Sex Dichotomy Among the American Kaldera5 Gypsies (195 1)

Rena

M. Cotten (Gropper)

The sexul division of hbor is an old phenomenon to anthropologists, but it has nwer been studid in detail with reference to cultures in a
thar this G},psy culture has canied the division of life's activities betrveen the sores to a high degree of development and that the resultant
state of

flux A study of American Kalderal Gypsies has revealed

dichotomy has influenced the process of acculturation.

shall

fint

justi$, me in offering Kaldera5 culture as an exception to

genemlization that women are the more conseryative element

erylorethe reasons for the extremedistinction between male and female and the consquent difference in firnctions in a pre-acculturation situation, and then ttre changes rurder acculturation will be discussed. Although the presentation is purely factual, the data will be seen to
the
a

in

bf

society. The Kal&ra5, or C.oppersmitlr, Glpsies form one tribe within the Gypsy etlmic group by virtue of a common dialect of Romani, similar customs and beliefs, and a sense of group identity. Kaldera5 in large migration-waves began to settle in the New World in the 1890s, todar,. about oire-half of the.50,000 {o I 00,000 G. ypsi es in the United Srares arc

liatderaS ex;traction. The Kaldera5 themselves claim that all

Coppersmith Glpsies havethe same basic institulions, regardless of rJrc European country from which they migrated, and a cursory comparison

I'
I

24t

220

revealed ,lr, ,h.,*, anv European

of Russian, Serbian An^(+?^^t. and Greek-Argentin;.

'\L Cr'llett (Groqter)

K|-deras in New york City

s^ex

^--

differentiared the

r""flffirHl,#, #i'#:l'ur t'r,a Jo.'0r,,.*11 i* * Karaeras-;;;:#;e occurred seems nor ro have

ffi ##t"":#:r::'4i"'h";;;::1'.'i-:'T?,;i,'"1ffi:;

*H:,FlH'H*: YHT,,[:Y,JIt It TffiH,*

The Basesfor Kalderas

:rffi#}r:ffi societv. a"y i"airia*r *r,o r.*Jr1* ,",,i"u,"

lengthy, arduous, and "*p"ri""!ro"Jir"u*""u*", scheming on thepart of the ortL,,o-*rt""

22 r contact with objects lhat have been touched by a maxrintetyonran u.ill be sufficient to ruin dre purily of u ,r*'ri, man breaks onc of rrrcsc mayrime taboos, the G,lpsies hold a *king" ,iut, presided over bv thc or one of rhe elders "o,* -a ,tt"na.aly the mare members of thc vitsa. A formal verdict of *mayrimellJj.O*.a, and rhe offender is

Dichotottty Anrcng the Anterican Kartrcra.i

(.i.t,psic.r

Sq Dichotomy

K"gf-S G5psies are organized 1:'king'r into pau a a"a? council of elders *;u"i::*:alds-(vffsas),nder rlP of the heads of coqponent exerded the famiri;. ;.;rT; must be bougtt from vfsas, wives other Kaldenai b*dr" L? smce.'Tr" forbidden to these Glpsies

ren se ro household nor eat with the Xrfa..X.,n"ri*r.rn"n, is possible onl.r. throug, nulrification of the originar ;"rdi" in another

*;

;;"iliffJi;ra?

Hr :l.#:,,fl ,9;:l
trial. This is
a

, :.T"[fi ff**f:
a

m:rry reratives

\r[.
:i.

\i-

11
.

'

\tr
\,i

-.'tl.
-\=

;;ffi;ilf:?;#I-;;;-ffi ffiTT"#Ln,:il*TJ
.t tj
'.-}

her own affair. crcnsequenly, Karderas

continue to reside *m n"r motr,Iii:#:. *" *y'&ffir"Y "rTlTTosd her oum establi$naorr* howe'er, the corple,t" ilffiH;, hi, { } l"tr;#*.#*Itr ;trj *" o.*Iil" ifr* to thev,saby rirrh. Ilfl"T.H3T,HI '" who ome from a number ft*;;;;; ait ;;;i r;;. ##* "f r" -* * #i; ;tr inreresrs, ttre women are alienared from "T,.ffiX:,t"fg^:::::y,,,.q-J*;; Lch orf,".._a.ii;;1", morher- and sis ters_in_gw b.e.caus; #"#;#:f_fflr j? singte unit but herrelatiorrf,ip, tr

