Transformers 4.

CHAPTER-4

TRANSFORMERS

SNO.
1. PRINCIPLE OF TRANSFORMER 2. VOLTAGE TRANSFORMATION RATIO 3. TRANSFORMER FIXED & VARIABLE LOSSES 4. POWER & DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMER 5. INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMER 6. TRANSFORMER CONNECTION 7. ON & OFF LOAD TAP CHANGER . T!PE OF TRANSFORMER COOLING ". PROTECTION OF TRANSFORMER 1#. TESTING OF TRANSFORMER OIL 11. TESTING OF TRANSFORMER

Transformers 4.2

PRINCIPAL OF TRANSFORMERS & VOLTAGE TRANSFORMATION RATIO 1. WORKING PRINCIPLE OF A TRANSFORMER: A transformer is a static device by means of which electric power in one circuit is transformed to electric power of the same frequency in another circuit. The physical basis of a transformer is mutual inductance between two circuits linked by a common magnetic flux. n its simplest form it consists of two inductive coils which are electrically separated but magnetically coupled through a path of low reluctance. f one coil is connected to a source of alternating voltage! an alternating flux is set up in the laminated core! which is linked with the other coil in which it produces mutually induced emf. "according to #aradays law of $lectro magnetic induction % . f the second coil circuit is closed! a current flows in it and so electric energy is transformed from the first coil to the second coil. The coil in which a.c supply is given called primary winding and the other from which energy is drawn out is called secondary winding. 2. EMF EQUATION OF TRANSFORMER: The induced emf in the transformer is proportional to the product of number of turn & and rate of change of flux d' dt .

"(f% cycle fig !"-1 )et &1 * &umber of turns in primary winding &2 * &umber of turns in secondary winding m * +ax. flux in core in webers * ,m x A f * frequency of a.c input in -..

Transformers 4./

As shown in fig01! flux increases from its .ero value to max. value m in one quarter of the cycle i.e in "( f% second. Average rate of flux * m ' "1'4 f% * 4 f m 1b's &ow rate of change of flux per turn means induced emf in volts Average emf'turn * 4 f m volt f flux varies sinusoidally! then rms value of induced e.m.f is obtained by multiplying the average value with form factor. #orm factor * rms value Average value * 1.11

2o! rms value of emf'turn * 1.11x 4 f m * 4.44 f m volt &ow rms value of induced emf in the whole primary 1inding * "induced emf'turn% x &o. of turn in primary winding. $1 * 4.44 f &1 m * 4.44 f &! ,m A volt 3 "i% $2 * 4.44 f &2 m * 4.44 f &2 ,m A volt 3 "ii% n an ideal transformer on no load 41 * $1 and 42 * $2 1here 41 5 42 are terminal voltage #. VOLTAGE TRANSFORMATION RATIO #rom the above equation we can get $2 * 4.44 f &2 m * $1 4.44 f &1 m The constant 6 &2 &1 known *6

as

voltage

transformation

ratio

"A% f &2 7 &1 i.e 671! then transformer is called step up transformer. ",% f &2 8 &1 ie 681! then the transformer is known as step down transformer.

Transformers 4.4

TRANSFORMERS FI$E% & VARIA&LE LOSSES There are two types of losses in the transformers 1. 2. #ixed losses 4ariable losses 3 9ore losses " ron )osses% 3 1inding loss "copper losses%

1e perform two types of test to find out the losses A , A. 0 0 :pen circuit test for core losses 2hort circuit test for copper losses

OPEN CIRCUIT TEST: The purpose of this is to determine the iron losses ;i and no load current o.
1ATT +$T$>
A

41

)T

-T

fig !"-2 n this test -T winding is left open and normal voltage is applied to the )T winding of the transformer under test as shown in fig02. Ammeter A and 1att0meter 1 are connected to measure no load current and no load input power. 4olt meter is connected to measure the applied voltage. 2ince no current flows in the open circuited secondary winding! the watt meter reading provides the information of power consumed to magneti.e the core. The ron losses consist "1 * 1h < 1e% "1% -ysteris loss given by formula 1h * ;,1.=max f where! ; is a constant "2% $ddy current loss

Transformers 4.?

&'

1e * @ ,2max f 2 where! @ is a constant. SHORT CIRCUIT TEST: The purpose of this test to determine the full load copper losses and to find the equivalent resistance and reactance referred to metering side as these losses varies with load so these losses are called variable loss.
1ATT +$T$>

41

-T

)T

fig !"-# n this test the terminals of low voltage winding short circuited therefore! transformer becomes equivalent to a coil having an impedance equal to impedance of both the windings. The applied voltage 4 to the primary is gradually increased till the ammeter A indicates the full load current of the -T side in which it is connected . 2ince applied voltage is very low so flux linking with the core is very small and therefore! ron losses are so small that these can be neglected. The reading 1 of watt meter gives total copper losses at full load.

