Chapter 1.

Complex Numbers and Functions

Proposition 1. Let f be a complex-valued function dened on an open set U. Then f is
complex dierentiable at a point z U if and only if the Jacobian of f at z (considered
as a map from R
2
to R
2
) is of the form
_
a b
b a
_
.
Proof. To be completed.
Chapter 2. Power Series
Remark 2. Below, U denotes the closure of U, U

denotes the interior of U, and U

denotes the boundary of U.
Theorem 3. [Root test] Let

a
n
be a non-negative series and let L = limsup
n
n

a
n
.
(1) If L < 1, the series converges.
(2) If L > 1, the series diverges.
Proof. Suppose that L < 1 and choose with L < < 1. By the properties of limsup,
there exists an integer N such that a
n
<
n
for all n N. Since

n
converges,
applying the comparison test shows that

a
n
converges. For (2), suppose that L > 1.
There exists a subsequence
_
n
k

a
n
k
_
that converges to L, and a
n
k
> 1 for innitely
many values of a
n
k
. Therefore a
n
cannot converge to 0, and the series diverges.
Lemma 4. [Ratio test] Let

a
n
be a non-negative series.
(1) If limsup
n
a
n+1
/a
n
< 1, the series converges.
(2) If there exists an integer N such that a
n+1
/a
n
1 for all n N, the series
diverges.
Proof. Let L = limsup
n
a
n+1
/a
n
and suppose that L < 1. Choose such that
L < < 1. There exists an integer N such that a
n+1
/a
n
< for all n N. By
iteration, we have a
N+k
<
k
a
N
for any k > 0. Since

k
converges, applying the
comparison test shows that

a
n
converges. If a
n+1
/a
n
1 for all n N, then a
n
0
cannot hold, so the series diverges.
Theorem 5. Let

a
n
z
n
be a power series. The radius of convergence R for this series
is given by
1
R
= limsup
n
n
_
[a
n
[.
Proof. Follows immediately from the root test.
1
2
Corollary 6. Let

a
n
z
n
be a power series with a radius of convergence R > 0. Then
there exists a positive number C such that if A > 1/R then [a
n
[ < CA
n
for all n.
Proof. Since A > 1/R = limsup
n
n
_
[a
n
[, there exists an integer N such that [a
n
[ <
A
n
for all n N. We can choose a constant C to extend the inequality to all n.
Theorem 7. Let f(X) =

a
n
X
n
be a non-constant power series having a non-zero
radius of convergence. If f(0) = 0, then there exists s > 0 such that f(z) ,= 0 for all
0 < [z[ < s.
Proof. Since f(0) = 0 and the series is non-constant, we may write f(X) = a
m
X
m
[1 +
g(X)] where a
m
,= 0 and g(X) = b
1
X+b
2
X
2
+ . Let R be the radius of convergence of
g, which is non-zero since f has a non-zero radius of convergence. Since g is continuous
at 0, we may choose a suciently small non-zero s < R so that [g(s)[ < 1. Then
f(z) ,= 0 for all 0 < [z[ < s, which completes the proof.
Theorem 8. Let f(X) =

a
n
X
n
and g(X) =

b
n
X
n
be convergent in a set E
having 0 as a limit point. If f(z) = g(z) for all z E, then f(X) = g(X) as formal
power series, i.e. a
n
= b
n
for all n.
Proof. Dene h(X) = f(X) g(X) so that h(z) = 0 for all z E. From the contrapos-
itive of Theorem 7, we conclude that h is constant or h(0) ,= 0. But h(0) ,= 0 violates
the continuity of h at 0 since h(z) = 0 for arbitrarily small [z[. Therefore h = 0 and f
is identical to g.
Theorem 9. Let f(z) =

n0
a
n
z
n
and g(z) =

n1
b
n
z
n
be convergent power series.
Suppose that f(z) converges absolutely for [z[ < R and s > 0 is a number such that

