The American City between Modernity and Postmodernity Perspectives on the American Metropolis in the works of Saul Bellow

and Paul Auster

CONTENTS

1. The German School vs. the Chicago School 2. Walter Benjamins concept of flnerie . Barthes an! "r#an Semiolog$ %. The &'ral an! the "r#an (. E)periencing the Cit$ thro'gh *iterat're +. Concl'sion

,--&O,C./NG T.E C/T01 2E0 CONCE-TS /N "&B,N ST"3/ES

The American City between Modernity and Postmodernity Perspectives on the American Metropolis in the works of Saul Bellow and Paul Auster

The metropolis is the monumental proof of mankinds overpowerin of nature! it represents the birth place of the wonders and marvels of technolo ical innovation" the startin point of human pro ress# The city could be re arded in a multitude of way$ a dynamic or anism or a palimpsest of over%written! chan in patterns! a depository of meanin ful memories! or even an accumulation of interconnected histories# &evertheless! one must notice that there is no correct or finite answer to this overwhelmin 'uestion$ What is a City? (n Civilization and its Discontents, )reud ar ues that the study of social institutions should start from the study of human nature# The psychoanalyst makes an analo y between the human mind and the eternal city! *ome! which becomes a metaphor that incorporates the concept of an invisible dimension in which +the city as te,t comprises time and space! and oes beyond the restrictive borders of reality# The e,terior world is part of our inner world" it is the reflection of what we think and what we feel# The city is a concrete pro-ection of our mind# .rbanism is at the very heart of /estern culture! the source both of political order and of social chaos# As such! the city becomes a site of modernity! a space to be e,plored and challen ed# )or hundreds of years the city determined our identity and our cultural fate! as *ichard 0ehan wrote in The City in Literature, An intellectual and Cultural History +it has become inseparable from our personal and national destiny 10ehan! 12! 13345# /ithin the urban space! competin histories take shape! collective and individual meanin s are made and unmade! and identities are formed# The City acts as more than -ust a simple! passive settin ! it alters and defines the self! it is an instrument of social cohesion! offerin a fluid e,perience for discoverin the inner self! by emphasi6in the modalities throu h which individuality becomes an event of consciousness and of history# .rban studies is a very recent field of study! yet! cities are one of the oldest artefacts of civilisation# (n order to properly e,plore the urban space! one needs to understand the theories and ideas pertainin to different urban thinkers# As these theories are e,tremely numerous! one must choose from those that offer a comple, perspective on the urban issue#

The American City between Modernity and Postmodernity Perspectives on the American Metropolis in the works of Saul Bellow and Paul Auster

1. The German School vs. the Chicago School The classic urban writers fall into two schools of research# The first school was a 7erman one! centred in 8eidelber and Berlin" its members were Ma, /eber! 7eor Simmel and later on! 9swald Spen ler# All wrote in the first 'uarter of the 2:th century# The second school was formed in the 132:s at the .niversity of Chica o and the leaders of this school were *obert Park! 0ouis /irth and ;rnest Bur ess# (n order to describe the city! in his essay The City 113:<5! Ma, /eber turned to the past! more precisely! to Ancient and Medieval times! he links to ether definin characteristics of the city in different historical epochs# /eber considers that what ives the city its special character is mainly the e,istence of commerce and trade! to ether with all the activities associated with it such as the establishment of markets and e,chan es# The modern city is -ust a sophisticated form of the medieval or renaissance city! and all the elements of modern urban society could be reco ni6ed in si,teenth century ;uropean cities# (n /ebers view! feudalism favored the development of capitalist relations because the feudal conditions enabled the flourishin of uilds! free labor and independent le al professions# /eber notices that in order for a city to function effectively! the citi6ens needed to be occupied! and it was the task of +the elite to provide schemes for occupyin the masses and reducin the risk of riots and even revolts# (t is obvious that the city is a profoundly political and politici6ed system that can function properly if the economic! military and administrative life is well coordinated# )or the 7erman theorist! the city is a social form which allows for the reatest de ree of individuality and uni'ueness! the city is an instrument of historical chan e# /hereas /eber implies that all the essential features of the city are present in past societies! Simmel associates the arrival of modernity with the full articulation of the metropolis and with the birth of a new and elusive sub-ectivity# 9ne of the most important representatives of the German School, 7eor Simmel! had a si nificant influence on the Chicago School. (n his most famous essay! The etro!olis and ental Li"e! published in 13:=! Simmel tries to identify the eneral characteristics of urban life sui generis" he sets out to e,plore the relationship between +metropolitan individuality and the internal and =

The American City between Modernity and Postmodernity Perspectives on the American Metropolis in the works of Saul Bellow and Paul Auster e,ternal factors by which this relationship had been shaped# 8e believes that the city is a state of mind! that the modern metropolis is a site of liberation from the parochialism and surveillance that a small town e,istence perpetuates# 8e analyses the behaviour of the individual social actor! focusin on his consciousness! personality and character# Simmel notices that this >metropolitan man? is emancipated! he breaks the ties with the traditional! a rarian society in order to assert his autonomy and identity! and! thus seekin to distin uish himself from the other individuals$ >the deepest problems of modern life derive from the claim of the individual to preserve the autonomy and individuality of his e,istence? 1Simmel! @A! 13B35# The metropolis creates certain psycholo ical conditions in man$ the city dweller lives under the constant pressure of internal and e,ternal stimuli! his psyche is shaped by the overflow of onrushin impressions chan in every second# This e,cess of +psychic stimulation as Simmel called it! tri ers a defence mechanism in urban dwellers$ they lack emotional response towards the others! institutin a sterile! functional relationship between men! and at the same time compartmentalisin their e,istence# 7eor Simmel ar ues that the city demands a certain amount of consciousness$ life in a small town is more emotional and intimate! it flows evenly! but! on the other hand! in the metropolis! the events have their own rhythm! and conse'uently there is a different understandin of the e,periences# The metropolitan man lives in a city of difference and acts with his head and not with his heart# (t is his personal way of protectin himself from the e,ternal environment emphasi6in the fact that >CmDetropolitan life! thus! underlies a hei hten awareness and a predominance of intelli ence in metropolitan man? 1Simmel! <2! 13B35# (ntellectuality preserves the sub-ective life! but at the same time! it suppresses emotional relationships# (f one wants to function in the city! one must become indifferent to all# Thus! the factors which separate people from each other are! he ar ues! the very factors that make freedom possible# 8e thinks that the market and the interpersonal relationships! individuality and the systems of e,chan e have reduced all social interactions within the city to the level of rationality and calculation# (t is the indifferent man who succeeds in business! in dealin with the staff! or with merchants and customers$ economy is not built on personal relationships and it is reason that prevails#

