
U
j
)
(5.81)
From this nal relation the Bernoulli equation can be derived which is often
used for uid-mechanical considerations:
Ideal Fluid: ( = const): no heat conduction and viscous dissipation

_
D
Dt
_
1
2
U
2
j
+ G
__
= U
j
P
x
j
= U
i
P
x
i
(5.82)
For a steady ow:

_
=0
..

t
_
1
2
U
2
j
+ G
_
+U
i

x
i
_
1
2
U
2
j
+ G
__
= U
i
P
x
i
(5.83)

x
i
_
1
2
U
2
j
+ G +
P

_
= 0
or after integration:
1
2
U
2
j
+ G +
P

= const. (5.84)
Ideal Gas: P/ = RT, no heat conduction and neglecting viscous dis-
sipation as well as of the potential energy

D
DT
_
1
2
U
2
j
+ e
_
=

x
j
(PU
j
) =

x
i
(PU
i
) (5.85)
For steady ow:

x
i
_
1
2
U
2
j
+ e
_
=

x
i
(PU
i
) = P
U
i
x
i
U
i
P
x
i
(5.86)
From the continuity equation follows for steady ows:

U
i
x
i
= U
i

x
i
(5.87)
Inserted consideration of e = c

T
5.7 Basic Equations in dierent Coordinate Systems 139

x
i
_
1
2
U
2
j
+ e
_
=

x
i
_
1
2
U
2
j
_
+ c

T
x
i
=
P

x
i

P
x
i
(5.88)

x
i
_
1
2
U
2
j
_
=
P

x
i

P
x
i
c

T
x
i
Introducing:
T
x
i
=
P
R
2

x
i
+
1
R
P
x
i
(5.89)

x
i
_
1
2
U
2
j
_
=
P

x
i
_
1 +
c

R
_

P
x
i
_
1 +
c

R
_
=

1

x
i
_
P

_
(5.90)

x
i
_
1
2
U
2
j
+

1
_
P

__
= 0
1
2
U
2
j
+

1
_
P

_
= const (5.91)
5.7 Basic Equations in dierent Coordinate Systems
5.7.1 Continuity Equation
The derivations carried out for the continuity equation in
Cartesian coordinates result in:

t
+
(U
i
)
x
i
= 0 (5.92)
or

t
+
(U
1
)
x
1
+
(U
2
)
x
2
+
(U
3
)
x
3
= 0 (5.93)
For = const:
U
1
x
1
+
U
2
x
2
+
U
3
x
3
= 0
In cylindrical coordinates (r, , z) with (U
r
, U

, U
z
) results the following
equation:

t
+
(U
r
)
r
+
1
r
(U

+
(U
z
)
z
+
U
r
r
= 0 (5.94)
and for = const equation reduces to:
U
r
r
+
1
r
U

+
U
z
z
+
U
r
r
= 0 (5.95)
140 5 Basic Equations of Fluid Mechanics
In spherical coordinates (r, , ) the continuity equation can be stated as
shown below for (U
r
, U

, U

) :

t
+
1
r
2

r
(r
2
U
r
) +
1
r sin

(U

sin) +
1
r sin

(U

) = 0 (5.96)
Here the below-mentioned coordinates in the derivations of the relations were
employed.
Cylindrical coordinates
Figure 5.11: Coordinate systems and transformation equations for cylindrical
coordinates
The use of cylindrical coordinates in the derivations of the basic equations
leads to the metric coecients introduced in section 2.10 for the transforma-
tion of the equations
h
r
= 1; h

= r; h
z
= 1
for the general continuity equation:
(U
i
)
x
i
=
1
r

r
(rU
r
) +
1
r

(U

) +
(U
z
)
z
, (5.97)
or for the continuity equation with = const:
U
r
r
+
1
r
U

+
U
z
z
+
U
r
r
= 0 (5.98)
Analogous to the above derivations of the continuity equation in cylindrical
coordinates one obtains for spherical coordinates:
h
r
= 1; h