[b
n
[ s
n
< R. Let h(X) = f(g(X)) be the power series obtained by composition. Then
h(z) converges absolutely and h(z) = f(g(z)) for [z[ < s.
Proof. We have
h(X) =

n0
a
n
_

k1
b
k
X
k
_
n

n0
[a
n
[
_

k1
[b
k
[ X
k
_
n
,
where the last series converges absolutely for [z[ < s by hypothesis. By the comparison
test, h converges absolutely on the same radius. Now let
f
N
(X) =
N1

n=0
a
n
X
n
3
so that
h(X) f
N
(g(X)) = f(g(X)) f
N
(g(X))
=

nN
a
n
_

k1
b
k
X
k
_
n
.
Let z be a point with [z[ < s and let > 0 be arbitrary. Since h converges at z and
f
N
(g(z)) f(g(z)), there exists a N such that both
[h(z) f
N
(g(z))[ =

nN
a
n
_

k1
b
k
z
k
_
n

<
and [f
N
(g(z)) f(g(z))[ < . Therefore
[h(z) f(g(z))[ < 2,
and since was arbitrary, h(z) = f(g(z)).
Chapter 3. Cauchys Theorem, First Part
Theorem 10. Let U be a connected open set. If f is analytic on U and is not constant,
then the set of zeros of f on U is discrete.
Proof. Let S be the set of points z U such that f = 0 in a neighborhood of z; then S
is open by denition. Now let z U be a limit point of S. By continuity, f(z) = 0. But
Theorem 8 shows that there exists a neighborhood of z on which f = 0, and therefore
z S. This shows that S is closed in U, and since f is not constant, S ,= U. But U is
connected and S is both open and closed in U, so S is empty. To complete the proof,
suppose that f(z
0
) = 0 and z
0
is not isolated. By Theorem 8, f = 0 on a neighborhood
of z
0
and z
0
S, which is a contradiction.
Corollary 11. If f, g are analytic on U and f coincides with g on a subset of U which
is not discrete, then f = g on U.
Theorem 12. [Exercise 3.1.2] Let U be a bounded open connected set, f
n
a sequence
of continuous functions on the closure of U, analytic on U. If f
n
converges uniformly
on the boundary of U, then f
n
converges uniformly on U.
Proof. Let > 0 be given and choose an integer N such that [f
m
(z) f
n
(z)[ <
whenever m, n N and z U. Then for all m, n N and z U, either f
m
f
n
is constant on U or the maximum of [f
m
f
n
[ exists on U since U is bounded. In the
latter case, by Corollary 1.4, there exists a z
0
U such that
[f
m
(z) f
n
(z)[ [f
m
(z
0
) f
n
(z
0
)[ < .
4
If f
m
f
n
is constant on U, then [f
m
(z) f
n
(z)[ < for all z U by continuity. This
completes the proof.
Theorem 13. [Exercise 3.1.3] Let a
1
, . . . , a
n
be points on the unit circle. Then there
exists a point z on the unit circle so that the product of the distances from z to the a
j
is at least 1.
Proof. Let E = z C [ [z[ 1 be the unit circle and dene f : E C by
f(z) =
n

j=1
(z a
j
).
Since E is compact, there exists a point z
0
such that [f(z)[ [f(z
0
)[ for all z E, and
since f is non-constant on E

, applying Corollary 1.4 shows that z

0
E, i.e. [z
0
[ = 1.
Furthermore, since [f(0)[ = 1 we have [f(z
0
)[ 1.
Theorem 14. [Exercise 3.2.11] Let F : [a, b] C be a continuous function. Then

b
a
F(t) dt

b
a
[F(t)[ dt.
Proof. Let > 0 be arbitrary. There exists a partition P = x
0
, . . . , x
n
of [a, b] such
that both

i=1
F(x
i
)(x
i
x
i1
)

b
a
F(t) dt

<
and

i=1
[F(x
i
)[ (x
i
x
i1
)

b
a
[F(t)[ dt

< .
Therefore

b
a
F(t) dt

<

i=1
F(x
i
)(x
i
x
i1
)

i=1
[F(x
i
)[ (x
i
x
i1
) +
<

b
a
[F(t)[ dt + 2.
Since was arbitrary,

b
a
F(t) dt

b
a
[F(t)[ dt.