POWER AN% %ISTRI&UTION TRANSFORMER POWER TRANSFORMERS: The term is used to include all transformers of large si.e "2?A 64A and above% used in generating stations and substation for transforming the voltage at each end of a power transmission line. They may be single phase or /0phase! /0wire delta'delta or delta'star connected! and of voltage rating 22A'1164 or in high voltage range. They are put in operation during load hours and disconnected during light load hours i.e they are usually operated on approximately full load. This is possible because they are arranged in banks and can be thrown in parallel with other units or disconnected at will. 2o power transformers are designed to have maximum efficiency at or near full load "i.e with iron loss to full load copper loss ratio of 1B1 %. ;ower transformers are designed to have considerable greater

Transformers 4.=

leakage reactance than is permissible in distribution transformer because in power transformers inherent voltage regulation is not as much important as current limiting effect of the highest reactance . ;ower transformers usually make use of flux density of 1.? to 1.C T ! have percentage impedance ranging from = 3 1DE and regulation of =01AE. They may be self oil cooled! forced air cooled or forced water cooled. #or power transformers the specification items and limitations are laid down by the 202A2= "1F=2% 3 ";art0 ! ! ! 4 1FCC% beyond 1AA 64A. The standard 64A ratings for /0 ;ower transformers are 2?!4A!=/!1AA!12?!1=A!2AA! 2?A! /1?! 4AA!?AA! =/A! DAA!1AAA!12?A!1AAA!2AAA! 2?AA!/12?!4AAA!=/AA!DAAA! 1A!AAA! 12?AA! 1=!AAA!2AAAA!2?AAA!/1?AA! 4AAAA! ?AAAA! =/AAA! DAAAA64A. TAPPING: The standard tapping ranges are < 2G E and ?E. Tap changing is carried out by means of an externally operated off circuit switch capable of being locked in positions. f required! the transformer may be equipped with on load tap changer. IMPE%ANCE: The percentage impedance at C?9 are 4.?E for transformers of rating up to and including 1AA64A! 1164 and 4.C?E for transformers of rating above 1AA64A ! 1164. TEMP.RISE LIMITS: The temp of rise of transformers windings! oil and core should not exceed the limits prescribed as given belowB 1. Wi()i(g*+ M",* !") -. R"*i*/,(0"B :&!:#! :1 9ooling 3 ??9. :#&!:#, 9ooling 0 =A9 . :#1 9ooling 0 =?9 Oi1 3 measured by thermometer in top :il0 all types * 4?9. C2!"* 3 9ore shall be designed so that the temp. rise on any part of the external surface does not exceed that of the winding. %ISTRI&UTION TRANSFORMERS 3 Transformers of rating up to 2AA64A! used to step down the distribution voltage to a standard service voltage are known as Hdistribution transformers. They are kept in operation all the 24 hours a day whether they are carrying any load or not. n such transformers iron loss occurs for all the time where copper loss occurs only when they are loaded. Therefore distribution transformers should be designed with iron loss smaller in comparison to full load copper loss "say with iron loss to full load copper loss ratio of 1B/% . n other words! they are designed

2. /.

Transformers 4.C

for good ,11 ),. "ffi0i"(0. and not for highest efficiency on full load. They are of the self cooling type and are almost invariably oil immersed. The distribution transformers are usually /0! 40 wire 1164'4AA4 Ielta'2tar connected! such transformers are designed to have an inherently good voltage regulation which is possibly by arranging the coils in such a way as to have minimum leakage reactance. 2uch transformers have percentage impedance of 40?E and voltage regulation of 40DE. They make use magnetic material of cold rolled steel with flux density of 1.CT. #or outdoor type /0 distribution transformers up to and including 1AA64A at 1164 the specification items and limitations are laid down by the 2 specifications " 2B 11DA01F=4%. STAN%AR% RATINGSB According to 2B11DA01F=4 the standard ratings for distribution type transformers are 1=! 2?! 4A! ?A! =/! DA and 1AA64A. The &o load voltage ratios are //AA'4// volt! ==AA'4// volt and 11AAA'4// volt. The tappings shall be provided on the -4 side and shall be in ? steps. The commonly used off load tap changers have ranges from < 2.?E to ?E. CONNECTIONSB 'J "Iy11% with neutral brought out to a separate insulated terminal. C221i(g is by low viscosity transformer oil. C2(*"!4,/2! T,(5B is provided on transformers of rating ?A 64A and above. Li6i/* 2f T"67. !i*": The following temp. rises shall be permitted over the ambient temp. 4?9. i% ii% Temperature rise in winding measured by resistance method 3 ?? 9. Temperature rise in oil measured by thermometer in top oil 3 4? 9.

The above temperature rise are of :&! :, and :1 type cooling. I67"),(0" The percentage impedance at C?9 is 4.?E subKected to the tolerance limits of < 1AE.

INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS n I9 circuits when large currents are to be measured it is usual to use low range ammeters with suitable shunts. #or measuring high voltages! low range voltmeters are used with a high resistance connected in series with them! but it is not

Transformers 4.D

convenient to use this method with alternating current and voltage instruments. #or this purpose! specially constructed accurate ratio instrument transformers are employed "in conKunction with standard low0range a.c. instruments%. These instrument transformers are of two kinds "i% current transformers for measuring large alternating currents and "ii% potential transformers for measuring high alternating voltages. CURRENT TRANSFORMERS: These transformers are used with low0range ammeters to measure currents in high0 voltage alternating current circuits! where it is not practicable to connect instruments' meters directly to the lines. n addition to insulating the instrument from the high voltage line! they step down the current in a known ratio. The current "or series% transformers has a primary coil of one or more turns of thick wire connected in series with the line whose current is to be measured. The secondary consists of a large number of turns of fine wire and is connected across the ammeter terminals usually of ? amp. or 1 amp. >ange. As regards voltage! the transformer is of step0up variety but it is obvious that current will be stepped down. Thus! if the current transformer has primary to secondary current ratio of 1AAB?! then it steps up the voltage 2A times whereas it steps donw the current to 1'2Ath of its actual value. -ence! if we know current ratio " 1' 2% of the transformer and the reading of the a.c. ammeter! the line current can be calculated. n fact! line current is given by the current transformation ratio. :ne of the most commonly used 9.T is the one known as clamp0on or clip0on type. t has a laminated core which is so arranged that it can be opened out at hinged section by merely pressing a trigger. 1hen the core is thus opened! it permits the admission of very heavy current carrying bus bars or feeders where upon the trigger is released and the core is tightly closed by a spring. The current carrying conductor or feeder acts as a single turn primary whereas the secondary is connected across the standard ammeter conveniently mounted in the handle. t should be noted that since the ammeter resistance is very low! the 9.T normally works short0circuited. f for any reason the ammeter is taken out of the secondary winding then this winding must be short0circuited with the help of short0circuiting switches. f this is not done then due to the absence of conter ampere0turns of the secondary! the un0opposed primary mmf will set up an abnormally high flux in the core which will produce excessive core loss with subsequent heating and a high voltage across the secondary terminals. This is not the case with ordinary constant ;.Ts because their primary current is determined by the load on their secondary whereas in a 9.T primary current is determined entirely by the load on the system and not by the load on its own secondary. -ence the secondary of a 9.T should never be left open under any circumstance.

Transformers 4.F

POTENTIAL TRANSFORMERS: These transformers are extremely accurate ratio step0down transformers and are used in conKunction with standard low range volt0meters "uaually 3 1?A4% whose deflection when divided by voltage transformation ratio! gives the true voltage on the high voltage side. n general! they are of shell type and do not differ much from the ordinary two winding transformer! except that their power rating is extremely small. Lpto voltages of ?AAA volts! ;.Ts are usually of the dry type! between ?AAA and 1/!DAA volts they may be either dry type or oil immersed type! although the voltages above 1/!DAAA they are always oil immersed type. 2ince their secondary windings are required to operate instruments or relays or pilot lights! their ratings are usually of 4A to 1AA watt. #or safety! the secondary should be completely insulated from the -.4 primary and should be in addition! grounded for affording protection to the operator.

TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONSB There are various methods available for transforming /0 voltages to higher or lower voltages i.e for handling a considerable amount of power. The most common connection are "i% J0J "ii% 0 "iii% J0 "iv% 0J "v% :pen Ielta or 404 "vi% 2cot0connection or T0T 1' STAR8STAR OR 9-9 CONNECTION: "JJ: or JJ=% This type of transformer is most economical for small current and -igh 4oltage applications. The advantages and disadvantages of such arrangement are given belowB A)4,(/,g"* 3 i% The number of turns pet phase and the amount of insulation is minimum because phase voltage *1'/ time of line voltage. ii% There is no phase displacement between the primary and secondary voltages. iii% 1ith star points available on both sides it is possible to provide a neutral connection. %i*-,)4,(/,g"* 3

Transformers 4.1A

"i%

f the load on the secondary side of the transformer is unbalanced! the phase voltages of load side change unless the load star point is earthed. The difficulty of shifting neutral can be over come by connecting the primary star point to the star point of generator. The primary of the transformer draws a magneti.ing current which has / rd and ?th harmonics. f neutral of primary winding is not connected to neutral of generator! the /rd and ?th harmonics current cannot flow hence the flux in the core cannot be of sinusoidal wave and therefore! the voltages will be distorted. $ven if neutral point of primary is connected to neutral of generator or earthed still if /rd harmonics is present in the alternator voltage form! it will appear on secondary side. Though the secondary line voltages do not contain / rd harmonic voltage but the /rd harmonics voltages are addition in the neutral and causes the current in the neutral of triple frequency "/rd harmonics% which will cause interference to the nearly communication system. Third harmonic voltages may be high in shell type /0 transformers. %ELTA 3 %ELTA :%)O OR %);' CONNECTIONS: This arrangement is generally used in systems which carry large currents on low voltages and especially when continuity of service must be maintained even though one of the phase develops fault. A)4,(/,g"*B

"i%

"ii%

2'

i% ii%

There is no phase displacement between the primary and secondary voltages. There is no distortion of flux because the /rd harmonic component of magneti.ing current can flow in the delta connected primary winding without flowing in the line wires. The cross section of conductor is reduced because the phase current is 1'/ times of line current. &o difficulty is experienced due to unbalancing of loads on secondary side. %i*-,)4,(/,g"*: +ore insulation is required in comparison to J0J connections. The absence of star point may be disadvantages. f one line gets earthed due to fault! maximum voltage between windings and core will be full line voltage. STAR-%ELTA :9)1 OR 9)11' CONNECTIONS:

iii% iv% i% ii% #'