a mother, she may

* b;; ;;;;A:HH; l" ",ffi;H 5i$l;ngs;

are

ffi #:I,,ff afterthe woman

becomes

;;;ffi;:ffi

*,r r,*" .'i;;J"::# Xil,:.:::r::: muchsimprerroavoidcrosecontacr*,d;r-"-J:ffi

The Sex Dichotomy ia Action

entire hisrory of rhe rrr qndrrew iresentea and weighed; (3) the defendantmust pay for fo"a t"r",t be invited to eat if and when "-.rJ.lwlsa-food which he rvi, r," ir a""i-"a bimayrime(not uncrean): and (a) there is alwavs the possibility petition wi, be refused. and
case must be reviewed

*.,oa wi& an elder rvho must then be convinced ,rrat reacceptanci is desirable and feasible before he w,r consent to calr another rin, the

tl)

ir involves much

,.g*""t

ll

the enrire chain of events

;;;r

iTrr?t"".liHl,ltx

lt

*itililffi;

,o"i"a*o*",

",:# of the virsa are

.i

'') : \\,

I
I

\i

a yr i me is conta gio u., or sleeps wilh a menstruatirig

(unclean), and she.is :oxrirl #;;;;;; sraix of m

i *1""r;#l?T:ffiffif$#: mensruarion and for r,*,o::u:atril;*r*if

s""*,,

. The second factor of major importance in di mte of women in Karderai

:

may be defined as lhal behavior instituted by members of different extenoea famiries acting together; in this way, social behavirf i, *"i" r" equate with the feast_ complex which is called into ,",io" *J.ontrolled b-y one extended family' who act as hosts and invite other Kuri"*" a-,ies to attend fie celebratior The political.Iifg has , f"rirf"if"", an executive, judicial fom- Vitsa policies{ and a *" O""rilr.Aiy ru ..big men,, (ttrc patriarchsf in meetings of rhe council ;;;r".' rf the vitsais faced with a problem

In terms of Kalderai curturg politicar life

lt

lt

ll

to
t
I I

attend

a crrira, a woma,

;; ;;;;;TJff :::"fr: ,";r;-;;;roro,"o Even "I:i,inadverrent

if

presented aad discussed. The "king"

each elder is responsible to

unusual importancg ull ;; ;". will be summoned a preliminary meeting in which individual opinions arc

of

l
I
,

of their.exlendedfamily, 1d.lach *r_*.;,r* Judiciat marrers arc rhe.iurisdicrion

him roi

ure .ote of chief exccutir.c: *re oueaierice or rre nrarc nrcnrbcrs

fulfills

lt

of

il ;;;r;.;;l;;

his u,ifearrd chiIdrcrr

lt

";,,;,;i;i,,

I l

21,$

ll

lleno

1.1.

Coilen (Gropper)

I ] iI \ j {

,\ex l)tchotom_v ,,lntong lhe .,lmerir:an Kalr.lara.i

I I

ffre daify cooking (except ", when mayrime) is carried on by the women, but cooting Ao* fo, f""tirrf, io
men, for then the entire yilsa convenes, and there would be too much danger of defiIement if the women bandled &e food-

clothes, and does the shopping.

retiring and deferential*i* ir, A" company of adult men. The careof the home is woman,s work The rrif" ,rr".p. scmbs the floors, puts the featherbeds away in the morning,

she must be

but the man's interrnittent coeeersmitfring and the Ariiy fortune-telling are not equated fu Kalderai thought rain source of income,-and their claiwoyanceprovides the wherewithal for food, rent, and clothing_ When the men get any money, it is given to their wives for safekeepingand/or arqposil. Because of the different occrpations, the sexes also vary in their rates of intraction with non-GypSes Metalworking co__isjs; fer,; solicited by the heads of the ixtenaed families, and the work was brought home to be done by the men grorry. This meant that most of the mn were reratively isolated aoi, " tne outside world. The woman's life has acc,stomed her to taking the initiative in customers and in dealing-with tadeqpeople; within the vif.ra,

men acts as arbiter and judge, and the other men act as advocates :W"f,"r theprosecutor and defendalt have presented lheir cases. and not attend council meerings, vilsa sessions ro discuss *^-:"i.:.cto rntrers ot mterest to &e gfoup as a whole, or court trials. The political rn_t o. of lifebelongsexclusivelyto t. *"r,Uott, becausethepresence women might defile ana a,,o Uecau*,n" *o_"., do not belong to 1f e.:.r:*, and hence are ,n" pr"p* people ro be entrusted Pllrrh "", *i9 ils atrairs A w,om1n is always only through the childre,n to whom . $" h* given birth. stictly qpeaking, economic activities arJperformed by both sexes,