= r; h

= r sin (5.99)
5.7 Basic Equations in dierent Coordinate Systems 141
Spherical coordinates
Figure 5.12: Coordinate systems and transformation equations for spherical co-
ordinates
and thus for
(U
i
)
x
i
=
1
r
2

r
(r
2
U
r
) +
1
r sin

(U

sin ) +
1
r sin

(U

) (5.100)
the continuity equation in spherical coordinates with = const results:
1
r
2

r
(r
2
U
r
) +
1
r sin

(U

sin ) +
1
r sin

(U

) = 0 (5.101)
5.7.2 Navier-Stokes Equations
Analogous to the transformation of the continuity equation in cylindrical
and spherical coordinate systems, the dierent terms of the Navier-Stokes
equations can also be transferred, which can be stated in cartesian coordinates
as follows for Newtonian uids:
=
DU
j
Dt
=
_
U
j
t
+ U
i
U
j
x
i
_
=
P
x
j
+

x
i
_

_
U
j
x
i
+
U
i
x
j
_

2
3

ij
U
k
x
k
_
+g
j
(5.102)
Written out for j = 1, 2, 3:

DU
1
Dt
=
P
x
1
+

x
1
_
2
U
1
x
1

2
3
(

U)
_
+

x
2
_

_
U
1
x
2
+
U
2
x
1
__
+

x
3
_

_
U
3
x
3
+
U
1
x
1
__
+ g
1
(5.103)
142 5 Basic Equations of Fluid Mechanics

DU
2
Dt
=
P
x
2
+

x
1
_

_
U
2
x
1
+
U
1
x
2
__
+

x
2
_
2
U
2
x
2

2
3
(

U)
_
+

x
3
_

_
U
3
x
3
+
U
2
x
1
__
+ g
2
(5.104)

DU
3
Dt
=
P
x
3
+

x
1
_

_
U
3
x
1
+
U
1
x
3
__
+

x
2
_

_
U
3
x
2
+
U
2
x
3
__
+

x
3
_
2
U
3
x
3

2
3
(

U)
_
+ g
3
(5.105)
where it holds

U =
U
k
x
k
Momentum Equations in Cartesian Coordinates
- Momentum equations with
ij
terms:
x
1
Component:
_
U
1
t
+ U
1
U
1
x
1
+ U
2
U
1
x
2
+ U
3
U
1
x
3
_
=
P
x
1

11
x
1
+

21
x
2
+

31
x
3
_
+ g
1
(5.106)
x
2
Component:
_
U
2
t
+ U
1
U
2
x
1
+ U
2
U
2
x
2
+ U
3
U
2
x
3
_
=
P
x
2

12
x
1
+

22
x
2
+

32
x
3
_
+ g
2
(5.107)
x
3
Component:
_
U
3
t
+ U
1
U
3
x
1
+ U
2
U
3
x
2
+ U
3
U
3
x
3
_
=
P
x
3

13
x
1
+

23
x
2
+

33
x
3
_
+ g
3
(5.108)
- Navier-Stokes equations for and equally constant:
x
1
Component:
_
U
1
t
+ U
1
U
1
x
1
+ U
2
U
1
x
2
+ U
3
U
1
x
3
_
=
P
x
1
+
_

2
U
1
x
2
1
+

2
U
1
x
2
2
+

2
U
1
x
2
3
_
+ g
1
(5.109)
5.7 Basic Equations in dierent Coordinate Systems 143
x
2
Component:
_
U
2
t
+ U
2
U
2
x
1
+ U
2
U
2
x
2
+ U
3
U
2
x
3
_
=
P
x
2
+
_