The American City between Modernity and Postmodernity Perspectives on the American Metropolis in the works of Saul Bellow and Paul Auster Both Simmel and /eber outlined similar characteristics of modern life$ the impersonality! the faceless bureaucracy! the rational market processes# 8owever! while /eber believed that these characteristics were the product of modern capitalism! Simmel believed that these traits were a conse'uence of the urban condition itself! social% psycholo ical in its nature# The modern mind is calculated! workin with patterns and fi,ed formulae! countin the hours! compartmentali6in time# (f watches suddenly stop! the city will fall into chaos$ the public transportation! the stock market! the appointments scheduled for that day# Punctuality! precision! calculability are forced upon city life# All these psycholo ical restraints have led to a fairly common behaviour in the urban space$ the #las$ attitude! which emer es from the contrastin stimulation of the nerves# So powerful and repetitive this incitement is that the individual ceases to have the necessary ener y to react to new situations and invest any substance in their e,periences# The #las$ attitude oes hand in hand with the reserved attitude! which sometimes hides the aversion and the stran eness one feels towards another bein # (t would seem that indifference rants the metropolitan individual a certain amount of personal freedom! which liberates him from the constraints of a traditional community! and it also acts as a protective shield a ainst metropolitan life! a shield without which this life could not be led# /ithin the city! the individual is reduced to a simple co inside an intricate machinery which strives to shape his sub-ective life into a life overned by reason# Thus! the metropolitan mans e,istence is the sum of impersonal contin encies which tend to displace his inner self# Simmels ideas and theories of the metropolis and urban culture continue to be of conse'uence for the study of the city$ his work influenced /alter Ben-amins writin on urban culture and many of his ideas found very direct e,pression in the work of sociolo ists associated with the .niversity of Chica o# The Chica o School was ar uably the most influential school in urban sociolo y for most of the twentieth century and its contributions to understandin city cultures were many# )or the Chica o School the city itself was of utmost value as a laboratory for e,plorin social interaction$ the true >human nature? was best observed within this comple, social artifice# The members of the Chica o School were concerned with city life# They <

The American City between Modernity and Postmodernity Perspectives on the American Metropolis in the works of Saul Bellow and Paul Auster called their approach! human ecology! because they were influenced by Earwin to consider human social ad-ustments to the urban environment as similar to the way plant and animal species attuned themselves to their more natural space# The scholars of the Chica o School undertook pioneerin research into urban subcultures and introduced ethno raphic methodolo ies to urban studies 1Stevenson! 2B! 2::=5# (n 131B! *obert Park published The City% Some Suggestions "or the Study o" Human &ehaviour in the 'r#an (nvironment, a study which will influence the course of urban research in America and in ;urope# (n this article! he sees the city both as a place and as a >moral order?# )or him! the city is >a state of mind! a body of customs and traditions? which are inherited by each eneration of city dwellers! >a product of human nature? 1Park! 31! 13B35 that may best be studied in terms of its physical or ani6ation! its occupations and its culture" and in order to understand this >urban nature?! Park coins the term >human ecolo y?# The city has a moral or ani6ation rooted in the customs and habits of the people who live in it# (t is the place where social relationships are formed by our physical! psycholo ical and biolo ical make%up# Park lays reat emphasis on the urban structure 1layout of buildin s and houses! railway stations5! ar uin that the place and the people are or anically related# 8is study deals in turn with various aspects of the cityscape$ the City Plan and 0ocal 9r ani6ation! (ndustrial 9r ani6ation and the Moral 9rder! Secondary *elations and Social Control and Temperament and the .rban ;nvironment# 8ere! each structural feature is combined with a human characteristic! determinin Park to view the city not -ust as a physical construction but as a human community overned by comple, hierarchies# At the be innin of the industrial revolution! it was man that made the city! but as years went by! the roles chan ed! and now! it is the city that makes the man! an urban man# Park notices that the round plan for American cities is the checkerboard! su estin an >artificial construct? which can be made and unmade at any iven time# Peoples customs and behaviors influence the urban environment! creatin an urban moral order which constantly and inevitably interacts with the physical or ani6ation of a city" and thus the city becomes an or anisation which responds to the needs of its inhabitants$ >structure and tradition CFD determine what is characteristic and peculiar to city? 1Park! 3@! 13B35# Park notices that the division of labor and the fra mented social roles are the e,pression of the physical arran ement of the city" that there is >rationality? to the urban eo raphy B

The American City between Modernity and Postmodernity Perspectives on the American Metropolis in the works of Saul Bellow and Paul Auster which makes the urban mechanism function$ the business district could never function alon side the hetto" this is the way the urban conditions are applied# (t is obvious that this >ecolo y? is uni'ue to the industrial city# (n the modern metropolis! there is a eo raphical separation between the place we live and the place we work! between the house and the factory! the rich nei hborhoods and the poor nei hborhoods" and this particular characteristic can only be found in modern cities# This separation needed to be made in order to impose and maintain social order$ >CtDhere are forces at work within the limits of the urban community G within the limits of any natural area of human habitation! in fact G which tend to brin about an orderly and typical roupin of its population and institutions? 1Park! 31! 13B35# (n the urban environment! the development of trade and industry determine a speciali6ation of tasks! the conse'uence of this process bein the modification of the current social and economic or ani6ation! which as Park saw it! >is based on family ties! on local associations! on culture! caste and status? 1Park! 1:2! 13B35 and replaced with one that focuses on occupation and vocational interests# The division of labor produces what Park calls >vocational types?! which are meant to mould the character of the urban dweller" amon which we mention$ the shop irl! the policeman! the peddler! the cabman! the ni ht watchman! the bar tender! the school teacher! the reporter! the stockbroker! all of these are characteristic of city life! >each! with its special e,perience! insi ht and point of view determines for each vocational roup and for the city as a whole! its individuality? 1Park! 1:=! 13B35# Thus! the individuality of the city is determined by the individual himself! by his tasks and purposes# The vocational roups created are interdependent! individuals are more competitive and in this respect! they rely more on the community! in order to attain their oals# (n such a competitive environment! feelin s are rationali6ed and replaced by interests" one does not e,chan e sentiments but money# &evertheless! this type of competin society loses its e'uilibrium if a >process of read-ustment? is not imposed# The activities of daily lives are broken into routine parts in which men are not emotionally involved" they are simply interested in a suitable outcome# (n such a city! Parker ar ues! no one would want to dictate the actions of the other! but would only maintain a functional relationship in order for the system to work# Park saw the city as the medium for the