5
Theorem 15. [Exercise 3.5.1] Every star-shaped open set is simply connected.
Proof. Let U be a star-shaped open set and choose z
0
U so that the line segment
between z
0
and any other point in S is contained in S. Let : [0, 1] U be a closed
path, and dene the homotopy : [0, 1] [0, 1] U by
(t, s) = sz
0
+ (1 s)(t).
Then t (t, 1) is a single point, and U is simply connected.
Example 16. Let U be a simply connected open set and let f be an analytic function
on U. Is f(U) simply connected? No. Take U = C [0, ) and f(z) = z
2
. Then
U is simply connected (in fact star-shaped), but f(U) = C 0, which is not simply
connected.
Let H be the upper half-plane, that is, the set of complex numbers z = x+iy such that
y > 0. Let f(z) = e
2iz
. What is the image of f(H)? Is f(H) simply connected? Since
f(x + iy) = e
2y+2ix
image of f(H) is z C [ 0 < [z[ < 1. This set is not simply
connected.
Lemma 17. [Exercise 3.7.3] Let f be an entire function, and let |f|
R
be its sup norm
on the circle of radius R. Suppose that there exists a constant C and a positive integer
k such that
|f|
R
CR
k
for arbitrarily large R. Then f is a polynomial of degree no greater than k.
Proof. By Theorem 7.3, f has power series f(z) =

a
n
z
n
, valid for all z, with the
inequality [a
n
[ |f|
R
/R
n
. Therefore
[a
n
[ R
n
|f|
R
CR
k
and [a
n
[ CR
kn
for arbitrarily large R. If n > k, then R
kn
0 as R , which
shows that f is a polynomial of degree no greater than k.
Theorem 18. Let be a path in an open set U and let g be a continuous function on
(i.e. on the image of ([a, b]) if is dened on [a, b]). Dene
f(z) =

g()
z
d
for all z not on . Then f is analytic on the complement of in U, and its derivatives
are given by
f
(n)
(z) = n!

g()
( z)
n+1
d.
6
Proof. Let z
0
U be a point not on , and choose R > 0 so that the closed disc
D(z
0
, R) is contained in U ([a, b]). Choose 0 < s < R, and write
1
z
=
1
z
0
_
1
1
zz
0
z
0
_
=
1
z
0
_
1 +
z z
0
z
0
+
_
z z
0
z
0
_
2
+
_
for all [ z
0
[ = R. This series converges absolutely and uniformly for [z z
0
[ s
since

z z
0
z
0

s
R
< 1.
Now
f(z) =

g()
z
0

k=0
_
z z
0
z
0
_
k
d
=

k=0

g()
( z
0
)
k+1
d (z z
0
)
k
,
which shows that f is analytic at z
0
. The derivatives of f can be found by dierentiating
the terms of the power series.
Chapter 4. Winding Numbers and Cauchys Theorem
Theorem 19. [Exercise 4.2.1]
(1) The association f f

/f (where f is holomorphic) sends products to sums.

(2) If P(z) = (z a
1
) (z a
n
), where a
1
, . . . , a
n
are the roots, then
P

(z)
P(z)
=
1
z a
1
+ +
1
z a
n
.
(3) Let be a closed path such that none of the roots of P lie on . Then
1
2i

(z)
P(z)
dz = W(, a
1
) + + W(, a
n
).
Proof. For (1), we have
(fg)

fg
=
f

g + fg

fg
=
f

f
+
g

g
,
7
and (2) follows immediately. Then
1
2i

(z)
P(z)
dz =
n

k=1
1
2i

1
z a
k
dz
=
n

k=1
W(, a
k
)
by Cauchys formula.
Theorem 20. [Exercise 4.2.2] Let f(z) = (z z
0
)
m
h(z) where h is analytic on an open
set U, and h(z) ,= 0 for all z U. Let be a closed path homologous to 0 in U, and
such that z
0
does not lie on . Then
1
2i

(z)
f(z)
dz = W(, z
0
)m.
Proof. Since f f

/f sends products to sums, we have

1
2i

(z)
f(z)
dz =
1
2i

m(z z
0
)
m1
(z z
0
)
m
dz +
1
2i

(z)
h(z)
dz
= W(, z
0
)m
since h

/h is holomorphic on U.
Theorem 21. [Exercise 4.2.3] Let U be a simply connected open set and let z
1
, . . . , z
n
be points of U. Let U

= U z
1
, . . . , z
n
be the set obtained from U by deleting the
points z
1
, . . . , z
n
. Let f be analytic on U