Transformers 4.11

This type of transformer connection is used principally where the voltage is to be stepped down as for example! at the end of a transmission line. n this type of connection of transformer the neutral of the primary winding is earthed. n this system line voltage ratio is 1'/ times of transformer turn ratio and secondary line voltages have a phase shift of /A with respect to primary line voltages. :n the -4 side of the transformer! insulation is stressed only to the extent of ?C.CE of the line voltage and therefore! there is some saving in the cost of insulation. 4' %ELTA-STAR :%.1 OR %.11' CONNECTIONS: This scheme of connections is generally used where it is necessary to step0up the voltage as for example at the beginning of a -4 transmission system. :n the -4 side of the transformer! insulation is stressed only to the extent of ?C.CE of line to line voltage. Another advantage is that the neutral point is stable and will not MfloatN when load is unbalance. There is no distortion of flux because of the existence of a connection allows a path for the /rd harmonic contents. n this scheme of connection the line voltage ratio is / times of transformer turn ratio and the secondary line voltage have a phase shift of < /A with respect to primary line voltages. The neutral of the secondary is grounded to provide /0 ! 40 wire system and this scheme of connections is widely used in distribution systems because it can be used to serve both the three phase power equipment and single phase lighting circuits. n such case the 11!AAA'41? volt transformer connections provide a 40 wire secondary! with neutral supplying the 4th wire. The /0 equipment is connected to the line wires to operate at 41? volts while the lighting equipment is connected between one of the line wires and neutral to operate at 2/A volts. 2tar0delta or delta0star connected transformers cannot be operated in parallel with star0star or delta3delta connected transformers even though the voltage ratio are correctly adKusted as there will be a /A phase difference between corresponding voltages on the secondary side. <' OPEN %ELTA :OR V-V' CONNECTION: f one of the transformer of a 0 is removed and /0 supply is connected to the primaries! then three equal voltages will be available at the secondary terminals on no load. This method of transforming /0 power by means of only two transformers is called the open0 or 404 connection. t is employed! i% 1hen! the three phase load is too small to warrant the installation of full /0 transformer bank.

Transformers 4.12

ii%

1hen one of the transformer in a 0 bank is disabled so that service is continued although at reduced capacity till the faulty transformer is repaired or a new one is substituted. 1hen it is anticipated that in future the load will increase necessitating the closing of open delta. SCOTT CONNECTION OR T-T CONNECTION: This is connection by which! /0 to /0 transformation is accomplished with the help of two transformers. This connection can also be used for /0 to 20 transformation. :ne of the transformer has centre taps both on the primary and secondary windings and is know as the main transformer. t forms the hori.ontal member of the connection. The other transformer has a A.D== tap and is known as H /",*"! /!,(*f2!6"!. :ne end of both the primary and secondary of the teaser transformer is Koined to the center taps on both primary and secondary of the main transformers respectively. The other end of the teaser primary and the two ends of the main transformer primary are connected to the /0 supply. The capacity to rating ratio in a T0T connection is D=.=E the same as in 404 connection if two identical units are used! although heating in the two cases is not the same. T0T connections are used for /0 to 20 conversion and vice0versa. This conversion is required to supply two phase furnaces! to link 20 circuits with /0 systems and also to supply a /0 apparatus from a 20 supply source.

iii% ;'

ON AN% OFF LOA% TAP CHANGERS The modern electrical equipment are designed to operate satisfactorily at a fixed voltage level. :n the other hand voltage variation in power systems is a normal phenomenon owing to the rapid growth in industries and distribution network t is therefore! very important to keep the consumers terminal voltage within the statutory limits. The transformer output voltage and so the consumers terminal voltage may be controlled by providing tapping on the transformer windings either on the primary or on the secondary.

Transformers 4.1/

The principle of regulating the secondary voltage is based on changing the number of turns on the primary or secondary i.e on changing the ratio of transformation. Iecrease in primary turns causes increase in emf per turn and so in the secondary output voltage. 2econdary output voltage can also be increased by increasing secondary turns and keeping primary turns fixed. n other words! decrease in primary turns has the same effect as that of increase in secondary turns. There is always a tapping on the -4 winding which when connected to the rated voltage gives rated voltage on the )4 side. This tapping is called the principal tapping. The tapping may be changed with the transformer isolated from the supply on both sides. This is called off load tap changing. This arrangement is used for occasional adKustments! as in distribution transformers which are provided with < 2.?E taps. n some transformers special arrangements are made to avoid interruption of supply so that tap changing is affected with the transformer energised or on load. This is called the on0load tap changing. Iaily and short time adKustments are made with the help of :)T9 "on load tap changer% gear. OFF-LOA% TAP CHANGING This is the cheapest method of changing the turn0ratio of the transformer. As the name indicates! it needs disconnection of transformer from the supply before changing the tap. This adKustment is made by tapping the respective windings as required and taking connections of tapping to some position near the top of the transformer.

2 ? / 1 2 4 2 = / 1

= ?