The American City between Modernity and Postmodernity Perspectives on the American Metropolis in the works of Saul Bellow and Paul Auster emer ence of free men whose personal development could o beyond social standards! whose innovations could provide an impulse for chan e# Social and cultural difference and diversity are woven to ether in cities at varied scales and levels of intensity# )or 0ouis /irth! the city could be defined sociolo ically as$ >a relatively lar e! dense and permanent settlement of hetero eneous individuals? 1/irth! 1@4! 13B35# The dimension! density and hetero eneity of the urban environment differentiate the e,perience of city life from any other# (n his 13=4 essay! 'r#anism as a Way o" Li"e, /irth was interested in providin a systematic definition of +urbanism as a +way of life# The theorist believed that the bi er the city was! the more different its inhabitants were! and conse'uently this differentiation would only lead to the loosenin of community ties and their systematic replacement by mechanisms of social control# To this! he added other psycholo ical features of the urban personality that included anonymity! superficiality! the transitory character of urban social relations and a lack of participation# The city has been the meltin pot of races and cultures! the perfect >breedin round for cultural hybrids? 1/irth! 1<:! 13B35# /irth emphasi6ed the fact that the city as a spatial environment influences individual behaviour" he notices that the features of urban behaviour comprise the >weakenin of bonds of kinship and the declinin social si nificance of the family CFD! the underminin of the traditional basis of social solidarity? 1/irth! 1B:! 13B35# (nfluenced by Simmels writin s! 0ouis /irth draws several characteristics of +the urbanite$ he depends on others to satisfy his life%needs 1more than a country man does5! and thus become part of or ani6ed roups! nevertheless >they are less dependent on particular persons? and his dependence upon others is closely linked to the others area of e,pertise 1/irth! pp#1<2%1<=! 13B35# The contact individuals have with one another is +impersonal! superficial! and transitory# )ollowin Simmels line of thou ht! /irth emphasi6es the indifference and reservation of the urban dweller" his blasH attitude is a mechanism of defense a ainst the e,pectations of the other# The rational character of the urbanite oes hand in hand with the superficial! anonymous and transitory aspects of urban life$ in the city we need the other only to achieve our own oals! with the cost of his +self%

The American City between Modernity and Postmodernity Perspectives on the American Metropolis in the works of Saul Bellow and Paul Auster e,pression! the morale and his sense of participation! enablin what ;mile Eurkheim called anomie) or social void# All in all! /irths ideas could be summari6ed as follows$ the effect of a lar er population results in the fact that competition and formal mechanisms of social control would replace primary relations of kinship as a means of or ani6in interactions# 7reater density produces reater tolerance for livin closely with stran ers! but also reater stress# As anonymity and depersonali6ation in public life increase! individual roles become compartmentali6ed accordin to different circles of contacts# )or Chica o School sociolo ists! urban analysis was a branch of human ecolo y % study of the relationships between people and their environment" for them! urbanism is a dynamic process that refers to peoples use of and identification with the places of the city" and this process occurs within the conte,t of a ran e of cultural! social and political influences# society! but also in anonymity and fra mentation of social

2. Walter Benjamins concept of flnerie 9ne of the most compellin fi ures in cultural urban studies! that has come to be closely connected with processes of readin and interpretin the urban landscape and the e,perience of urban life is the urban "l*neur! a concept populari6ed by the Mar,ist critic /alter Ben-amin# Ben-amins writin s avoid the dry and sterile investi ations of social life! tryin to focus on the nature of truth and the human condition! much like Simmel did in his writin s# The city for Ben-amin was ma netic$ it attracted and repelled him at the same time# 8e was an urbanite! whose life was split between two cities$ Berlin! where he was born! and Paris! to which he fled in 13==# Ben-amins te,ts focused on the character of
1

>Anomie is the strict counterpart of the idea of social solidarity# Iust as solidarity is a state of collective

ideolo ical inte ration! anomie is a state of confusion! insecurity! normlessness# The collective representations are in a state of decay#? 1Eurkheim! A4! 13345

The American City between Modernity and Postmodernity Perspectives on the American Metropolis in the works of Saul Bellow and Paul Auster urban e,perience" he seeks to present urban +physio nomies! to understand and decipher the metropolitan environment! which! for him! is both a response and a pattern of human social activity# (t is on the buildin s! on the monuments! on the streets and in rooms! that the city dweller leaves the si ns of his passin ! as +livin means leavin traces" all these elements of the urban bear the individual history of its inhabitants! and the task of the +urban physio nomist is to preserve and decipher their purpose and meanin # The character of the city can be read from its numerous faces! in the reflection of thousand of eyes# The 7erman theorist operates with the notion of the city as te,t read by the "l*neur. 8e was reatly influenced by the Symbolist poet Charles Baudelaire! who associated the modern city with the fleetin elements of e,istence$ within the metropolis! man has created a series of symbols which are not always intelli ible! a place where time is transitory and space is fleetin ! and it is the task of the reader to inte rate these elements into his e,istence and ive them coherence# >The painter of modern life? has the task of representin and interpretin the fleetin dimensions of the cityscape! to read what was never written# Ben-amins most well known work is The Arcades +ro,ect, a compilation of 'uotations and references! various workin notes and a collection of assorted drafts! sketches and e,posHs# The +assagenar#eit is a rather surrealistic work! drawin as its inspiration 0ouis Ara ons surrealistic te,t Le +aysan de +aris! published in 132B# (n this te,t! Ara on e,plores the mytholo y of the modernity in a series of dream like visions of the metropolitan environment 17illoch! pp#3=%3@! 133B5# -onvolut from the Arcades +ro,ect, is dedicated to the fi ure of the "l*neur# (n Ben-amins understandin ! the flJneur is not a mere #oulevardier, but! as Simon Parker e,plained! +somethin closer to a secular pil rim! a seeker after the profane truths of a temporal%spatial universe 1Parker! 14! 2::@5# The "l*neur oes in search of +vanished time like a +werewolf restlessly roamin a social wilderness 1Ben-amin! pp#@1B! @14! 13335# There seems to be an intimacy between the "l*neur and the urban space! a sort of peculiar telepathy$ the "l*neur is able to understand all the hints and instructions he is iven! leadin him to e,perience a spellbindin past which is not his own$ +in the course of "l*nerie, far%off times and places interpenetrate the landscape and the present moment 1Ben-amin! @1A! 13335# (n fact! 8oward Cay ill draws attention to the fact that the e,perience of a city is made up of a constant ne otiation with 1:

The American City between Modernity and Postmodernity Perspectives on the American Metropolis in the works of Saul Bellow and Paul Auster the hosts and residues of previous e,periences# Moreover! Cay ill ar ues that for

