Introduction to Aircraft

Structures - ME3608
C. Mares
School of Engineering and Design
Brunel University
Oblique Wing Concept
What is aeroelasticity and when is it important?
Features of an aeroelastic analysis.
Identify the physics of the problem and develop simplified
mathematical models.
Solve and interpret the results.
Course Outline
Discipline focusing on problems
concerning the deformations of
elastomechanic bodies (elasticity)
in an airflow (aero).
Goal: to accurately predict static and
dynamic response/stability so that it can
be accounted for (avoided or taken
advantage of) early in the
design process.
Image
about
secod topic
Aeroelasticity
Functional diagram
Aeroelastic triangle (Collar 1946)
A Aerodynamic forces
E Elastic forces
I Inertial forces
DS Dynamic aircraft stability
MV Mechanical vibrations
D Divergence
C Control efficiency
SS Static aircraft stability
F Flutter
DR Dynamic responses
Aeroservoelasticity
Early theoretical developments:
Wing divergence - Reissner (1926)
Wing flutter - Frazer and Duncan (1929)
Aileron reversal - Cox (1932)
Unsteady aerodynamics and flutter - Glauert, Frazer, Duncan,
Kussner, Theodorsen (1935)
3 dof wing flutter - Smlig and Wasserman (1942)
Historical aspects
Designs from the 40s-70s designed
out aeroelastic effects
by increasing structural stiffness or
mass balancing
Technology developments in key areas
led to advanced designs
- Structures, Controls, and
Computational Methods
- Aeroelastic Tailoring due to new
composite materials
- Fly By Wire and Digital Control
Systems enabled statically unstable
aircraft
Historical aspects
X-29 in flight (above)
Active Aeroelastic Wing
Static
Lift effectiveness
Divergence
Control surface
effectiveness/Reversal
Aileron surface
effectiveness/Reversal
Aeroelastic phenomenae
Dynamic
Flutter (classical flutter)
Stall flutter
Buffeting flutter (buzz)
Aerodynamic resonance
Vortex shedding
Galloping
Gust response
Typical wing section:
2 D wing with aeroelastic properties matched to those at 70-75% of
the actual wing (or taiplane) semi-span.
Concept of typical wing section
EA is the line through sectional shear
centres.
Shear force in the shear centre
produces only translation.
Torsional moment about shear centre
produces only twist.
External load applied in the shear
centre does not change the free
stream angle of attack.
Elastic axis (EA) ,flexural axis

2 =

L
C
Lift acts through the centre of
pressure which is moving as the
angle of attack changes due to
pressure variations.
Theoretical 2D lift value for the lift-
slope curve is
Centre of Pressure
and Aerodynamic Centre

2 =

L
C
Centre of Pressure
and Aerodynamic Centre
The aerodynamic centre (AC) is
defined as the point about which the
variation of the pitching moment
with the angle of attack is zero.
For incompressible flow AC is at the
airfoil quarter chord and for supersonic
flow it moves back to the half chord.
Consider a rigid, spanwise-uniform model of a wing that is mounted
to the side walls of a wind tunnel in such a way as to allow the wing
to pitch about the support axis
Torsional divergence
Wing restrained in twisting at EA and neglect the bending deflection.
Observe that the wing mass will just change the equilibrium initial
angle so we will neglect it in the following equations. This is equivalent
with supporting the wing model at the CG.
Torsional divergence
From aerodynamic theory, the lift and pitching moment, for small , are
defined as:
Torsional divergence
S q C L
L
=
c S q C M
MAC AC
=

+ =
L L
L L
C C
C C
0
0
0
=
L
C
0
MAC MAC
C C =
2
2
1
U q =
The total aerodynamic angle of attack is taken as the sum of the initial
angle of attack (with the spring untwisted) and an additional increment
due to the elastic twist of the spring
Torsional divergence
+ =
0
The restoring torque in the wing structure is:

T
K T =
The pitching moment about EA is:
AC EA
M Le M + =
The equation of pitching moment equilibrium about EA is:
AC T
M Le K + =
Torsional divergence
The equation of pitching moment equilibrium about EA is:
MAC
L
T
C c S q
C
S q e K + +

= ) (
0

=
L
T
L
MAC L
C
qSe K
C
C
e
c C
qSe ) (
0
The torsional angle becomes:
Torsional divergence
The expression of the lift with wing flexibility is:
)
) (
(
0
0

=
L
T
L
MAC L
L
C
qSe K
C
C
e
c C
qSe
C
qS L
)
1
(
0
T
L
T
MAC
L
K
C
qSe
K
cC qS
C
qS L