A 4

Transformers 4.14

Fig !"-4

A simple off0load tap changer is illustrated in fig.04. t has six brass or copper studs. The winding is also tapped at six points "equal to no. of studs%. The tapping leads are connected to six corresponding marked stationary studs arranged "in a circle% . The face plate carrying the six studs can be mounted at a convenient place on the transformer such as upper yoke or located "near the tapped position on the winding% . The movable contact arm may be rotated by hand wheel mounted externally on the tank. f the winding is tapped at 2.?E interval! then the movement of the movable arm A over studs 102! 20/! /04! 40?! ?0= the winding in circuit reduces progressively from 1AAE at stud 102 to FAE at studs ?0=. The stop H2O fixes the final position and prevents the Arm HAO from being rotated beyond stud H=O in counter clock wise direction or from stud 1 in clockwise direction so as to avoid bridging of studs 1 and = by the arm HAO. A mechanical lock is provided to prevent unauthori.ed operation of the off load tap changer. #urther! for preventing inadvertent operation an electromagnetic latching device or micro switch is provided to operate the circuit breaker so as to disconnect the transformer from the supply as soon as the movable arm is moved! will before the contact of the arm with the stud with which it was in contact! opens. ON LOA% TAP CHANGING: 2uch an arrangement is employed for changing the turn ratio of the transformer to regulate the system voltage while the transformer is delivering load. &ow a days almost all the large power transformers are provided with :)T9. t is invariable practice to provide the tapping at the neutral end of the -4 winding of a generator transformer . The tapping on the windings are brought out through a terminal board to a separate oil0filled compartment in which the :)T9 switch is housed. The tap changer is in the form of a selector switch. The changer is operated by a motor operated driving mechanism by local or remote control and a handle is also fitted for changing tapings manually. The essential features of an :)T9 are that during its operation the main circuit should not be opened to prevent sparking and no part of the tapped winding should get short circuited . All types of :)T9 circuits are provided with an impedance! which is introduced to limit the short circuit current during the operation of tap changing . The impedance may be either a resister or center

Transformers 4.1?

tapped reactor on the basis of which the :)T9 can in general be classified as resistor or reactor type. n modern designs the current limiting is almost invariably carried out by a pair of resistor. n order to limit the loss of energy! it is essential that the resistors are in the circuit for as minimum of time duration as possible. The resistors are designed for short time rating for economical consideration and therefore! it is desirable to reduce to minimum their duty time duration. 2o it becomes essential to incorporate some form of energy storage in the driving mechanism to ensure that a tap change! once initiated shall be completed irrespective of failure of auxiliary control supply. All modern :)T9s use spring energy as storage elements. They reduce the time that a resistor is in the circuit to a few seconds. :)T9 control gear may be from simple push button initiation to complex automatic control of several transformers operating in parallel. The aim of control is to maintain a given voltage level within a specified tolerance! or to raise it with load to compensate for the voltage drop in the transmission line. The main components are an automatic voltage regulator! a time delay relay and compounding elements . The time delay prevents initiation of a tap change due to minor transient voltage fluctuation. t may be set for a delay upto =A seconds.

T9PE OF TRANSFORMER COOLING 2ince there is no rotating part in the transformer which could produce a draught therefore cooling of transformer is more difficult than other electric machines with rotating part. There are a number of methods used for cooling of transformers. The choice of method depends upon the si.e! type of application and the type of conditions available at the site where the transformer is installed. n so far as cooling methods are concerned the transformer are either of dry type or oil immersed type. The cooling methods used for dry type transformer areB 1. AIR NATURAL COOLING :AN'B #or smaller transformer "?01A 64A% the external surface is sufficient to dissipate the heat produced by losses. 2uch transformers are cooled by the combination of air convection currents within the enclosing case and by natural radiation from the case itself. nstrument transformers ! except for those for the highest voltage! are ordinarily of dry type. Iry type transformer are frequently used indoor since it is not necessary to install them in fire proof vaults.

Transformers 4.1=

2.

AIR &LAST COOLINGB This type of cooling is also used in dry type transformers. n this method of cooling heat dissipation is improved by a continuous blast of air forced through the core and windings. The air blast is produced by means of external fans or blowers. This type of cooling is limited to transformers of voltage rating not exceeding 2?64. t is used in situations located in thickly populated places where oil is considered a fire ha.ard. Lsually transformers are placed over an air chamber in which the air is maintained under pressure by blowers. The air is forced through core and windings and is discharged through the top of the case. The main disadvantage of this process is that increase in insulation strength due to immersion in oil! is not obtained. A filter to remove the dust from the cooling air thus preventing its deposits in the transformer ducts is desirable.

/.

OIL COOLE% TRANSFORMERS 3 The cooling methods used in oil immersed type transformers areP

/.1

OIL NATURAL AIR NATURAL COOLING :ONAN' B This is the most usual method of cooling. -ere the assembly of core and windings is immersed in an insulating oil contained in an iron tank. The heat produced in core and windings is passed on to oil by conduction. :il in contact with heated parts rises and its place is taken by cool oil from the bottom. The heated oil transfers its heat to the tank surface which dissipate it to the surroundings. The advantage of this method of cooling are "i% "ii% "iii% "iv% freedom from dust freedom from atmospheric moisture which would have affected the insulation. easy extraction of heat from inner most parts as oil is better conductor of heat good amount of natural convection currents since oil has high coefficient of volume expansion.

n may cases smooth tank walls are not sufficient to dissipate the heat! therefore the tank dissipating area is increased by providing ribs! also called the fins or corrugations. A corrugated tank has about ?AE more radiating surface than a smooth tank. #or further increasing the heat dissipation capacity radiators or tubes are provided on all the four walls of the transformer.