G.vp.sic.t

22

final veto power in sociar life since they can refuse to mingle rvitJr rmwaited guests and.because they have the right to forbid rhe]r wives to visit other houeholds:

havc a righl to attend, families of the same socioeconomic rank *,ould if they rvere not asked; social-climbing aspirations moti'atc the family to request the presence of the big men. The men hat,e the
be insulted

* ,ii* dJ;;;;;rrr;;;
*o**,, ft" ;;;;;;"

""r; h;;
*a"t

;;

Since tre women are occupied in fornrire-teiliirg during rirost of trre' day, they camot be expected to give the children too much attention. Even if the men are at home, they are considered too important to be bothered with the petty affairs of children, and they are overry quick to resort to physical chastisement. For these reasons, the children must be self-reliant, and older siblings are s'pposed to care for and train their youlger sisters and brothers. Gypsy culture reinforces this behavior by instilling the beliefthat no child learns well who learns by having adults tell [her or] him what to do; the correct educafional method is to fumish a model the child can imitatg and these models are members of the family play gro*p. The mother interferes in this children's world onry when the youngsters demand attentiorq or become too noisy, or when there has been a gross infringement of Kaldera5 mles and regulations. Thus far we have seen that the woman is most active in rhose facets

of life necessary for biological s*rvival, but cultural survival is in male

hands since t},e men are the initiators and nujor participants of group institutions. To phrase it another way: the focal point of interest for the men is the vitsa and its component extended families; the center of concern for rhe woman is her own conjugal biological family. It is this difference which results in the fact that sorcerers are always old women

rh;;;;,

ti-"

mariagg

celebrate religious holidays and the lire-crises ceremonies and death is the province of the

of baptism,

The dates of these feasts are determined by the occurrence of the wents being honored, Each extended family prrpu*, for the Russian Orthodoxholy days; friendsvisit eachoth".iol,, drink, and danceand then go off to the next house. The life-crisis rites differ by their orvn nature, but the invitatior whom they !p*d th; upon factors besides the desires of the men or women: close relatives

;;;fl: ;H:,ffiffi#::? ;:ffi*: :::i

and never old men. At least in America, the witch is nolhing but a perpetual danger to the virsa. she is very free in using her ability to curse peoplg and these curses fall upon the members of the vilsa into which she has married. The witch is the symbol of feminine antisocial behavior and thinking-she is thought to be motivated by a desire to help herself, her husband, and her children rvithout regard for the fate of the rest of lhe vilsa. But the old rvomen gain a certain amount of porver in the yitra since the onlv rvay of deating rvith rvitches is to do o'cn,thing ilrev rvish-7

23c

Rena
Rep erc u s sions

M. Cotten (Gropper)

for

Sex Dichotont.y Among the American Kaldera.i (rtD.\i(..\

th e In div i du

aI

22t

;;;|[]<

tioning is evident in generalsociaf gatfreAgiio, tt men sit together between dancs, wtrereas the " each *"ri" ri, near other

the man, pleasme comes from t i, ,rroAatior, the woman see,ks isolation from
rhe

the wife eryeriencer is aoriog nunnr, the sexes are conditioned to *rri,

rraquilrity

in feomdity-, *oting, ,oo""yirLirg sewing dancing, and other feminine accornptishments. If the men fmd themselves drawn into an argument between the women of the household, they prmish tneir Jves for bothering them and leave the house to se* mal; *rd;il synrpathy. But

morher is afraid that w,l forsake her and focus th& aftentions on their wives. The wornm's sisters-in-raw are arxious to show rheirtrusband,s mothertlrat *.:I her fight intruOer, fear that the bride $e will excel them her sons