Ben-amin +the field of such ne otiation is not e,hausted by actual past e,periences of the city! but also of those e,periences which did not ever happen 1Cay ill! 114! 13345# The "l*neur searches for somethin entirely different from what the crowd athers to see$ the e,perience of the city includes the lost chances and the missed encountersKsuch as the +love at last si ht of Baudelaires A une !assante. The forfeiture of an e,perience itself leaves traces which persist and shape the e,perience of the present# Ben-amins readin of the metropolis is a multi%faceted one in which the city is e,plored as physio nomy 1+a space to be read5! phenomenolo ically 1+a fra ment within which the totality of modern life may be discerned5! as mytholo y! as history! as politics and as te,t 1Parker! 14! 2::@5# The Marxist critic was interested in the interrelationship between the city, as a multilayered meaningful space, and the act of uncovering these layers of meanin $ the city as te,t must be read in such a way as to uncover or reveal what is hidden# *eadin s of the city confront one another in space and time# )or Benjamin the urban space represents the interface between personal memories and experiences. The "l*neur combines the pleasure of solitary walkin in the metropolis with the possibility of decipherin this environment# Essentially, though, the flneur is a literary construction of the nineteenth century, he is a poet, an artist and, most importantly, a stroller , an amateur street detective according to Benjamin! he moves without being seen, through the spaces of the emerging modern city! the flneur has a sharp eye, he observes all the details of the urban environment and pursues the traces left by others. The flneur "nows how to read the faces of the passers#by, probing deep into their character. $s a physiognomist, the flneur transforms the city into a text. The detective finds himself in the figure of the flneur; he is the perfect observer% he "nows everything, but no one "nows about him. Benjamin supports this idea with the example of E.$. &oe s short story 'The Man in the (rowd). *n this tale, the narrator, +the pursuer, is the flneur, who sets on a -uest to discover the secret of the so called man of the crowd . ;,aminin the faces of the individuals! under the wild li ht! the narrator discovers a hauntin countenance! that of a decrepit old man! around si,ty five or seventy years old! a countenance which at once arrested and absorbed him! +on account of the absolute idiosyncrasy of its e,pression# 11

The American City between Modernity and Postmodernity Perspectives on the American Metropolis in the works of Saul Bellow and Paul Auster 7raeme 7illoch considers that the mimetic faculty described by Ben-amin is somehow reconfi ured in the activities of the flJneur# The mimetic faculty is the human ability to discern and create resemblances! similarities! to identify correspondences between diverse phenomena and! moreover! to interpret these connections# 7illoch distin uishes two moments of the mimetic faculty$ interpretation and imitation 17illoch! pp#@=%@@! 2::<5# Mimesis is set to discover and unfold meanin lod ed within mans chaotic society# 8umans do not only read and interpret thin s! but they also imitate them# (n Poes story! interpretation and imitation intertwine# The ur e to follow and imitate the other could be translated in the desire to be similar to this uncanny other# The narrator%flJneur is only capable of interpretin his opponent! but fails to read him! as the stran ers face does not let itself to be read# The stran er ives no clue! leaves no trace behind for >the detective?# 8is 'uest reveals nothin ! it only acknowled es the fact that there is a secret! but the nature of this secret is left unknown# (t is the narrator! and not +the man of the crowd! who leaves clues for someone else to find and decipher# As a matter of fact! for /alter Ben-amin! this tale is an e,ample of mimetic readin " a type of readin which can definitely be applied to Paul Austers novels# Flnerie becomes a way of reading urban texts, a methodology for uncovering the traces of social meaning that are embedded in the layered fabric of the city. $s Benjamin conceptuali.es it, flnerie is a highly complex and intricate endeavor capable of uncovering the collective memories, experiences, signs and metaphors of modernity.

. Barthes an! "r#an Semiolog$ Semiotics is the study of how meanin is socially created with si ns# The term is derived from the 7reek word seemeiooti.ee! meanin the study of si ns! what they represent or si nify! and how we act and think in their universe# .rban semiotics is concerned with si ns of and related to the city! and thus with the meanin of urban areas# .rban semiotics is preoccupied with the visions and the cultural dynamics of si ns! ob-ects and its si nification in urban areas# (t also studies the historical chan es of urban si ns#

12

The American City between Modernity and Postmodernity Perspectives on the American Metropolis in the works of Saul Bellow and Paul Auster /ithin the urban space! individual and collective meanin s are made and unmade! identities are formed# The city comprises a multitude of competin presents! a myriad of histories and e,periences# .rban space became more and more fascinatin ! to the e,tent that many theorists of the 13A:s and 134:s tried to conceptuali6e the city as te/t# 9ne of them was the )rench semiotician! *oland Barthes# (n his later work! Semiology and the 'r#an, Barthes addresses the lan ua e of the city" he observes that the city is a discourse
and >this discourse is truly a lan ua e$ the city speaks to its inhabitants" we speak our city! simply by livin in it! by wanderin throu h it! by lookin at it?# 8owever it is difficult to speak about

the lan ua e of the city without meta!hor# (n order to start speakin about the lan ua e of the city! Barthes claims that we shall start usin the techni'ue of symbols# Barthes reminds us that symbolism is no lon er perceived as a fi,ed correspondence between si nifiers and si nifieds The theorist emphasi6es the fact that the relationship between signi"ier and signi"ied is unstable$ the signi"ied is transient! sub-ect to transformation! and participates in an infinite chain of si nification" and the signifier is conceptuali.ed as being largely independent of the signified. *n other words, there is no straightforward connection between the signifier and the signified! conse-uently neither meaning nor interpretation is fixed# A concept that deserves some attention is the concept of em!ty signi"ier. ;mpty si nifier is determined not by its content but by its correlative position# An e,ample that could be iven is a city centre that is not a concentration of any particular activity but is important in terms of the or ani6ation of other parts of the city# The city can be read in different manners! as there is no fi,ed interpretation of the urban te,t# Bein an inscription of man in space! the !olis comprises personal interpretations and feelin s! a medium where one writes its own relationship with space# The urban te,t is e,perienced and read in a multitude of ways! but the act of readin the city in itself is an individual process. The city as te,t presents itself as a constellation of si ns and symbols! a site of modernity in which 'uantitative and 'ualitative transformation is e,plored# As the urban dwellers are the readers of its discourse! by chan in the fra ments places they can have new readin s and reach at new meanin s# /hen we move about a city! we all are in a situation of the reader of the 1:::!::: million poems of Lueneau! where one can find a different poem by chan in a sin le line#

1=

The American City between Modernity and Postmodernity Perspectives on the American Metropolis in the works of Saul Bellow and Paul Auster
Moreover! Barthes ives us the e,ample of Mictor 8u o! who mana ed to e,press

perfectly the si nification of urban space$ with reference to 8u os ideas on the monument and the city! Barthes ar ues that >the city is writin ? and the ima e of the metropolis can only be discovered throu h the reader! >who, following his obligations and his movements, appropriates fragments of the utterance in order to actuali.e them in secret) +Barthes, /01, /234,. *n other words, the one who wonders around the city streets is a sort of reader and interpreter of the metropolis. 8owever the reader is not totally free while readin the city" sNhe is readin within the encoded ideolo ies# This readin should not be taken as a structural one where the a ent is totally determined by the structure! nor sheNhe should be re arded as a free interpreter of meanin # The meanin becomes a negotiated one# *t is in relation to personal histories that urban texts are interpreted and reinterpreted. *n accumulating urban stories from the multiple users of the city, it may be possible to understand the language of the city. The city center is the place where subversive and ludic forces act and meet. This center is a privileged place where the other is, and where we play this alluring other.