Transformers 4.1C

/.2

OIL NATURAL AIR FORCE% :ONAF' COOLING -ere again the assembly of core and windings is immersed in an insulating oil and cooling is improved by forced air over the cooling surfaces. The air is forced over external surfaces by means of fans mounted external to the transformer. +edium to large capacity transformers are cooled by this method.

/./

OIL NATURAL WATER FORCE% :ONWF' COOLING #or such a cooling! the core and windings are immersed in an insulating oil and the cooling is increased by circulation of water through copper cooling coils mounted above the transformers core but below the oil surface. The heated water is cooled in a spray pond or cooling tower.

/.4

OIL FORCE% AIR NATURAL COOLING :OFAN' n this method of cooling! oil is circulated through the transformer with the help of pump and cooled in a heat exchanger by natural circulation of air. This method proves very useful where the coolers have to be removed from the transformers. This method is not very common.

/.?

OIL FORCE% AIR FORCE% COOLING :OFAF' n this method of cooling ! the oil is cooled in an external heat exchanger using air blast produced by fans. t is not necessary that the oil pump and fans may be used at all times. At light loads! say up to ?AE of rated load! natural circulation of oil ":& cooling% may be sufficient to cool the transformer. At higher loads! the pump and fans may be switched on by temp. sensing elements. This arrangement results in higher efficiency of the system.

/.=

OIL FORCE% WATER FORCE% COOLING :OFWF' : n this method of cooling! the heated oil is pumped out from the main tank to the radiator "heat exchanger% where the oil is cooled by the water passing through copper tubes. The pressure of oil is kept higher than that of water and! therefore! any leakage that occurs is from oil to water "not from water to oil%. Also there is no condensation problem in this method. ;ower transformer with a capacity of 1A +4A have a cooling radiator system with natural cooling. The oil forced air forced cooling is usual one for power

Transformers 4.1D

transformers of rating /A +4A and higher. :il forced water forced cooling is used for transformers designed for hydro0electric power plants.

PROTECTION OF TRANSFORMERS Transformers are generally protected against short circuits and overheating. #or short circuits normally percentage differential protection is recommended for transformers rated for more than 1 +4A. #or )ow rating over current relay is used. The primary and secondary current of transformers are normally different from each other and are related by their turn ratio. These currents are displaced in phase from each other by /A degree ! if the windings are star 3 delta connected. #or differential protection the vector difference of two currents is fed to the operating coil of the relay. This means for an external fault the line currents of the two 9TOs should be equal in magnitude and should be in phase opposition so that the difference current is .ero. The 9TOs on the star side of the power transformers are connected in delta and on the delta side! they are connected in star as the line currents of star 3 delta transformers will be displaced in phase by /A degree. t is required that this phase displacement must be nullified by connecting the 9TOs in that fashion. &IASE% %IFFERENTIAL PROTECTION: ,iased differential protection is used in case where low fault settings and high operating speeds are to be obtained when the following conditions exist for a power transformer. 1% 2% /% :n load tap changing +agneti.ing inrush current Lnmatched 9TOs. To take into account the magneti.ing inrush currents! high speed biased differential relay incorporating harmonic restraint feature is used. The peak value of the inrush currents may be as high as = to D times the normal full load currents. n so far as inrush current affects the operation of transformers differential protection relays! two aspects are of significance.

Transformers 4.1F

i% ii%

The current flows only in one of two windings of the transformer "The primary winding% and ! therefore! it is good as on internal fault as far as protection scheme is concerned The wave shape of the inrush current differs from the usual fault current in that ! it contains a high component of second harmonics. -armonic restraint feature is achieved by the use of a second harmonic filter which is arranged to inKect an additional bias current in the relay circuit proportional to the second harmonic component. The relay is adKusted so that it will not operate when the harmonic current exceeds 1?E of the fundamental current. An instantaneous over current relay in the differential circuit is normally provided which is set above the maximum in rush current and this operates in less than one cycle on internal faults. OVER CURRENT AN% EARTH FAULT PROTECTION: I+T " inverse definite minimum time % relays are used to protect the transformers against the external short circuits and the over loads. This protection acts as a back up protection. $xtremely inverse characteristics is the ideal as the heating circuit of the transformers closely resemble the characteristics of these relays. The protection is located on the supply side of the transformers and is arranged to trip both the -4 and )4 circuit breakers. RESTRICTE% EARTH FAULT PROTECTIONB 2ince the over current settings are quite high! there are inherent difficulties in the provision of sensitive earth fault relays. Therefore! separate earth fault protection known as restricted earth fault protection in provided to both windings of the transformer. FRAME LEAKAGE PROTECTION: The transformer is lightly insulated from earth by mounting it on a concrete plinth. The tank is connected to earth through a 9T across which an instantaneous earth fault relay is connected. $arth fault current due to insulation break down in any winding of the transformer will flow to earth through the tank and single earth connection! thus energi.ing the current transformer and operating the relay. &UCHHOL= RELA9B 1henever a fault takes place in a transformer the oil of the transformer gets over heated and gasses are formed. The generation of the gases may be slow or violent depending upon whether the fault is a minor or incipient one or heavy short circuit. The generation of gas is used as a means of fault detection. ,uchhol.