. Let
k
be a small circle centered at z
k
and
let
a
k
=
1
2i

k
f() d.
Let h(z) = f(z)

a
k
/(z z
k
). Then there exists an analytic function H on U

such
that H

= h.
Proof. Choose a point z
0
U

and let
H(z) =

h(z) dz
where is any path in U

from z
0
to z. To show that H is well-dened, suppose that
is another path in U

from z
0
to z. Since U is simply connected, is homotopic
8
to 0 and is therefore homologous to 0 in U. We have

h(z) dz =

f(z) dz

k
_
1
2i

1
z z
k
dz
_

k
f() d
=

f(z) dz

k
W( , z
k
)

k
f() d
= 0
by Theorem 2.4. Applying Theorem 3.2 shows that H

= h in a neighborhood of z
0
.
Chapter 5. Applications of Cauchys Integral Formula
Theorem 22. [Exercise 5.1.1] Let f be analytic on an open set U, let z
0
U and
f

(z
0
) ,= 0. Then
2i
f

(z
0
)
=

C
1
f(z) f(z
0
)
dz
where C is a small circle centered at z
0
.
Proof. Since f is analytic, we have
f(z) f(z
0
) = a
1
(z z
0
) + a
2
(z z
0
)
2
+
on some neighborhood of z
0
. Inverting the power series gives
1
f(z) f(z
0
)
=
1
a
1
_
1
z z
0
_
(1 + b
1
(z z
0
) + )

C
1
f(z) f(z
0
)
dz =
1
a
1

C
_
1
z z
0
_
dz
=
2i
f

(z
0
)
.

Remark 23. [Exercise 5.1.2] Weierstrass theorem for a real interval [a, b] states that a
continuous function can be uniformly approximated by polynomials. Is this conclusion
still true for the closed unit disc? No. Suppose that z z can be uniformly approxi-
mated by polynomials. Since each polynomial is holomorphic, the uniform limit z z
must be holomorphic, which is false.
Theorem 24. [Exercise 5.1.3] Let a > 0. Each of the following series represents a
holomorphic function:
(1)

n=1
e
an
2
z
for Re z > 0;
9
(2)

n=1
e
anz
(a + n)
2
for Re z > 0;
(3)

n=1
1
(a + n)
z
for Re z > 1.
Proof. For (1), choose c > 0 so that

e
an
2
z

= e
an
2
Re z
(e
ac
)
n
2
for all Re z c. Since

(e
ac
)
n
2
converges, (1) converges uniformly for all Re z c.
This is true for all c > 0, so the series denes a holomorphic function for all Re z > 0.
(2) follows from the convergence of

1/n
2
, and (3) is similar to the example in Section
5.1.
Theorem 25. [Exercise 5.1.4,5.1.5] Each of the two series converges uniformly on
every closed disc [z[ c with 0 < c < 1:

n=1
nz
n
1 z
n
and

n=1
z
n
(1 z
n
)
2
.
In fact, the two series sum to the same value.
Proof. To be completed.
Theorem 26. [Exercise 5.1.6] Let a
n
be a sequence of complex numbers. If the series

n=1
a
n
n
s
converges absolutely for some complex s, then it converges absolutely in a right half-
plane Re z >
0
for some
0
, and uniformly in Re z >
0
+ for every > 0. The
series denes an analytic function in this half-plane.
Proof. Suppose that the series converges absolutely for some s. Then for all Re z > Re s
and n 3, we have
(Re z) log n > (Re s) log n,
e
(Re z) log n
< e
(Re s) log n
so that

a
n
n
z

a
n
e
(Re z) log n

a
n
e
(Re s) log n

a
n
n
s

.
10
By the comparison test,

n=1
a
n
n
z
converges absolutely. On the half-plane Re z > Re s + , we have

a
n
n
z

a
n
n
Re s+

while

n=1

a
n
n
Re s+

converges since Re s+ > Re s. By the Weierstrass M-test, the original series converges
uniformly on the half-plane.
Theorem 27. [Exercise 5.1.7] Let f be analytic on a closed disc D of radius b > 0,
centered at z
0
. Then
1
b
2

D
f(x + iy) dy dx = f(z
0
).
Proof. We may assume that z
0
= 0, for otherwise we can apply the same argument to
the function z f(z + z
0
). By Cauchys formula,
f(0) =
1
2i

C
f(z)
z
dz
for any circle C of radius r around 0. Using the parameterization z = re
i
, we have
f(0) =
1
2i

2
0
f(re
i
)
re
i
ire
i
d
=
1
2

2
0
f(re
i
) d.
Multiplying by r and integrating,
1
2

b
0

2
0
rf(re
i
) d dr =

b
0
f(0)r dr,
1
b
2

b
0

2
0
rf(re
i
) d dr = f(0).
Performing the substitution x = r cos and y = r sin in the double integral, we have
1
b
2

D
f(x + iy) dy dx =
1
b
2

b
0

2
0
rf(re
i
) d dr
= f(0).