%. The &'ral an! the "r#an /hen analy6in the differences between +country and +city! one must ask oneself whether the -uality of life in the city is different from that experienced in the country and, if there is a difference, to discern whether or not one is better than the other, and why. The industrial revolution which occurred in ;urope durin the ei hteenth and nineteenth centuries not only chan ed the nature of work! but also dramatically transformed the or ani6ation of society! ender and kinship relationships! and the dominant form of human settlement# (n particular! the composition of! and link between! the rural and the urban was completely overturned as a result of the lar e%scale mi ration of potential industrial workers from the countryside to the cities where the factories of the emer in manufacturin bour eoisie were located# /ith the industrial revolution! predominantly a rarian societies were transformed into societies that were overwhelmin ly urban! and urbanism became the core e,perience and way of life of the ma-ority of the population#

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The American City between Modernity and Postmodernity Perspectives on the American Metropolis in the works of Saul Bellow and Paul Auster This urbanism involved the advent of new forms of sociality! chan ed power relations and the development of an urban attitude! as Simmel and /irth e,plained 1Stevenson! pp# 1=% 1@! 2::=5# /ith industrialism! archaic towns of nineteenth%century ;urope e,panded G villa es became towns! towns became cities! and ultimately! many cities metropolises# The rural became +the natural! the wholesome and the safe G the ideal a ainst which all other forms of settlement were -ud ed# (n contrast! the city was thou ht of as a place of impoverished landscapes! de radation and dispossession! as well as the site of potentially dan erous forces# (n his book The Country and the City! *aymond /illiams su ests that the popular view that a causal relationship e,ists between settlement types and the 'uality of life within these settlements has a tradition that can be traced to classical times# (n the everyday ima ination! /illiams ar ues! life in the country is always pictured as a secure! even innocent e,istence of community and solidarity# 9n the opposite end! life in the city is seen as destructive! the urban environment is the sta e where alienated people e,perience anonymous interaction# Accordin to /illiams! >the contrast of country and city is one of the ma-or forms in which we become conscious of a central part of our e,perience and the crises of our society? 1/illiams! @2B5# /hile writin about the industriali6ed city! 0ouis Mumford claims that the bankers! the industrialists and the early inventors created a new form of the city! which in his view! produced the most de raded environment in terms of sanitation! li ht and workin space! not only for the workers but also for the entry! Mumford considers that from this perspectives! people from the 13th century industriali6ed city were less advanced than they were in the Middle A es# As a social scientist! he cites three social principles which determined this situation$ firstly! the abolition of uilds 1the social and economic or ani6ations developed durin the Eark A es5! thus ensurin a sense of insecurity for the workin classes! the second principle consisted of a non%competitive labor market for sales and oods! while the third principle dealt with the use of forei n material as the source of raw material# Traditionally! the ruralGurban dichotomy has supported the view that the 'uality of life in rural environments and the nature of the personal relationships that flourish there were fundamentally better than those of the city# The supposition is that not only are urban 1< rew into

The American City between Modernity and Postmodernity Perspectives on the American Metropolis in the works of Saul Bellow and Paul Auster environments unpleasant places to be! but also in the city it is -ust not possible to e,perience the depth of friendship and community that is found in the country# This view was held very stron ly by the urban sociolo ists associated with the influential Chica o School! bein e,pressed in the work of 0ouis /irth! in particular# (n +.rbanism as a way of life! /irth classified rural relationships as +primary in that they involved homo eneous populations and entrenched roup solidarity# 8e claimed that these relationships were fundamentally better than the +secondary relationships of the hetero eneous people who lived in the anonymous! densely populated spaces of the modern industrial city# (n the section The City and Contem!orary Civilization, /irth cites the development of cities as the most remarkable event of modern times# The transition from urban to rural is a si nificant one$ >9ur social life bears the imprint of an earlier folk society! the characteristic modes of settlement of which were the farm! the manor! and the villa e? 1/irth! 1@@! 13B35# As a result! researchers should not e,pect to find abrupt and discontinuous variation between urban and rural types of personality# (n the urban environment! the family is deprived of the +characteristics historical functions! as the mother has to find work in order to support the family! marria e tends to be postponed! and the number of sin le! unattached people is rater 1/irth! 1B1! 13B35# Moreover! the urban family is far more emancipated than the +country family! as its members are more independent and self%sufficient! pursuin diver in interests in their vocational! educational or social life# The cost of livin is also brou ht into discussion$ the cost of livin in the city is hi her than the one in the country$ home%ownership is rare and rents absorb a lar e part of the income# Also! the urban dweller spends a lot of money on entertainment" he has a wide ran e of recreational activities to choose from in order to avoid routine and monotony# /irth notices that >CwDhile the traditional ties of human association is weakened! urban e,istence involves a much reater de ree of interdependence between man and man! and a more complicated! fra ile and volatile form of mutual interrelations? 1/irth! 1B2! 13B35# Personal disor ani6ation! mental breakdown! suicide! delin'uency! crime! corruption! and disorder are more prevalent in the urban than in the rural community#

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The American City between Modernity and Postmodernity Perspectives on the American Metropolis in the works of Saul Bellow and Paul Auster