"" since the position of a w-oman is dryendent on the support she may expect from the men in rhe,event

,,

are closest to herare th,

Every time a wedding is held, a new wlnerability is introduced into the virsa- As a yormg bridg the girl is an rrr*;; quantity that must be e4plored and tested bv ter tusuan4 rr* *r,r,*-i"-law,E and her sisters.in{aw; rhe other of rh" by the birrh of a chil( &ey ae assurL that she is to U" , inember of their goup. As a matr0& the-woman ii a potintiat danger because she comes from another uitsa which.may i*r_o".r,oward some members of the husband,s band. frimdship"the other wives can give must be earned by the new"omer, and the women who

*",ra*

,,;;;;;ii-i". *r, pr***,

hrrb;i;";l;;

ffr.rffi ,y

o*"

*Jo _u:""J[#"1,T.,ff frlj:

,f;;"i;. ;

ffiffltrffi

The destructive ener&v generated by the rvoman's unresorved conJlicts is used to foment trouble within the vitsa, andshe sometimes tries to gain ascendanceoverthe other women and, if possibre, over the men and to effect a separation from the other families.
Changes Under Accuhuration
The Kaiderai Gypsies have been e4posed to contacts with non-Gypsies ever since they have been in existence as a cultural group. From the time they appeared in westem Europe in the early nrt"rntt century, they have lived among people who were not of their kind. and their very occupations required the patronage of these strangers. yet, until recently, the Kaldera.s were able to continue their own rvay of life almost untouched by foreign infruences. This resistance to accult,ration

non-Gypsies, and in that situation her aggressive impulses must be me knowledge that she is sffisea to make money and !f may not show her real feelings toward the.stupid clients.
tempered

gratification, service, and children in exchangefor the bride_price paid by his parents, and she must do her work rvithout expectations of gratitude from the others and regardless of her treatment at the hands of her spouse. without friends and relatives in rvhorn she can confide her o,nly avenue for the release of frustration, i, i" f,". .";;;;;

I I
It

II II

*-O.p

* ** *,

I I

ll
F

thi monthly seclusion. In this

the only

was due to many different factors both within and without Gypsy
culture and society, but one of these mechanisms has been mentioned

air"r*t

,;;;_il"

*ith his vilsa kinsmen;

in

social situations. To

*ccess of this condi_

has never had before. She must piorria"

hampered because of the masculine fear of ilre unclean sfanger *a-u""u*" she must observe varying degrees of resoect-avoidance toward her husband,s relatives. Her husband is a constant reminder of the ..trauma,, experienced in getting married; for the first time, ,t e l, ieft c*ompletely alone with a group of strange$, and she must begin ,o urr.,*"

The yormg wonrm catr expect no allies from the group of other wome4 and her contacts with &e men ae

fo,

responsibilities she husband with sexual

comparatively igrrorant of non_Gypsy culture, and the1, were made to feel that the real business of rife was that section of behavior in which Gypsy met with Gypsy. After 1933 the ability of the Gypsies to separate &emselves was progressively diminished. Mass production of utensits fashioned from iron and steel ruined the market for handmade copper articles, and the cheapness of these factory-produced goods made it inadvisab e to rcpa i r broken ob.iects.e prejudice against the Gypsies increased *,irh rhe decrease in their economic utility to America,s, and the I'o,len \\.cre unable to obtain fortune+eiling concessions in carnivars and fairs. thc owners preferred to lease to Americals who rvould
r

in this article, namely, the point that the relatively intensive contacts with non-Gypsies were experienced by the lvomen, rvho had no important role in determining virsa policies. The men rvere kept

It II It rl

masquerade as

21rt

^ena ^,1.
stores because the practice had been declared

Lotten (Gropper)

Sex

Dichotontv Antong the ,4merican Kalderai

Gypsit:.t

l2:

Gypsies. ln additiorq the women could nor cater to customers in their illegar. The Karderai were unable to support themselves, and they applied for relief. 1s1a*in in the large cities where tley were subject to much more intensive contacts with non-Gypsies and to invasions of theirprivacy in

In order to receive the benefits of the Relief Act, they had to

the dis4pearmceof band solidarity, whic.h had been in the hands of the constant and closeinteractionwith one another, and for the consequexrt attenuation ofporiticar and social life.