11
Example 28. [Exercise 5.1.8] Let D be the unit disc and let S be the unit square,
that is, the set of complex numbers z such that 0 < Re z < 1 and 0 < Imz < 1. Let
f : D S be an analytic isomorphism such that f(0) = (1 +i)/2. Let u, v be the real
and imaginary parts of f respectively. Compute the integral

D
_
_
u
x
_
2
+
_
u
y
_
2
_
dx dy.
Since f is holomorphic,
_
u
x
_
2
+
_
u
y
_
2
=
f
where
f
is the Jacobian determinant of f and

D
_
_
u
x
_
2
+
_
u
y
_
2
_
dx dy =

f
dx dy.
Applying the change of variables given by f,

f
dx dy =

S
1 dx dy
= 1.
Theorem 29. [Exercise 5.1.9] Let f be an analytic isomorphism on the unit disc D,
and let
f(z) =

n=1
a
n
z
n
be its power series expansion. Then the area of f(D) is equal to

n=1
n[a
n
[
2
.
If f is an analytic isomorphism on the closed unit disc D, [f(z)[ 1 if [z[ = 1, and
f(0) = 0, then the area of f(D) is no less than .
Proof. To be completed.
Theorem 30. [Exercise 5.2.1] Let f be a holomorphic function dened by a Laurent
series
f(z) =

n=
a
n
z
n
12
which is absolutely and uniformly convergent on s < [z[ < S. Then
f

(z) =

n=
na
n
z
n1
for all s < [z[ < S.
Proof. Write f(z) = f
+
(z) + f

(z), where
f
+
(z) =

n0
a
n
z
n
and f

(z) =

n<0
a
n
z
n
.
We know that
f

+
(z) =

n1
na
n
z
n1
,
so it remains to show that
f

(z) =

n<0
na
n
z
n1
.
But
f

_
1
z
_
=

n>0
a
n
z
n
where the power series on the right is convergent on [z[ < 1/s, so by Theorem 5.1,

1
z
2
f

_
1
z
_
=

n>0
na
n
z
n1
f

(z) =

n>0
(n)a
n
z
n1
=

n<0
na
n
z
n1
.

Example 31. [Exercise 5.2.4] Expand the function

f(z) =
z
1 + z
3
(a) in a series of positive powers of z, and (b) in a series of negative powers of z. In
each case, specify the region in which the expansion is valid.
We may write
z
1 + z
3
= z(1 z
3
+ z
6
z
9
+ ),
13
valid for [z[ < 1, and
z
1 + z
3
=
1
z
2
_
1
_
1
z
_
3
+ 1
_
= z
2
_
1 z
3
+ z
6
z
9
+
_
,
valid for [z[ > 1.
Example 32. [Exercise 5.2.5] Give the Laurent expansions for the following functions:
(1)
z
z + 2
for [z[ > 2,
(2) sin
1
z
for z ,= 0,
(3) cos
1
z
for z ,= 0,
(4)
1
z 3
for [z[ > 3.
Solutions:
z
z + 2
=
1
1 +
2
z
= 1 2z
1
+ 2
2
z
2
2
3
z
3
+ ,
sin
1
z
= z
1

z
3
3!
+
z
5
5!
,
cos
1
z
= 1
z
2
2!
+
z
4
4!
,
1
z 3
=
z
1
1 3z
1
= z
1
(1 + 3z
1
+ 3
2
z
2
+ ).
Example 33. [Exercise 5.2.8] Let
f(z) =
1
(z 1)(z 2)
.
Find the Laurent series for f: (a) in the disc [z[ < 1, (b) in the annulus 1 < [z[ < 2,
(c) in the region 2 < [z[.
We have the partial fraction expansion
1
(z 1)(z 2)
=
1
z 2