(. E)periencing the Cit$ thro'gh *iterat're )ew encounters with the city and the comple,ity of livin in them can be more evocative or confrontin than those e,perienced throu h literature# The city can be seen as omnipresence creatin an +atmosphere that pervades the action or it can be afforded an even more central role as a pseudo%prota onist G an important pivot for the unfoldin plot# Iane Au ustine 1Au ustine! A=! 13315 su ests that until the twentieth century! ;n lish lan ua e novels lar ely treated the city as a +backdrop to realistic dramas# Since the 13::s! however! she ar ues that a literary tradition has developed which draws the city as +'uasi human! a character capable of intervenin in! or at least influencin the narrative and the actions of the +human characters# She claims that this development was probably an outcome of the massive chan es that were occurrin in society enerally and! specifically! in the nature of urbanism# Au ustine ar ues that there are a number of preconditions for the city to appear as +'uasi character in the modern novel! includin when the central human character is travelin ! confused or encounterin the erotic# (n addition! the city can be personified in such a way that it seems to uide the actions or inactions of the +human characters# (n his book! The City in Literature 0 An 1ntellectual and Cultural History, *ichard 0ehan considers the city as a part of peoples personal and national destiny! a sort of determiner of their cultural fate# .rbanism lies at the center of the /estern culture! bein a symbol of cosmopolitanism! learnin ! pro ress! civili6ation! sophistication and other positive values# But! at the other end! one will find all the ne ative aspects the city represents! such as$ darkness! violence! mob rule! dan er or devolution# Amon the urban ima inaries of the American city! one must not for et the Puritan vision of the blessed atherin in a >city on a hill?! or the associations attached to Boston! Philadelphia and /ashin ton E#C# The nineteenth century brou ht a rapid rowth of cities like &ew Oork

1A

The American City between Modernity and Postmodernity Perspectives on the American Metropolis in the works of Saul Bellow and Paul Auster and Boston! but also the le al end of slavery and the > reat mi ration? to northern cities# Moreover! it is in the urban environment that the womens movement emer ed# )or *ichard 0ehan the modern city evolves throu h three sta es$ commercial! industrial and >world sta e? city# Also! the city cannot be separated from different literary movements! especially the development of the novel and of the subse'uent narrative modes$ realism! naturalism! modernism or postmodernism# /hile Eaniel Eefoe saw the city as a materialistic machine driven by commercial needs! Charles Eickens considered that the entire industrial process emer in in cities led to the hardenin of the human soul# People lost their compassion for one another! and alon with their ability to empathi6e! the sense of community was dramatically diminished# But! throu h his sentimental characters! Eickens tried to render the new industriali6ed city! a heart" althou h it had a faint beat! it was still a heart that kept the city >human?# (n Hard Times, Eickens writes an interestin description of the industriali6ed city! a depiction which reminds one of Turners paintin s$ it was a town of red brick or of brick that would have been red if the smoke and ashes had allowed it! the colors were similar to those one would find painted on the face of a sava e! it was a town of machinery out of which interminable serpents of smoke emer ed! a black canal with a river that run purple because of the dye! vast piles of buildin where the racket and noise never ceased! the streets were all alike and so were the people to whom the days were the same# Eickens! the last of the comic realists! believed in a hi her moral presence which kept the worlds spirit alive# Oet! the attempts to redeem the city failed! as anonymity replaced community and characters such as ;sther Summerson ceased to ive any meanin to this new urban order# Althou h! Eickens ave an accurate description of the urban transition in novels such as Hard Times, the author who mana ed to truly capture the pro ress of the industrial city is the )rench naturalist writer! ;mile Pola# 8is 2ougon3 ac4uart novels! written between 14A1 and 143=! capture this important chan e in the cultural destiny of man# At the center of these novels! lies the city of Paris! to which his characters are drawn! in search of a better life! in search of power and money# Pola was amon the few modern writers who mana ed to ive an accurate description of the new industrial city with its resultin proletariat#

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The American City between Modernity and Postmodernity Perspectives on the American Metropolis in the works of Saul Bellow and Paul Auster As Modernism follows *omanticism! new literary techni'ues of depictin the old city are developed$ modernists are inclined to adopt new forms of sub-ectivity! and the meanin of the city becomes more condensed until we are no lon er capable of seein the city as it is but! throu h many cultural! historical and social layers# As the city became more materialistic! the writers adopted a hostile attitude and a distrust of the ;nli htenment values# Philosophers such as *alph /aldo ;merson depicted the material city cut off from the universes spiritual ener y# (n his book! Waldo! he re-ected the urban si nifiers and all cultural stimuli! and returned to &ature! as the ultimate escape from the urban conspiracy of the new city# All of these urban visions su est that there is a hidden mytholo y of the city! an o" embodied by mysterious forces such as Eionysus! a chaotic and troublesome fi ure! whose spirit is later embodied by the carnival! and even by ;d ar Allen Poes eni matic the Cro5d! or Si mund )reuds theory of the uncanny# (n this mytholo y! the discarded! the outcasts represent a threat from within! always ready to overturn the power of urbanity# &evertheless! the ma-or writers and thinkers of the /estern culture had to accept the supremacy of the city over the individual! as each era offered a different urban identity bearin the marks of new cultural values# As *ichard 0ehan pointed out! >CtDhe urban drama played itself out a ainst a ;urope transformed by the ;nli htenment! by an America that offered a &ew Ierusalem! and by a wilderness and a frontier a ainst which the city assumed its meanin #? 10ehan! 2B! 13345# )or Ereiser! &ew Oork was a place of contrasts! a place in which the richest of the rich commin led with the poorest of the poor and spawned e,treme situations of every variety# 8is most famous novel Sister Carrie! published in 13:: is set in &ew Oork City# As Sister Carrie be ins! Carrie and 8urstwood rent a flat on /est Seventy%;i hth Street! in &ew Oork# They return money theyd stolen in Chica o and 8urstwood invests in a saloon on /arren Street# Carrie learns to appreciate the city under the tutela e of a nei hbor! Mrs# Mance! a typical &ew Oorker# 8urstwood! by contrast! dislikes &ew Oork" particularly because the lu,urious life of the privile ed elite seems closed off to him# 8is saloon investment fails! and he is forced to move downtown to Thirteenth Street# 8is spirit broken! 8urstwood whiles away the hours watchin people in the Broadway Central" meanwhile! Carrie finds work as a chorus line performer# 8er success precipitates their separation$ she 13