separatehousing of the biological families of the same extenced family This change in economic behavior had tlnee effects: in the first place, each Kaldera$ man began to associate with non-Gypsies, first in the oourse of his wodg and later in the p,rsuit of amusemen[ second, &e mrn had to travel all over the city and so absented himserf from his fanily and vitsa for the major part of each day; this in tum made for

individual craftsrnan without assistance) and because of the need for

the form of the police, *efarl workers, landlords, nqfglibors. Male cohesiveness began' to disintegrate uecaube oi.,rr" disappeararice of the smiihry and the substitr$ion of fenderand ftrmace-rqairing (occrryations which were best handled by one

*d"qp;;il,.,;

mit

support their households withoul male assistarce. Sonie of lhenr har,e voiced hopes of using birth control ard intentions of breaking rvith rhc conjugal vitsa N soon as they become mothers.rr The young men have similarly come to see the difference betri,ecn the Gypsy and non-Gypsy marriage customs, but, inasmuch as the role of husband dwised by Kaldera5 culture is less demanding than the one assigrred by non-Gypsy patterns, theii rebelliori is.directed only 1o attempts to choose thet own wives. Since the custom of bride-price remains in full force, they must accptthe girls chosen by their parents, and the burden of their discontent is vented upon the wives so selected. Formerly, it was extremely rare for marriages to be dissolved afler the birth of childre4 but today wives have been known to nrn away after they have given as many as four children to their husbands' vilsas. This change in divorce pattern is alarming since it vitiates the security that used to be felt once the wife became a mother-the virsa can no longer be sure that any woman will remain in the band.

groq of adult malesin

Conclusian

to include copyrng &ese new models, and the play group "I*d.d cornpositionchangedin Theparents were asked for toys *a aotni"g "Iike other children have,,, and the weekly movie became a part of th; child's schedule.ro The effects of this intermingling have recently become more serious with the attainment to adulthood of &e first generation of children thus exposed to foreign influence. The young girls are less acquiescent about their uncertain position in thet husbands' vifsas, the deqpotic rore of the men, and the need to try to

responsibilities. In the meantimg &e children arso carne under the influence of nonGypqy youngsters encormtered in the streets- Initiative learning was

largerKalderai coteries, was sryposed to be the head of the unit, but it was reognized that the wornim had &e lion's share of the work and

insignificant rmit the man end worum had been of equivalent wor6r. The mm, in his role as hu$and and father and as the link with the

disappearance of the vifsa and extended family as the active units in the society, the importance of the man also diminished. The biological family came to the foreground, and in this heretofore

with the

Kalderai sex dichotomy worked efficiently as long as the culture was in a state of equilibrium. The dominant position of lhe man was justified in the existence of such institutions as the vitsa council, the court trials, and the extended family-institutions which were exclusively masculine pursuits. The women remained within the confines of the biological family; they could not join together againsr
the menbecauseof the mayrime restrictions and becausethey distrusted one another as much as they distrusted the men. The culture had been blocked out into large chunks which were assigned to either the men or the women Those behavioral patterns which had been the province of the men disappeared, and the women, whcise training and attitudes remained much the same as in the pre-acculturation situation, were left in control ofthe rest ofthe cultural institutions. Zitsa solidarity was dependant on male cohesiorq a cohesion strong enough to overcomethe segregationaltendenciesof the rvomen. Wi&out this cohesiveness, the biological families tend to isolate themselves and to become engulfed in the non-G1psy community.

I
;

2i2-

t
Rena

M. Cotten (Gropper)

Sex

Update 1995:

Dichotomy Among the Anrcrican Kalderai

Gyp.sie.s

229

affected considerably.by th"

Culture change is to be e{pected, of course, and one should not be surprised that genderrores have atierea;rmong tre Roma. I had argued in this article that, while the to complain about masculine status and role assignm;, ^" hu.;;reason f;"r"d status

models.

the late fifties. Today telephones are ubiquitous and incrude ccllurar

iriaiuia,J,rlr" **

and roles were

a werrum ob(ahed

;,I,H.",il

status of younger women, some of whom were her daughtms_in_law. So the olderwomerryheld

#ffi,,T:TL"i
tne
be

*,*i*:, ;#;Tffi
rn the cities nucrearfamilies became i'1, uo.,,et * apart in New

Many factors
women md to

geoa"r.o;.