1
z 1
=
1
2
_
1
z
2
1
_

1
z 1
.
14
For [z[ < 1,
1
z 2

1
z 1
=

k0
z
k

1
2

k0
_
z
2
_
k
=

k0
_
1
1
2
k+1
_
z
k
.
For 1 < [z[ < 2,
1
z 2

1
z 1
=
1
z 2

z
1
1 z
1
=

k<0
z
k

1
2

k0
_
z
2
_
k
.
For 2 < [z[,
1
z 2

1
z 1
=
z
1
1 2z
1

z
1
1 z
1
=

k<0
2
k1
z
k

k<0
z
k
=

k<0
(2
k1
1)z
k
.
Example 34. [Exercise 5.3.1] Show that the following series dene a meromorphic
function on C and determine the set of poles, and their orders.
(1) f
1
(z) =

n=0
(1)
n
n!(n + z)
(2) f
2
(z) =

n=1
1
z
2
+ n
2
(3) f
3
(z) =

n=1
1
(z + n)
2
(4) f
4
(z) =

n=1
sin nz
n!(z
2
+ n
2
)
(5) f
5
(z) =
1
z
+

n=,n=0
_
1
z n
+
1
n
_
15
f
1
has simple poles at z = 0, 1, 2, . . . and is meromorphic. To see this, let R > 0 and
choose an integer N R. Write
f
1
(z) =
N

n=0
(1)
n
n!(n + z)
+

n=N+1
(1)
n
n!(n + z)
.
It is clear that f
1
has simple poles at z = 0, 1, . . . , N 1 and that the rst series denes
a meromorphic function. Furthermore,

(1)
n
n!(n + z)

1
n!(n [z[)

1
n!
for n R + 1. This proves that f
1
is meromorphic on every disc of radius R centered
at the origin.
f
2
has simple poles at z = ki for all nonzero integers k. Let R > 0, choose an integer
N R
2
, and write
f
2
(z) =
N

n=1
1
z
2
+ n
2
+

n=N+1
1
z
2
+ n
2
.
Then the rst series has simple poles at z = i, 2i, . . . , (N 1)i, and

1
z
2
+ n
2

1
n
2
[z[
2

1
n
2
R
2
for n R
2
. This shows that f
2
is meromorphic on every disc of radius R centered at
the origin.
Using similar techniques, we can show that f
3
has second-order poles at the negative
integers, f
4
has the same poles as f
2
, and f
5
has simple poles at all the integers.
Example 35. [Exercise 5.3.2] Show that the function
f(z) =

n=1
z
2
n
2
z
2
+ 8
is dened and continuous for the real values of z. Determine the region of the complex
plane in which this function is analytic. Determine its poles.
For all n and real z,

z
2
n
2
z
2
+ 8

z
2
n
2
z
2

=
1
n
2
,
which shows that the series converges uniformly on R. Since each term is continuous
on R, f must also be continuous on R. In the complex plane, f is meromorphic on
C 0 with poles at z = (2

2/n)i for every nonzero integer n. Note that 0 is not

an isolated singularity of f.
16
Example 36. [Exercise 5.3.3] Show that the series

n=1
_
z + i
z i
_
n
denes an analytic function on a disc of radius 1 centered at i.
Let 0 < r < 1 and choose some r < s < 1. For all n and [z + i[ < s we have
[z i[ = [z + i 2i[
2 [z + i[
> 2 s
so that

z + i
z i

1
[z i[
n
<
1
(2 s)
n
.
Since

1/(2 s)
n
converges, by the Weierstrass M-test the innite series denes an
analytic function on every disc of radius r < 1 centered at i.
Example 37. [Exercise 5.3.4] Let z
n
be a sequence of distinct complex numbers such
that
(*)

n=1
1
[z
n
[
3
converges. Prove that the series
f(z) =

n=1
_
1
(z z
n
)
2

1
z
2
n
_
denes a meromorphic function on C. Where are the poles of this function?
f has second-order poles at every z
k
. To see this, let R > 0 and let D be a disc of
radius R centered at the origin. Since (* ) converges, there exists a N such that
1
[z
n
[
3
<
1
R
3
for all n > N. Write
f(z) =
N

n=1
_
1
(z z
n
)
2

1
z
2
n
_
+

n=N+1
_
1
(z z
n
)
2

1
z
2
n
_
.
17
The rst series clearly denes a meromorphic function on D, with poles in z
1
, . . . , z
N

D. For all n > N we have [z

n
[ > R, so

1
(z z
n
)
2

1
z
2
n

1
[z z
n
[
2
+
1
[z
n
[
2

1
([z
n
[ [z[)
2
<
1
4
[z
n
[ [z[ > 2