The American City between Modernity and Postmodernity Perspectives on the American Metropolis in the works of Saul Bellow and Paul Auster moves into a new apartment and a hi her echelon of &ew Oork society! takin her Q1<: per week salary with her# 8urstwood! left to contemplate her success! is ultimately reduced to be in and eventually commits suicide in a Bowery boardin house# Stephanie M# 0ee observes that Carrie catches her first limpse of Chica o throu h the window of a train carryin her there# Alone and armed with a few possessions! she pro-ects onto the window the city she hopes to see# 8er entrance into urban life is therefore marked by va ue impressions# Throu hout the novel! the windows distort the perceptions of reality! enablin viewers! such as Carrie! to ima ine themselves e,istin in an ideali6ed future amon the masses# The lass also functions as a physical and symbolic barrier between urban spectators and participants! remindin the viewer of his inability to reali6e those visions 10ee! pp#12%1=! 2:115# /hen Carrie searches for employment downtown! she looks into the opa'ue windows of a factory where she sees men and women workin # She is fascinated by this ima e and dreams of bein rich! knowin that once she becomes a workin irl! her fantasies will come true# Paula 7eyh ar ues that EreiserRs prota onists >navi ate hi hly detailed urban milieu,? 17eyh! @1B! 2::B5 in which the emphasis is laid on the consumption and display of consumer oods! particularly clothin and accessories# CarrieRs first encounter with mass fashion comes with her initial visit to the )air! a Chica o department store# (n this scene she is only window shoppin because she has no money! yet she is much affected by the remarkable displays of merchandise# Iohn Eos Passoss anhattan Trans"er presents a narrative capable of reflectin the velocity! discontinuity! and eneral poi nancy of modern urban e,perience# (n this novel! the author ima ines &ew Oork as a comple, machine destroyin ! alienatin and isolatin urban dwellers# The novel is a atherin to ether of fra ments and events in the lives of people livin in Manhattan in the 132:s# Some come to the city in search of wealth and a new life" some cross one anothers paths and carry forward whatever momentum the novel has" some make fleetin appearances and then vanish without a trace# Amon the +urban types present in the novel one mentions$ slea6y politicians! union or ani6ers! theatrical producers! bohemians! -ournalists! immi rants! restaurant workers! bootle ers! bankers and lawyers G each connected to each other and to their city# The themes dealt with in the novel ran e from emotional emptiness! frustration to vul ar materialism# 0ike Ben-amins 2:

The American City between Modernity and Postmodernity Perspectives on the American Metropolis in the works of Saul Bellow and Paul Auster -onvolut , Eos Passos introduces bio raphical sketches! newspaper accounts! fra ments anhattan Trans"er is Iimmy 8erf! an idealistic!

of popular son s or cinematic chan es of scene# The main character of disillusioned reporter who marries and divorces ;llen! an actress! who herself e,periences bitter love affairs and compromisin professional e,periences# Their stories emphasi6e the arbitrary machinations of the city itself# Iimmy enters the novel as a child returnin to the .nited States with his mother on an ocean liner durin a )ourth of Iuly celebration! a moment that focuses the ideals that his subse'uent career in the city will rob him of# ;ncoura ed by his uncle to pursue a -ob as a banker! Iimmy has an ominous vision of >revolvin doors rindin out his years like sausa e meat!? an ima e that e,presses the threat to his very humanity posed by pursuit of success in the city# 8e later works as a reporter! but rows disillusioned! picturin himself as >dicto raph? who writes what sells# Similarly! ;llens path throu h life in the city is plotted so as to brin out the dehumani6in costs of &ew Oork%style success# She makes her way as a dancer! actress! and fashion ma a6ine editor lar ely by e,ploitin her looks# She marries Iimmy only because she is pre nantKwith the child of Stan ;mery! her only true love! who tra ically dies youn by self%immolation# (n one scene! as ;llen dances with Iimmy to help herself for et Stan! she is represented as >an intricate machine of sawtooth steel whitebri ht bluebri ht copperbri ht!? with a voice >like a tiny fle,ible sharp metalsaw? 1Eos Passos! 2245# Iust as Iimmy becomes a >dicto raph!? ;llen becomes an >intricate machine? under the harsh demands city life places upon them# (n anhattan Trans"er! Iohn Eos Passos has created a literary work that resembles with unconnected his own personal ima e of the city$ a comple, space swarmin

impressions# *eadin this novel is e,periencin the city itself# &ancy Comley notices that >Eos Passos has chosen the video%monta e as his model for both content and style! and the too%rapid flow of ima es may distract the reader at first from noticin that this imitation of city life is also an interpretation? 1Comley! A4! 2:::5! thus emphasi6in the theme of discontinuity# There is not one prota onist! but a do6en! some of whom never cross paths" not one plot! but several plots! some with little or no connection between them# The storyline is a blur of impressions! eerily like a time%lapse camera trained on a sin le street

21

The American City between Modernity and Postmodernity Perspectives on the American Metropolis in the works of Saul Bellow and Paul Auster corner over several decades % ima es pop out of the rushin crowd! faces! voices! some reappear! some donRt# (n many ways Eos Passos seems to be tryin to simulate a real city as closely as possible# 8is characters are neither heroes nor villains! but merely ordinary people who live in &ew Oork# 8is stories are their everyday lives! and like real lives! do not necessarily have satisfyin endin s" at times the viewpoint seems almost arbitrary in where it stops focusin on a iven person# (t is almost as thou h the readers are present in the city! and can only see the story of whomever we happen to run into" -ust as in the real world! one often doesnRt et to hear the endin s of peopleRs life%stories! su fra mented and incomplete# )or the ethnic writers! the city is the place where identities are created# The multicultural drama lies in establishin an identity as an American citi6en$ findin oneself as an American is an on% oin process! and as numerous writers with different cultural and ethnic back round have a reed! >the e,perience of becomin a part of the new multicultural America means first and foremost findin oneself an e,ile in the city? 1Bak! 24<! 2::@5# The American city is a place of personal! cultural and social estran ement$ for the Puerto *icans or >&ew Ooricans?! the city is similar to a ma6e! a labyrinth of cultural ambi uities that must be deciphered in order to ain an understandin of their status as American citi6ens" for the Iews! the city bears the mark of the infamous hetto# The multicultural city is the settin for racial and ethnic conflict! the arena where the politics of race and cultural identities have been disputed# But! of necessity! the city has also been the site where dialo ue and ne otiation took place! a sta e where >actors? interacted and established common rounds in order to survive and ain what they coveted the most$ an American identity# The city is a reliable witness to the stru le a ainst oppression and to the dramatic empowerment of those who wanted their voices to be heard and their faces to be known to the whole world# (t is within the city that the invisible turned visible! it is here that one testifies to an >on% oin process of ever%shiftin interactions and dialo ues between a multiplicity of voices and perspectives? 1Bak! 24B! 2::@5# +Te,tuali6in the city creates its own reality and becomes a way of raspin the city! but such te,tuality cannot substitute for the physical city# As 0ehan ar ues! >CbDefore the city is a construct! literary or cultural! it is a physical reality with a dynamics of its own? 22 estin that +city life is