I
I

themserves felt less constrained in talking freely with t ,JJr.^ in the fortune-teling stores than theyhad when " the Cypqy rromen [veledto the non_Gypsy -coUA house&olds

reinforced the knowledge ,f rhe women were s$--ining from their customers. """_G)p;;;;;rotes oito-.",

households situated bl;cks ; York city' This meas the order wornen*"r; supervision over daily routines.

indepmdent

as Caml Mifler (teEs) h^ d";;;;I exadedfam,ies courd not rh-

"_.r"iti:,:TilLffiffi T, :l:X# hT ;,:f ,"riogr.

hor*i";

f,

*"ut" to exercise close "Jaii"rl television prognuns

,,"

Frequent visits by the women to their reratives occur tlianks ro modern jet airplanes, cross-country travel requiring a time erpenditurc of mere hours. Some women (and men) ,; ;;;fli;,rr,'rr, generous libations e,r route dull ore "onr.r, trdpidation satisfactorily ior"*o.r. Feminine gender marfters have decreased the emphasis on tl," mother rolq which now requires no more than one child to regitimate a rvoman's craim to ad,rt status. Family size has decreased, pi"ilir, through the use of contracqfivedevices. Knowredge of contraception is availablethrorgh private consultations with health professionalsl and husbands and in-raws are not aware of a visit. pills can be prescribed and prnchased wittro,t invotving the mother-in-raw and./or husband. Intrauterine devices can be inserted with equal lack of fanfare. Reduction in number of births Uuttressea a change in attitude towardpregnarcyandpaturition. when I first beganfi eldwork, middle_ aged women regardedpregnancy as &e normal physiological state for )'ormg maried wome,. and birth as a process as unremarkabre as menstmatiorl The need for seclusion during birth and for the ronowing six weeks (because of porl'tion avoidancej presented
th1 Rgma accefted city living as theirpreferred residential pattem. The' solved that problem by sending the parturient to a hospital for birthing.

I I I

difficulties once

cruised the sheets

earesarop on the Iess effective as a source of infomlation not only because attendance was limited in frquency but arso because trre itrns historic periods and varying g*errplri.;J"r.l often dqicted other Living in cities atso aimd-sn"a ,fr" l*p"r*ce of the men as chauffeurs' Taxicabs were.readily availabre,'at consultation (viewing motion

whoe other familt _"_U.o

pi"r," nr*" iua u"*

tt"*r"iL

in

search

ofpot"rtia-irro

"ffii:Ji#f*ffi*y obtainingadriv";"ffi:'J.:H?,;:T:J;:ffi
oming
cars themselvesas the closest telephone, especially

;'*

first because hacks

*ll"*t.or rerah;;; ;

and later through the

::H."ffiI:ll::

Regular contact with their parents and other relatives was as easy wh"r, trr" Ro*u installed telephones in their oy'sas (stores)' pay terephtnes were repkced by private ones in

produce at least a handfur of healthy ch,dren is a goar most men desirc. even if they must argue with their mothers to achieve it.

sons-in-rau,) a :upply cadre of political supporters. Hence, men still want largc families and uphord the custom of craiming the weaned chirdren i. cases of divorce- A contented wife who will rlmain married to him a,d
sometimes

However, Rom distrust and fear of ioqpitals as dangerous places, to b1 *f o"ly in oitically life-threatening circumstances, cast a shadow of vulnerability over childbearing itserf. The yormg rvomen were quick to appreciate&e psychologicar advantagethis gavethem in gaining control over their husbands. pregnant wome,n admitted to numerous aches and pains, eqpecially when their desires wse thwarted by their morhers-inlaw' Expectant fathers begaa to side with their wives and demanded that theirmothers treat the young women more considerately. A woman only needs to raise a child or two to establish her claim to adulthood, as I have said. A man,s status is tied more closely to the number of sons he has fathered since sons (and

I
I \
i

6'r

)JU

Rena

1V1.