=
Torsional divergence
The lift can be expressed in a different way by using the aeroelastic parameter :
T
L
K
C
qSe
q

=
) ) ( (
1
0

=
L
MAC
L
C
C
e
c
q
q
C
qS
L

+ =
L
MAC
I
C
C
e
c
q ) (
0
where a perturbed aeroelastic angle of attack is replacing the
angle of attack in the standard lift expression:
Divergence condition
At a particular dynamic pressure, when the denominator vanishes,
the elastic twist becomes infinitely large:
0 1 =
T
L
K
eqSC

L
T
D
L
T
D
ecSC
K
U
SeC
K
q
2
=
=
divergence dynamic pressure
critical divergence velocity

=
L
L
C
C
Divergence condition
The divergence will occur only for ,therefore when the aerodynamic
centre is ahead of the elastic axis. In this situation the angle of twist becomes:
D
T
MAC
D
q
q
K
qScC
q
q

+
=
1
) (
0

0 > e
Divergence condition
A comparison with the rigid wing reveals the influence of the
twisting deformation (with T restoring torque).
Observe that the difference between the rigid wing and the elastic wing
appears when considering the pitch angle:
) (
0
) (
MAC L
r
C e C cqS T + =

D
L
T
r
q
q
C
K
ecqS
T
T

=
1
1
1
1
) (

0
=
+ =
0
an additional increment
due to the elastic twist of the spring
Divergence condition
D
L
T
r
q
q
C
K
ecqS
T
T

=
1
1
1
1
) (

Experimental determination of the

divergence velocity
The angle of twist for the wing model studied in a wind tunnel is:
D
T
MAC
D
q
q
K
qScC
q
q

+
=
1
) (
0

Experimental determination of the

divergence velocity
Assuming a symmetrical airfoil C
MAC
= 0 and within the bounds of validity for
the linear theory, the relation can be written:
D
D
q
q
q
q

=
1
0

|
|

\
|
=
D
D
q q
q 1 1 1
0

A plot of this relation allows obtaining
from test data the divergence condition
by using only two test points below
the divergence speed and extrapolation.
Binary model
This model is used in order to include the bending deformation (plunge)
in the typical wing aeroelastic model.
Binary model
This model is used in order to include the bending deformation (plunge)
in the typical wing aeroelastic model.
The aerodynamic loads become:
)
`

=
)
`

EA T
h
M
L h
K
K
0
0
)
`

+
)
`

+
)
`

=
)
`

1
0 1
0
1 0
0 MAC L L
EA
qSC
e
qSC
h
e
qSC
M
L

MAC
L
T
C c S q
C
S q e K + +

= ) (
0

Binary model
The aeroelastic equilibrium equation written in terms of displacements
can be written as:
)
`

+
)
`

=
)
`

|
|

\
|
(

)
`

+
)
`

+
)
`

=
)
`

1
0 1
0
1 0
0
0
1
0 1
0
1 0
0
0
0
0
MAC L L
T
h
MAC L L
T
h
qSC
e
qSC
h
e
qSC
K
K
qSC
e
qSC
h
e
qSC
h
K
K

e
qSC
K
K
L
T
h
0
1 0
0
0

where the aeroelastic stiffness matrix is:

Binary model
Dividing by and inverting, one obtains the plunge
displacement and twist angle:
T
K
)
`

+
)
`

=
)
`

(
(
(
(

1
0 1
1 0
0
T
MAC
T
L
T
L
T
L
T
h
K
qSC
e K
qSC h
K
qSeC
K
qSC
K
K

)
`

(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

+
)
`

(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

=
)
`

1
0
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
0
1
0
T
L
T
L
h
L
h
T
T
MAC
T
L
T
L
h
L
h
T
T
L
K
qSeC
K
qSeC
K
qSC
K
K
K
qSC
e
K
qSeC
K
qSeC
K
qSC
K
K
K
qSC h

Binary model
The plunge displacement and twist angle:
T
L
h
L
T
MAC
T
L
h
L
K
qSeC
K
qSC
K
qSC
K
qSeC
K
qSC
h

=
1 1
0
T
L
T
MAC
T
L
h
L
K
qSeC
K
qScC
K
qSeC
K
qSeC

=
1
1
1
0
The lift expression shows that the lift does not depend on the plunge:
T
MAC
T
L
L
T
L
h
L
K
qScC
K
qSeC
qSC
K
qSeC
K
qSC
L

=
1 1
0
Conclusions
Aeroelasticity: definition and goal.
Historical aspects and cases.
Aeroelastic triangle.
Concept of typical wing section.
Divergence
- 1 dof model
- 2 dof model