Transformers 4.2A

relay is the simplest form of protection which is commonly used for protection in all transformers provided with conservators. t consists of two hinged floats in a metallic chamber! which is connected in the upper side of the pipe run between the oil conservator and the transformer tank. :ne of the float is near the top of the chamber and the other opposite to the orifice of the pipe to the transformer as shown in figure. #or a minor or incipient fault! the slow generation of gas gives rise to gas bubbles! which try to go to the conservator but are trapped in the upper portion of the relay chamber! thereby a fall in oil level takes place. This disturbs the equilibrium of the gas float. The float tilts and the alarm circuit is closed through the mercury switch and the indication is given. #or a heavy fault! large volumes of gases are generated ! which causes violent displacement of the oil and impinge upon the baffle plates of the lower float and thus the balance of the lower float is disturbed. The lower float is tilted and the contacts are closed which are arranged to trip the transformer. This relay is also useful in indicating any loss of oil that a transformer might suffer because! the loss of oil will cause oil level to drop in the relay then the top float will indicate it by shorting the alarm contacts and if the oil level keeps on falling the lower float will be affected and will close the trip circuit contacts thereby isolating the transformer. Test cock

+ercury switch

A)A>+ - &Q$

To conservator

to transformer tank

T> ;

Transformers 4.21

Irain #igure0? ",L9--:)R >$)AJ %

TESTING OF TRANSFORMER OIL: :il is used as coolant and dielectric in the transformer and keeping it in good condition. t also prevents deterioration of the insulation! which is immersed in the oil. Transformer oil is always exposed to the air to some extent! therefore in the course of time it may get oxidi.ed and form sludge. f the breather is defective! oil may also absorb moisture from air thus reducing dielectric strength. :il supplied with transformers! generally complies with 2//?01FC2 TESTING OF OIL: :il after filtration and before filling in the transformer should meet the requirements of testing as per followingB i' %IELECTRICAL STRENGTH TEST : 2ample of the oil is taken near the top and bottom of the tank. This test is performed in the oil testing kit which has the electrode dia. 12.? mm and electrode gap 2.? mm < A.1 mm%. The gap of electrode is first checked with a gauge. The sample cup is filled with oil sample to be tested which should be 1Amm down from the upper and ?A mm above the electrodes. The cup top is covered with a clean glass plate. &ow supply is switched H:&O and voltage is raised gradually by a variac. The stage comes when the final break down of the oil takes place and the circuit breaker got tripped. This value of voltage is noted down which must be /A64 "rms% for 2.? mm gap. The electric strength shall be arithmetic mean of the six results on same sample of oil. ii% CRACKLE TESTB A rough test can be made by closing one end of piece of steel tube "2.?4 cm dia.%! heating the closed end to Kust under dull red heat and plunging it into the oil sample with the ear close to the open end of tube. f the oil contains large moisture a sharp crackle will be heard. Iry oil will only si..le. n addition to above the following test are also carried out in the chemical lab.

Transformers 4.22

i% ii% iii% iv% v%

#lash point test Acidity 2ludge value 2pecific gravity ;our point

0 0 0 0

which should not be less than 14?9. 0 A.A? mg 6:-'gm.of oil 1.2E by wt. "+ax.% A.D? to A.DD 1A 9 "+ax.%

TRANSFORMER TESTING TRANSFORMER TESTING: Transformers are tested for quality of material and workmanship at manufactures site. At users site transformers are tested to check healthiness. ,roadly transformer tests can be classified as T!,(*f2!6"! T"*/*

>outine Tests

Type Tests

2pecial Tests

1% 4oltage ratio 5 polarity 2% 1inding resistance

"1% Temp.rise test "1% Iielectric test "2% )ightening impulse "2% Rero sequence test impedance. /% mpedance voltage! short "/% 2hort ckt test 9kt.impedance!load loss 4% Iielectric test "4% Acoustic sound a% 2eparate source ac voltage "?% -armonics on no load a b% nduced voltage ?% &o load loss and current "=% ;ower taken by fan! oil =% :n load tap changer. ;ump etc. >outine tests are carried out on all the transformers. VOLTAGE RATIO AN% POLARIT9 TEST.

