Theorem 4.

1 { A B } |- B A Proof AB B BA |- A B B A AB A BA ABBA AB A Assumption by E by I

Theorem 4.2 Proof AB B

Assumption (discharged by 4) by E by I by I (4)

To deduce A B, it is often useful to make A as an assumption, with the idea of discharging it later using the I rule. Theorem 4.3 {B} |- A B Proof A B AB Assumption (discharged by 4) Assumption by I (4)

However, there are no definite ways or guidelines to prove a theorem. Analogously, there are no definite ways to write a computer program to accomplish a specific task. There could be many ways to prove the same theorem. Thus, proving a theorem requires an experience and ingenuity. 1

Theorem 4.4 |- B ( A B ) Proof A B AB B (A B) Theorem 4.5 {A} |- ( A B ) Proof A B AB A Assumptions by E by by I, discharging A Assumption (1) Assumption (2) by I (from 1) by I (from 2)

Now we shall show that four derived rules can be obtained from the basic rules.

Theorem 4.6 RAA is a derived rule Proof Suppose that we have a proof of from A. A A A Assumption by E by I, discharging A by E

Theorem 4.7 Modus Tollens is a derived rule Proof AB B A B A Assumption Assumption Assumption by E by E by I, discharging A

Theorem 4.8 -introduction is a derived rule Proof A A A Theorem 4.9 LEM is a derived rule Proof (P P) P P P P P P P P Assumption Assumption by I by E by I, discharging P by I by E RAA, discharging (P P) Assumption Assumption by E RAA, discharging A

Theorem 4.10 { A B, B } |- A The presence of A B as an assumption suggests that we should try to deduce A from A and from B and then to apply E to discharge both A and B. Proof B A AB A A Theorem 4.11 |- (A B) (A B) Similarly, the presence of (A B) as an assumption suggests that it might be worth trying to deduce A B from both A and B. Proof A A B AB AB (A B) (A B) (A B) |- A B AB Assumptions Assump.and theorems 4.5 and 4.4 E, discharging A and B by I, using A B A B Assumptions Assumptions and by E Assumptions, Id and E, discharging A, B and A B

Theorem 4.12

Instead of trying to prove (A B) |- A directly, we will use A to get A B by I, then introduce (A B) and use the contradiction to get A. Proof A A B A (A B) Assumption I, Assumption by E RAA, discharging A

Theorem 4.13 (A B) |- (A B) Proof AB A A A A B Assumption LEM Assumption by I

A B A B A B

Assumption by E by I by E, discharging A and A