2
U
2
x
2
1
+

2
U
2
x
2
2
+

2
U
2
x
2
3
_
+ g
2
(5.110)
x
3
Component:
_
U
3
t
+ U
1
U
3
x
1
+ U
2
U
3
x
2
+ U
3
U
3
x
3
_
=
P
x
3
+
_

2
U
3
x
2
1
+

2
U
3
x
2
2
+

2
U
3
x
2
3
_
+ g
3
(5.111)
Momentum Equations in Cylindrical Coordinates
- Momentum equations with
ij
terms:
rComponent:
_
U
r
t
+ U
r
U
r
r
+
U

r
U
r

U
2

r
+ U
z
U
r
z
_
=
P
r

_
1
r

r
(r
rr
) +
1
r

r
+

rz
z
_
+ g
r
(5.112)
Component:
_
U

t
+ U
r
U

r
+
U

r
U

+
U
r
U

r
+ U
z
U

z
_
=
1
r
P

_
1
r
2

r
(r
2

r
) +
1
r

+

z
z
_
+ g

(5.113)
zComponent:
_
U
z
t
+ U
r
U
z
r
+
U

r
U
z

+ U
z
U
z
z
_
=
P
z

_
1
r

r
(r
rz
) +
1
r

+

zz
z
_
+ g
z
(5.114)
- - Navier-Stokes equations for and equally constant:
rComponent:
_
U
r
t
+ U
r
U
r
r
+
U

r
U
r

U
2

r
+ U
z
U
r

z
_
(5.115)
=
P
r
+
_

r
_
1
r

r
(rU
r
)
_
+
1
r
2

2
U
r

2

2
r
2
U

+

2
U
r
z
2
_
+ g
r
144 5 Basic Equations of Fluid Mechanics
Component:
_
U

t
+ U
r
U

r
+
U

r
U

+
U
r
U

r
+ U
z
U

z
_
(5.116)
=
1
r
p

+
_

r
_
1
r

r
(rU

)
_
+
1
r
2

2
U

2
+
2
r
2
U
r

+

2
U

z
2
_
+ g

zComponent:
_
U
z
t
+ U
r
U
z
r
+
U

r
U
z

+ U
z
U
z
z
_
(5.117)
=
P
z
+
_
1
r

r
_
r
U
z
r
_
+
1
r
2

2
U
z

2
+

2
U
z
z
2
_
+ g
z
Momentum Equations in Spherical Coodinates
- Momentum equations with
ij
terms
rComponent:
_
U
r
t
+ U
r
U
r
r
+
U

r
U
r

+
U

r sin
U
r

U
2

+ U
2

r
_
=
P
r

_
1
r
2

r
(r
2

rr
) +
1
r sin

(
r
sin ) +
1
r sin

r
_
+ g
r
(5.118)
Component:
_
U

t
+ U
r
U

r
+
U

r
U

+
U

r sin
U

+
U
r
U

U
2

cot
r
_
=
1
r
p

_
1
r
2

r
(r
2

r
) +
1
r sin

sin) +
1
r sin

+

r
r

cot
r

_
+ g

(5.119)
Component:
_
U

t
+ U
r
U

r
+
U

r
U

+
U

r sin
U

+
U

U
r
r
+
U

r
cot
_
=
1
r sin
p

_
1
r
2

r
_
r
2

r
_
+
1
r

+
1
r sin

+

r
r
+
2 cot
r

_
+ g

(5.120)
Navier-Stokes Equations for and Equally Constant
5.7 Basic Equations in dierent Coordinate Systems 145
rComponent:
_
U
r
t
+ U
r
U
r
r
+
U

r
U
r

+
U

r sin
U
r

U
2

+ U
2

r
_
=
P
r
+
_

2
U
r

2
r
2
U
r

2
r
2
U

2
r
2
U

cot

2
r
2
sin
U

_
+ g
r
(5.121)
Component:
_
U

t
+ U
r
U

r
+
U

r
U

+
U

r sin
U

+
U
r
U

U
2

cot
r
_
=
1
r
P

+
_

2
U

+
2
r
2
U
r

r
2
sin
2

2 cos
r
2
sin
2

_
+ g

(5.122)
Component:
_
U

t
+ U
r
U

r
+
U

r
U

+
U

r sin
U

+
U

U
r
r
+
U

r
cot
_
=
1
r sin
P

+
_

2
U

r
2
sin
2

+
2
r
2
sin
2

U
r

. +
2 cos
r
2
sin
2

_
+ g

(5.123)
In these equations:

2
=
1
r
2

r
_
r
2

r
_
+
1
r
2
sin

_
sin

_
+
1
r
2
sin
2

_

2

2
_
(5.124)
Components of the Molecular Momentum Transport Tensor in
Cartesian Coordinates:

11
=
_
2
U
1
x
1

2
3
(

U)
_
;
22
=
_
2
U
2
x
2

2
3
(

U)
_
; (5.125)

33
=
_
2
U
3
x
3

2
3
(

U)
_
.

12
=
21
=
_
U
1
x
2
+
U
2
x
1
_
;
23
=
32
=
_
U
2
x
3
+
U
3
x
2
_
;
(5.126)

31
=
13
=
_
U
3
x
1
+
U
1
x
3
_
.
146 5 Basic Equations of Fluid Mechanics
above being employed
(

U) =
U
1
x
1
+
U
2
x
2
+
U
3
x
3
=
U
k
x
k
(5.127)
Components of the Molecular Transport Tensor in
Cylindrical Coordinates:

rr
=
_
2
U
r
r

2
3
(

U)
_
; (5.128)

=
_
2
_
1
r
U

+
U
r
r
_

2
3
(

U)
_
;
zz
=
_
2
U
z
x
z

2
3
(

U)
_

r
=
r
=
_
r

r
_
U

r
_
+
1
r
U
r

_
; (5.129)

z
=
z
=
_
U

z
+
1
r
U
z

_
;
zr
=
rz
=
_
U
z
r
+
U
r
z
_
.
above being employed
(

U) =
1
r

r
(rU
r
) +
1
r
U

+
U
z
z
(5.130)
Components of the Molecular Momentum Transport Tensor in
Spherical Coordinates:

rr
=
_
2
U
r
r

2
3
( U)
_
(5.131)

=
_
2
_
1
r
U

+
U
r
r
_

2
3
( U)
_
(5.132)

=
_
2
_
1
r sin
U

+
U
r
r
+
U

cot
r
_

2
3
( U)
_
(5.133)

r
=
r
=
_
r

r
_
U

r
_
+
1
r
U
r

_
(5.134)

=
_
sin
r

_
U

sin
_
+
1
r sin
U

_
(5.135)

r
=
r
=
_
1
r sin
U
r

+ r

r
_
U

r
__
(5.136)
( U) =
1
r
2

r
(r
2
U
r
) +
1
r sin

(U

sin ) +
1
r sin
U

(5.137)
5.8 Special Forms of the Basic Equations 147
Dissipation Function
ij
Uj
xi
=

:
Cartesian coordinates:

= 2
_
_
U
1
x
1
_
2
+
_
U
2
x
2
_
2
+
_
U
3
x
3
_
2
_
+
_
U
2
x
1
+
U
1
x
2
_
2
+
_
U
3
x
2
+
U
2
x
3
_
2
+
_
U
1
x
3
+
U
3
x
1
_
2

2
3
_
U
1
x
1
+
U
2
x
2
+
U
3
x
3
_
2
(5.138)
Cylindrical coordinates:

= 2
_
_
U
r
r
_
2
+
_
1
r
U

+
U
r
r
_
2
+
_
U
z
x
z
_
2
_
+
_
r

r
_
U

r
_
+
1
r
U
z

_
2
+
_
1
r
U
z

+
U

x
z
_
2
+
_
U
r
x
z
+
U
z
r
_
2

2
3
_
1
r

r
(rU
r
) +
1
r
U

+
U
z
x
z
_
2
(5.139)
Spherical coordinates:

= 2
_
_
U
r
r
_
2
+
_
1
r
U

+
U
r
r
_
2
_
1
r sin
U

+
U
r
r
+
U

cot
r
_
2
_
+
_
r

r
_
U

r
_
+
1
r
U
r

_
2
+
_
sin
r

_
U

sin
_
+
1
r sin
U

_
2
+
_
1
r sin
U
r

+ r

r
_
U

r
__
2

2
3
_
1
r
2

r
(r
2
U
r
) +
1
r sin

(U

sin ) +
1
r sin
U

_
2
(5.140)
The above equations can be solved in connection with the initial and bound-
ary conditions describing the actual ow problems.
5.8 Special Forms of the Basic Equations
Due to the multitude of uid-mechanical considerations special forms have
crystallized from the equations treated in the preceding chapters, some of
which shall be derived and explained in this chapter. These are the vortex-
power equation (Wirbelstrkengleichung), the Bernoulli equation and the
148 5 Basic Equations of Fluid Mechanics
Crocco equation, that have already been treated before. The derivations will
moreover treat the Kelvin theorem as a basis for explanations of its physical
signicance. The objective of the considerations is to bring out clearly the
prerequisites under which the special forms of the basic equations are valid.
Only the simplied treatments of ow problems that are sought with the
special forms of the equations lead to secure results.
5.8.1 Transport equation for vortex power
The vortex power
i
is a property of the ow eld which can be employed ad-
vantageously in considerations of rotating uid motions. It can be computed
from the velocity eld as follows:

k
=

U =
ijk
U
j
x
i
=
_
U
j
x
i

U
i
x
j
_
(5.141)
For a uid with the properties = const and = const, the Navier-Stokes
equation can be written in the following way:

_
U
j
t
+ U
i
U
j
x
i
_
=
P
x
j
+

2
U
j
x
2
i
+ g
j
(5.142)
or in vector form:
_

U
t
+
_

U
_

U
_
=
1

P +
2

U + g (5.143)
Considering that this vector form of the Navier-Stokes equation can also be
written as:

U
t
+
_
1
2

U

U
_

U
_

U
_
=
1

P +
2

U +g (5.144)
When one applies the operator (. . . ) . to each of the terms appearing in
the above equation one obtains:

t
(

U ) =
2
(5.145)
Making use of the relation valid for vectors:
(

U ) =

U( ) (

U) (

U ) + ( )

U
where = 0 as the divergence of the rotation of each vector is equal to
zero, and where at the same time = const

U = 0 holds owing to the
continuity equation. When one introduces all this into the above equations,
the transport equation for the vortex power reads:
5.8 Special Forms of the Basic Equations 149

t
+ (

U) = ()

U +
2
(5.146)
or in tensor notation:
D
j
Dt
=

j
t
+ U
i

j
x
i
=
j
U
i
x
j
+

j
x
2
i
(5.147)
The equation (5.147) does not contain the pressure term, from this it is
apparent that the vortex-power eld can be determined without knowledge
of the pressure distribution. To be able to compute the pressure, one forms
the divergence of the Navier-Stokes equation and obtains for g
j
= 0:

2
x
2
i
_
P

_
=
2
j
+ U
j

2
U
j
x
2
i

1
2

2
U
2
j
x
2
i
(5.148)
Thus yields the Poisson equation for the computation of the pressure. For
two-dimensional ows, for which the vortex-power vector stands vertical on
the ow plane, ( )

U = 0. The transport equation for the vortex power

therefore reads:

j
t
+ U
i

j
x
i
=

j
x
2
i
(5.149)
5.8.2 The Bernoulli Equation
The general momentum equation is transferred into the Euler equations, by
assuming an ideal uid to derive the Bernoulli equation, i.e:

DU
j
Dt
=
_
U
j
t
+ U
i
U
j
x
i
_
=
P
x
j
+ g
j
(5.150)
Multiplying this equation by U
j
, one obtains the mechanical energy equation
valid for dissipation-free uid ows:

D
Dt
_
1
2
U
2
j
_
=
_

t
_
1
2
U
2
j
_
+ U
i

x
i
_
1
2
U
2
j
__
= U
j
P
x
j
+ g
j
U
j
.
(5.151)
When one introduces the potential eld G for the presentation of g
j
so as:
g
j
=
G
x
j
(5.152)
the last term of the equation(5.151) reads:
g
j
U
j
= U
j
G
x
j
=
DG
Dt
+
G
t
, (5.153)
150 5 Basic Equations of Fluid Mechanics
one obtains for
G
t
= 0:

D
Dt
__
1
2
U
2
j
_
+ G
_
= U
j
P
x
j
. (5.154)
Considering that it holds:

D
Dt
_
P

_
=

t
_
P

_
+ U
j

x
j
_
P

_
(5.155)
and that moreover the following conversions are possible:

t
_
P

_
=
P
t

P

t
, (5.156)
U
j

x
j
_
P

_
= U
j
P
x
j

U
j

x
j
, (5.157)
then it can be written:

D
Dt
_
P

_
=
P
t
+ U
j
P
x
j

D
Dt
. (5.158)
From the equation (5.154) and (5.158):

D
Dt
__
1
2
U
2
j
_
+ G
_
= U
j
P
x
j
=
D
Dt
_
P

_
+
P
t

P

D
Dt
, (5.159)
or after conversion of some terms:

D
Dt
__
1
2
U
2
j
_
+
P

+ G
_
=
P
t

P

D
Dt
, (5.160)
or

D
Dt
__
1
2
U
2
j
_
+
P

+ G
_
=
P
t
+
U
j
x
j
P. (5.161)
For stationary pressure elds
P
t
= 0, and for = const, the Bernoulli
equation can be stated as follows:
1
2
U
2
j
+
P

+ G =
1
2
U
2
j
+
P

x
j
g
j
= const (5.162)
The above derivations make clear under which conditions the well-known
Bernoulli equation (5.162) holds.
From the above derivations, general form of the mechanical energy equation
by including dissipative ow eld can be written in other form:

D
Dt
_
1
2
U
2
j
+
P

+ G
_
=
P
t
+ P
U
j
x
j
+

x
i
(
ij
U
j
)
ij
U
j
x
i
(5.163)
left side of this form of the mechanical energy contains all terms of the
Bernoulli equation.
5.8 Special Forms of the Basic Equations 151
5.8.3 Crocco Equation
The Crocco equation is a special form of the momentum equation which shows
in an impressive manner how purely uid-mechanical considerations can be
supplemented by thermodynamical insights. The Crocco equation connects
the vortex power of a ow eld to the entropy of the considered uid. It
can be shown from this equation that isotropic ows are free from rotation
and vice versa under certain conditions. So when one recognizes a ow eld
to be isentrope, the simplied rotation-free ow elds considerations can be
applied.
For the derivation of the Crocco equation one starts from the Navier-Stokes
equation, as it is stated in equation (5.144) supplemented by = 0, i.e. one
introduces an ideal uid into the considerations, to neglect inertia forces.

U
t
+
_
1
2

U

U
_

U
_

U
_
=
1

P (5.164)
In section 3.6 it was shown that it holds:
T

ds

= de

+ P

= de

+ P

d
_
1

_
(5.165)
With e

= h
n
P

the following relation holds:

dh

d
_
P

_
= P

d
_
1

_
+ T

ds

(5.166)
because of d
_
P

_
= P

d
_
1

_
+
1

dP

it holds:

dP

= T

ds

dh

(5.167)
This relation can also be written:
1

P = Ts h (5.168)
equation (5.168) is inserted in equation (5.164) to yield:

U
t
+
_
1
2

U

U
_

U
_

U
_
= Ts h (5.169)
For stationary adiabatic processes the thermal energy equation can be written
in the following form:

Dh
Dt
=
DP
Dt
(5.170)
From the momentum equation it follows further:
152 5 Basic Equations of Fluid Mechanics

D
Dt
_
1
2

U
_
=

UP (5.171)
Thus:

D
Dt
_
h +
1
2

U
_
=
DP
Dt


UP (5.172)

D
Dt
_
h +
1
2

U
_
=
DP
Dt
(5.173)
equation (5.173) is inserted in (5.164) under stationary ow conditions to
yield:

U + Ts =
_
h +
1
2

U
_
(5.174)
If ow is considered along a ow line, then (h+1/2

U) is a vector vertical
to the considered ow line.

U is also a vector and lies also vertical to the
ow line. Thus Ts as well lies vertical to the uid motion along a ow line,
therefore it can be stated:
U
n

n
+ T
ds
dn
=
d
dn
_
h +
1
2

U
_
(5.175)
when
_
h +
1
2

U
_
is constant along a ow eld, then
d
dn
_
h +
1
2

U
_
= 0 and
thus:
U
n

n
+ T
ds
dn
= 0 (5.176)
If
n
= 0 then ds/ dn = 0, thus rotation-free ows are isentropic and vice
versa. If the ow is assumed to be stationary and in the absence of viscos-
ity,the inertial forces turn out to be zero.
5.8.4 Further Forms of the Energy Equation
The close connection between uid mechanics and thermodynamics becomes
clear from dierent forms of the energy equation, summarized in the fol-
lowing table, as introduced by Bird, Steward & Lightfoot [5.1] the notation
adapted in this book are as follows
5.8 Special Forms of the Basic Equations 153
Symbols Explanation Dimension
c
p
Heat capacity at constant pressure, L
2
/(Tt
2
)
per mass unit
c
v
Heat capacity at constant volume, L
2
/(Tt
2
)
per mass unit
e
total
Total energy of the uid, per ML
2
/t
2
unit mass
e Internal energy, per unit mass ML
2
/t
2
g, g
i
External mass acceleration L/t
2
G Potential energy, potential of G ML
2
/t
2
Symbols Explanation Dimension
h Enthalpy ML
2
/t
2
P Pressure eld M/(Lt
2
)
q, q
i
Heat ow per unit area M/t
3
T Absolute temperature T

U, U
i
Velocity eld L/t
V Volume L
3
x
i
Cartesian coordinates L
Thermal expansion coecient 1/T
Fluid density eld M/L
3
,
ij
Molecular momentum transport M/(Lt
2
)
Mass conservation (Continuity Equation)
154 5 Basic Equations of Fluid Mechanics
Equations in vector and tensor notation Notes/observations
D
Dt
= (

U) for
D
Dt
= 0; ( u) = 0
D
Dt
=
Ui
xi
or
Ui
xi
= 0
5.8 Special Forms of the Basic Equations 155
Equation of Motion (Momentum Equation)
Special Equations in vector and Notes/observations
Form Tensor Notation
Imposed
D

U
Dt
= P [ ] + g For = 0
convection one obtains

DUj
Dt
=
P
xj

ij
xi
+ g
j
Euler equations
Free
D

U
Dt
= [ ] gT This equation
convection comprises approximation

DUj
Dt
=
ij
xi
g
j
T by Boussinesque-
assumptions
Energy Equations
Special Equations in vector and tensor notation Notes/
Form observations
Written
for
De
total
Dt
= ( q) (

U) ( [

U]) Exact only
e
total
= e+ for G time
+
1
2

U
2
+ G
De
total
Dt
=
qi
xi

(PUi)
xi

(ijUj)
xi
independent

D(e+
1
2

U
2
)
Dt
= ( q) (

U)
( [

U]) + (

U g)
e +
1
2

U
2

D(e+
1
2
U
2
i
)
Dt
=
qi
xi

(PUi)
xi

(ijUj)
xi
+ U
i
g
i
156 5 Basic Equations of Fluid Mechanics
Special Equations in vector and Notes/observations
Form tensor notation