A2 A9 2ource

a2 42 a1

41 A1

Transformers 4.2/

#ig. = #or polarity test one terminal each of primary and secondary connected to each other! -T winding is supplied with ac voltage! voltage across voltmeter 4 measured. f polarity is correct 4 will show voltage 41 3 42 otherwise it will show 41 < 42. 4oltage ratio can be measured energi.ing transformer with ).4 supply and measuring -4 5 ).4 voltages for accurate measurement >atio meter method is used. n this method ratio meter is used in ,ridge circuit where the voltage of windings of transformers under test are balanced against voltage developed across the fixed and variable resistors of ratio meters. P21,!i/. & P>,*" g!2 7 02(("0/i2(*: ;rimary and secondary windings are connected together at one point as indicated in fig "for J J : % A2 a2

92

,2

c2

b2

A low voltage / supply is applied to -4 terminals voltage measurements are taken between various pair of points ",20b2 ! 920b2 ! 920a2 % and reading obtained should be sum of separate voltage of each winding under consideration. Wi()i(g R"*i*/,(0": I9 resistance of winding can be measured simply by voltmeter 0 ammeter method. This information provides the data necessary to permit separation of copper losses and eddy losses. #or accurate measurement wheatstone or 6elvin double bridge is used. LOA% LOSS AN% IMPE%ANCE TEST. Two wattmeter method is used to measure load loss. A single wattmeter with double pole switch can be used for this purpose. 2econdary ")4% windings are short circuited and A9 voltage at -4 winding is increased till Ammeter shows full load current " nternal link of phase A is removed and Ammeter 5 watt meter current coils are in series through a double

Transformers 4.24

pole switch%. >eading of ammeter! voltmeter and wattmeter are taken. &ow shorting link is placed in A phase and double pole switch is connected to 9 phase! link of 9 phase is removed. Again reading of volt meter! ammeter! watt meter are taken. 2um of two watt meter readings gives copper loss! volt meter reading gives impedance voltage. %IELECTRIC TEST: ,' S"7,!,/" *2 !0" AC ?i/>*/,() /"*/: 2ystem -ighest voltage 64 "rms% 1.1 /.= 12.A 14?.A ;ower freq.test volt. 64 rms / 1A 2D 2/A )ightening impulse withstand volt "64 ;eak% 0 4A C? ??A

Above table indicate withstand voltage levels for transformer installed on power distribution or industrial system. -' S"7,!,/" *2 !0" 421/,g" ?i/>*/,() /"*/. Terminal end of winding under test are connected to one -4 terminal of testing transformer! the other terminals are earthed . The test should be commenced at a voltage not greater than one third of test value and increase to test value as rapidly as is consistent with measurement. #ull test voltage is applied to =A sec. At the end of test the voltage should be reduced rapidly to less than 1'/ of test value before switching off. 0' I() 0") O4"! V21/,g" ?i/>*/,() /"*/: n this test -4 windings are left open! test voltage is applied to )4 windings. Test voltage is increase to twice the rated value. #requency is also increased proportionately to avoid saturation of magnetic core. Iuration of test is =A sec. for any frequency. )' N2 12,) 12** ,() 0 !!"(/ /"*/B This test is carried out same way as load loss test except that voltage is applied to )4 windings with -4 open circuited. ,oth readings are taken in same fashion. 2um of the two reading is no load loss. &o load current is given by ammeter reading.

Transformers 4.2?

&o load loss is sum of hysterics and eddy current loss. 2eparation of both losses is done by taking no load loss at three different frequencies and plotting! frequency verses energy loss graph. J ordinate "at f * A% gives -ysterics loss . "' C2!" I(* 1,/i2( V21/,g" T"*/B nsulation on all limb and yoke bolt and between clamping plates and core laminations undergoes a routine separate source test of 2AAA4. T9PE TEST: Type tests are tests made on a transformer which is representative of other transformer " sample% to demonstrate that they comply with specified requirement not covered by routine test. TEMPERATURE RISE TEST: SUMPNER OR &ACK TO &ACK TEST. n this test two identical transformers are placed! not less than 1 meter apart with -4 side adKacent ",ack to ,ack%. -4 winding are connected in opposition . )4 windings of two transformers are connected in parallel and excited at normal voltage. )4 winding of auxiliary transformer is included in circuit. &ormal )4 voltage applied to )4 winding in parallel! then supply voltage of -4 winding of auxiliary transformer is adKusted until the ammeter in -4 circuit of transformer under test reads normal full load current. n this test! transformers are in full load condition i.e. normal excitation and full load current are reproduced. 9opper and iron loss must therefore be those which would normally occur. Temperature rise test of transformer should be of such duration that sufficient evidence is available to show that temperature rise would not exceed guaranteed limit if test prolonged. f the temperature test may be continued until the temp rise does not exceed 19 per hour during 4 consecutive hourly readings! it can be regarded as final temperature has reached. I67 1*" V21/,g" /"*/: 4oltage surge always occur on transmission system and these surges arising from lightening or switching are propagated along with the transmission line and into the windings of transformer. To prevent breakdown of transformer! transformers are designed to withstand surges and tests are conducted with voltage impulse on windings and complete transformer to check material! workmanship of design.

Transformers 4.2=

INSULATION TEST: nsulation tests are carried out on all windings ! core and core clamping bolts. The standard megger testing equipment is used! the HlineO terminal of which is connected to the winding ! earth terminal to tank and guard terminal to ).4 winding! by connecting the winding and instruments this way that any leakage current from -4 to )4 winding is not included in reading and true measurement of -4 insulation to earth is obtained.