Cotten (Gropper)

Sex Dichotorny

Anong lhe .lntericon Kaldera.i

Q-ypsies

-)l

Being a daughter-inJaw is no longer as arduous as it had been and being a mother-in-law is less enjoyable. The order woman is left with her husband or is a widow. Since today,s Gypsy women can support
themselves and move around on their own, there is no practicar.benefrt to be derived from financing the presence of a man (and the Roma still

4.

These policies ref-er to such questions as relations tvith other vil.sasarrd

feel that individual3 who are grandparents should. cease se>nral

activities)' so there is a strong temptation tb get divorced (or at least swa*ted), especiallyif the man spends a go..otdeal of money withoirt contributing any. one influence that discourages such behavior is the

numbers. what remains to be seen is whether their voice strongly in the next sweral years.

welfarepayments for many dependents cannot take care of her financial needs. Thus, older women do not embracethe born_again sects in large

acceptanceof the christian evangelicalmovement with its condemrntion of fortune-telling. A woman who cannot tell fortunes or obtain

will be heard

lbr rnoving. resolution of conflicts between different traditional usases, and similar topics. . 5. The "king" acts as the head of his extended fainily. 6. The counc i l meeting and court trial are two slighrl y di f terent ph'eno rn c r a among the Anierican Kaldera5 I have studied, and the term /rni applies only to the latter. Sei also Brown 1929:162-165. 7. Among the Kalderai ill old worhen are suspeited of being sitclrcs. 8. See also McFar.lane 1949:-136. 9. See also Victor Weybright (1945:2-8) on Steve Kaslov. 10. Today all Kaldera5 children over two years speak a colloquial English indistinguishable from that of their non-Gypsy contemporaries. 11. This is seemingly inconsistent with the statement that the women have long been familiar with non-G1psies. Actually, adolescent girls did very little fortune-telling until after marriage. Today they are exposed to romantic lilms, and they supplement this information in their conversations with young nonr

tribes, relations rvith municipal authorities, time and place

Glpsies.

NOTES
REFERENCES

1. The avere yiaahas from 200 to 300 people; a large uilsa may have many as 600 members. The term 'king' is used to describe the leader of the entire vifsa: the word *chiel' occurs not at all. Indeed many of the Glpsy groups in America state that kings are a thing of tlre past and that ..all c4rp;i* are the sarne now." The Kalderas I studied were only beginning to follow this line of thought toward the end of my two years' workwith them. It is my belief, (l ) that the Gypsies feel that kingship.is not in the same high regard as formerly, and they fear that lhe gaje would seize r4ron the existence of an institution of kingship as an o<cuse for firther persecutions; and (2) that they have come to regard the word 'ting' as meaning an absolute monarch and hence unsuitable as a descriptive term for their virsa-heads. From the antlropological vieupoint it is infinitely preferable to employ .thief,- but I follow the custom of my frieods when I write 'iking.' one must remember, however, t}at the leadership among the Gypsies is often more like the "chieftainship" of certain American Indian tribes in that the head is an adviser
as

Brown, Irving
1

929 *The Gypsies in America." Journal of the Gypsy Lore Society

8:4.

145-176. McFarlane, Andrew

1949

"Srpplementary Notes on the Social Customs of the PtudaliJ Jounnl

of the Gypsy Lore Socieqt2S:3-4 (July-October), 134-137.

Miller, Carol 1988 "Girls Cro Home: The Changing Status of the Machvanlia Daughterin-Law." ln Papers from the Eighth and Ninrh Annual iuleeting.s,
Ameican Chapter (Cara DeSilva, Joanne Grurnet, and David J. Nemeth, eds-)- New York: Gypsy Lore Society. North American Chapter, Publication No. 4, 95-104Myers, John
Crypqt Lore Society, North

1943 "The 'Greek' Nomad Gypsies in South Wales,

and persuader.

929:33-38; Brown I 929: I 64-1 65; yates I 9 42: 1 0l ; Myers I 943:88-90; Myers 1945:92-93. See also Thompson 1923:116-121.
See also Thompson I

2.

lr45

during August 1942." Journal of the Gypsy Lore Society22:3-4 (July-October). ltit-94. "Supplernentarv Jottings on the Customs ol the '(ircck' Nornirtl Gypsies." Jorrtnl of the Gvps1, Lore Sociery,24:34 (Julr'-()ctobcr). 88-94.

3.

}1'r,