The American City between Modernity and Postmodernity Perspectives on the American Metropolis in the works of Saul Bellow and Paul Auster 10ehan! 231! 13345# The most convincin constructs are those that confirm our sense of reality! validate e,perience! and su +. Concl'sion The city and its cultures are fundamental to the e,periences and ima inin s of contemporary society# 9ver and over a ain the city is ima ined and reima ined in cultural te,ts" its spaces are important markers of identity and the sites of political and economic stru le# Cities are also where creativity and the cultural industries flourish! and where tradition and conservatism can be undermined# )or some! the city! is a place from which to escape! for others it is a place to reinvent oneself# Cities are both the locus and the focus of civili6ation G they allow society to reach its reatest potential and concentrate its reatest contradictions# As +mirrors of modernity! they allow us to en a e in self%reflection# As Simon Parker ar ued! >the urban condition therefore affords myriad opportunities for e,plorin the ways in which the city operates as a site of representation! contestation and identification? 1Parker! 1@B! 2::@5# The city is a =E mosaic! a cultural kaleidoscope! a vivid colla e of urban ima ery! conflictin voices! cultures and beliefs! havin its own morpholo y and synta, that can be decoded with the help of those who have voiced out their fears and frustrations! of those who have dared to intertwine their own personal narrative with that of the city they live in# The )rench critic! *oland Barthes considered the city as an inscription of man in space! he thou ht that the city is constructed as a te,t into which people invest their own interpretations and feelin s and try to create their own histories" for this reason! one mi ht say that the city has certain postmodernist characteristics such as plurality! fluidity! discontinuity and difference which may be read not only in a postmodernist manner! but also! usin an structuralist! psychoanalytical or even anthropolo ical approach# Seen as a te,t! the city is in fact! a >city of words?# *epresentations of the urban have contributed to an understandin /hile readin 1and the e,perience5 of what it means to be modern and postmodern since the industrial revolution# urban literature! we may come across passa es that evoke flashes of familiarity and affirm our own e,periences of place or be introduced to aspects of +our city 2= est coherence in the face of chaos#

The American City between Modernity and Postmodernity Perspectives on the American Metropolis in the works of Saul Bellow and Paul Auster that we were barely aware of! ainin insi hts into lives and spaces that we had only ever limpsed before# .rban writers represented the city as it is! as it mi ht be! or as it is ima ined# )or instance! the work of Eickens and other writers of the period attempted raphically to depict the brutality of life and livin conditions in the industrial city! while others have used their art as a way of revealin what is hidden beneath the surface of the urban landscape# The city and its cultures are vital to the e,periences and ima inin s of contemporary society# (n many respects the urban landscape has become the definin emblem of modernity# The city is also a place of reat contradictions G bein simultaneously the site and symbol of pro ress! creativity! democracy and wealth! as well as of poverty! ine'uality! e,ploitation and discontent# Many artists! novelists! poets! social reformers and philosophers! have lon tried to reveal and make sense of the ambi uities of the urban# The conflictin emotions of apprehension and e,hilaration are at the heart of the urban e,perience# The city! in its various +real and +ima ined forms! therefore! is at once damned! tolerated! manipulated and celebrated and it is the task of the urban writers! such as Bellow or Auster! to understand its comple,ity and fluidity# Bi#liograph$ 1# Au ustine! I#! Character and poetry in the city! in M# Caws 1ed#5 City 1mages% +ers!ectives "rom Literature, +hiloso!hy, and 6ilm! 1331! &ew Oork$ 7ordon and Breach# 2# Allen! 7raham! 2oland &arthes, 0ondonS&ew Oork$ *outled e! 2::@# =# Bak! 8ans! 'neasy Alliance 0 T5entieth Century American Literature, Culture and &iogra!hy, &ew Oork$ *odopi! 2::@# @# Ben-amin! /alter! The Arcades +ro,ect, trans# 8oward ;iland and Tevin Mclau hlin! Cambrid e$ The Belknap Press of 8arvard .niversity Press! 1333# <# Cay ill! 8#! /alter Ben-amin# The Colour of ;,perience! 0ondon$ *outled e! 1334# B# Comley! &ancy! 2ooms, &uildings, Streets% The City as Trans"er in ;n lish =31/ 1.rban 0iterature5! 2:::# ontage in anhattan

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The American City between Modernity and Postmodernity Perspectives on the American Metropolis in the works of Saul Bellow and Paul Auster A# 7eyh! Paula ;#! 6rom cities o" things to cities o" signs% ur#an s!aces and ur#an su#,ects in Sister Carrie and &o# @! 2::B# 4# 7iddens! Anthony! ed#! (mile Dur.heim% Selected Writings# Cambrid e! ;n land$ Cambrid e .niversity Press! 1334# 3# 7illoch! 7raeme! Ben-amins 0ondon! Baudrillards Menice in 0each! &eil! 1ed#5! The Hierogly!hics o" S!ace, 2eading and e/!eriencing the modern metro!olis, 0ondonS&ew Oork$ *outled e! 2::<# 1:# 7illoch! 7raeme! Polity Press! 133B# 11# 0ee! Stephanie M#! 6raming the City% Windo5s, 7e5s!a!ers and the 1llusion o" 2eality in Theodore Dreiser8s 9Sister Carrie9 in Berkeley .nder raduate Iournal! 9ffice of .nder raduate *esearch! .C Berkeley! 2:11# 12# 0ehan! *ichard! The City in 0iterature! An (ntellectual and Cultural 8istory! California$ .niversity of California! 1334# 1=# Mar olies! ;dward# &ew Oork and the 0iterary (ma ination$ The City in Twentieth Century )iction and Erama# Iefferson! &C$ Mc)arland! 2::4# 1@# Parker! Simon G 'r#an Theory and the 'r#an (/!erience% (ncountering the city, 0ondon and &ew Oork$ *outled e! 2::@# 1<# /eber! Ma,! The &ature of the City in Sennett! *ichard 1ed#5! Classic (ssays on the Culture o" Cities, &ew Oork$ Merideth Corporation! 13B3# 1B# Simmel! 7eor ! The Metropolis and Mental 0ife in Sennett! *ichard 1ed#5! Classic (ssays on the Culture o" Cities, &ew Oork$ Merideth Corporation! 13B3# 1A# /irth! 0ouis! .rbanism as a /ay of 0ife in Sennett! *ichard 1ed#5! Classic (ssays on the Culture o" Cities, &ew Oork$ Merideth Corporation! 13B3# 14# Park! *obert! The City$ Su estions for the (nvesti ation of 8uman Behaviour in the .rban ;nvironment in Sennett! *ichard 1ed#5! Classic (ssays on the Culture o" Cities, &ew Oork$ Merideth Corporation! 13B3# 13# Stevenson! Eeborah G Cities and ur#an cultures, &ew Oork$ 9pen .niversity Press! 2::=# yth and etro!olis, Walter &en,amin and the City, 9,ford$ anhattan Trans"er! in Twentieth Century 0iterature Mol# <2!

2<