D
1
2

U
2
Dt
= (

U P) (

U [ ])
+(

U g)
1
2

U
2

D
1
2
U
2
i
Dt
= U
i
P
xi
U
i
ij
xj
+ U
i
g
i

De
Dt
= ( q) P(

U) ( :

U) the P Term containing

e is zero

De
Dt
=
qi
xi
P
Ui
xi

ij
Ui
xj
for
D
Dt
= 0

Dh
Dt
= ( q) ( :

U) +
DP
Dt
h

Dh
Dt
=
qi
xi

ij
Ui
xj
+
DP
Dt
Written c
v
DT
Dt
= ( q) T(
P
T
)

(

U) For an ideal
for ( :

U)
c
v
and T Gas (
P
T
)

=
P
T
c
v
DT
Dt
=
qi
xi
T(
P
T
)

(
Ui
xi
)
ij
Ui
xj
Written c
p
DT
Dt
= ( q) + (
ln V
ln T
)

DP
Dt
For an ideal
four ( :

U)
c
p
and T Gas (
ln V
ln T
)

= 1
c
p
DT
Dt
=
qi
xi
+ (
ln V
ln T
)

DP
Dt

ij
Ui
xj
5.9 Transport Equation for Chemical Species
In many domains of engineering science investigations of uids with chemical
reactions are required which make it necessary to enlarge the considerations
carried out to-date. It is necessary to state the basic equations of uid me-
chanics for the dierent chemical components:
5.9 Transport Equation for Chemical Species 157
Local modication of the mass of the
chemical component A

A
t
V

Modication of the mass of component A

by inow and outow


x
i

A
(U
A
)
i
V

Production of the chemical component A

by chemical reaction
r
A
V

Thus yields a mass balance:

A
t
V

=

x
i
[
A
(U
A
)
i
] V

+ r
A
V

(5.177)
and the equation for the mass conservation for the chemical component A of
a uid results as:

A
t
+

x
i
[
A
(U
A
)
i
] = r
A
(5.178)
For a chemical component B, as a consequence of equal considerations:

B
t
+

x
i
[
B
(U
B
)
i
] = r
B
(5.179)
The addition of these equations yields:

t
+
(U
i
)
x
i
= 0 (5.180)
i.e. the total mass conservation equation for a mixture of dierent components
is equal to the continuity equation for a uid which consists of one chemical
component only. By considering Ficks law of diusion it can be stated:

A
t
+

x
i
(
A
U
i
) =

x
i
_
D
AB
(C
A
/C)
x
i
_
+ r
A
(5.181)
For = const and D
AB
= const, one obtains:

A
t
+
=0
..

A
U
i
x
i
+U
i

A
x
i
= D
AB

A
x
i
+ r
A
(5.182)
or expressed in terms of concentration, C
A
DC
A
Dt
=
_
C
A
t
+ U
i
C
A
x
i
_
= D
AB

2
C
A
x
i
2
+ R
A
(5.183)
with r
A
= A R
A
, see Bird, Stewart, Lightfoot [5.1].
158 5 Basic Equations of Fluid Mechanics
5.10 Literature
[5.1] Bird, R.B., Stewart, W.E. & Lightfoot, E.N., Transport Phenomena, John
Wiley & Sons Inc., New York, 1960
[5.2] Spurk, J.H., Stromungslehre - Einfuhrung in die Theorie der
Stromungen, Springer Verlag Berlin, 4. Au., 1996
[5.3] Brodkey, R.S., The Phenomena of Fluid Motions, Dover Publications,
Inc., New York, 1967
[5.4] Sherman, F.S., Viscous Flow, McGraw-Hill Book Co. Singapore, 1990
[5.5] Schlichting, H., Boundary Layer Theory, 6 Edition, McGraw Hill Book
Company New York, 1968