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Summary Ma|hotra
Market|ng research
Chapter 1 '|ntroduct|on and ear|y phases of market|ng research'
'llnd lL and Lell lL llke lL ls' - good moLLo for a researcher
Market|ng research 1he sysLemaLlc and ob[ecLlve ldenLlflcaLlon, collecLlon, analysls, dlssemlnaLlon and use of lnformaLlon for Lhe
purpose of asslsLlng managemenL ln declslon maklng relaLed Lo Lhe ldenLlflcaLlon and soluLlon of problems
(and opporLunlLles) ln markeLlng. lL ls sysLemaLlc, markeLlng research uses Lhe sclenLlflc meLhod ln LhaL daLa
are collecLed and analyzed Lo LesL prlor noLlons or hypoLheses.
Compet|t|ve |nte|||gence 1he process of enhanclng markeLplace compeLlLlveness Lhrough a greaLer undersLandlng of a flrm's
compeLlLors and Lhe compeLlLlve envlronmenL. 1he legal collecLlon and analysls of lnformaLlon regardlng Lhe
capablllLles, vulnerablllLles and lnLenLlons of compeLlLors. A cruclal parL of Lhe knowledge economy.
Market|ng research
|ndustry
LxLernal suppllers who provlde markeLlng research servlces. lL ls dlvlded ln full-servlce and llmlLed servlce
suppllers. lull-servlce: SyndlcaLed/cusLomlzed/lnLerneL servlces
LlmlLed servlce: lleld/locus groups and quallLaLlve/1echnlcal and analyLlcal/CLher servlces
Synd|cated serv|ces (fu||
serv)
Companles LhaL collecL and sell common pools of daLa deslgned Lo serve lnfo needs shared by a nr of cllenLs
(examples, nlelsen, nu Croup)
Custom|zed serv|ces (fu||
serv)
Companles LhaL Lallor Lhe research procedures Lo besL meeL Lhe needs of each cllenL.
(examples: 8urke lnc, 1nS
I|e|d serv|ces (||m|ted
serv)
Companles whose prlmary servlce offerlng ls Lhelr experLlse ln collecLlng daLa for research pro[ecLs
Iocus groups and
qua||tat|ve serv|ces (||m
serv)
Servlces relaLed Lo faclllLles, recrulLmenL and oLher servlces for focus groups and oLher forms of quallLaLlve
research, such as one-Lo-one depLh lnLervlews
1echn|ca| and ana|yt|ca|
serv|ces (||m serv)
Servlces relaLed Lo deslgn lssues and compuLer analysls of quanLlLaLlve daLa, such as Lhose obLalned ln large
surveys

MarkeLlng res can be classlfled lnLo problem-ldenLlflcaLlon research and problem-solvlng research.
rob|em-|dent|f|cat|on
research
- MarkeL poLenLlal research
- MarkeL share research
- lmage research
- MarkeL characLerlsLlcs research

- Sales analysls research
- Sales analysls research
- lorecasLlng research
- 8uslness Lrends research
rob|em-so|v|ng research - SegmenLaLlon research
- roducL research
- rlclng research

- romoLlon research
- ulsLrlbuLlon research

1he market|ng research process
SLep1, roblem deflnlLlon (Lake Lhe purpose of Lhe sLudy lnLo accounL, relevanL background lnfo and
lnfo needed, and how lL wlll be used ln declslon maklng). (mosL lmporLanL sLep!! And mosL dlfflculL)
SLep2, uevelopmenL of an approach Lo Lhe problem (formulaLlng an ob[ecLlve/LheoreLlcal
framework, analyLlcal models, research quesLlons, hypoLheses and ldenLlfylng Lhe lnfo needed).
SLep3, 8esearch deslgn formulaLlon (Lhe blueprlnL/framework for conducLlng Lhe markeLlng research
pro[ecL- lL deLalls Lhe procedures necessary for obLalnlng Lhe requlred lnfo, lLs purpose ls Lo deslgn a
sLudy LhaL wlll LesL Lhe hypoLheses, deLermlne posslble answers Lo Lhe research quesLlons and
provlde Lhe lnfo needed for declslon maklng. ConducLlng exploraLory research, preclsely deflnlng Lhe
varlables and deslgnlng approprlaLe scales Lo measure Lhem are also parL of lL. lL ls also necessary Lo
deslgn a quesLlonnalre and a sampllng plan Lo selecL respondenLs for Lhe sLudy. See below for an
overvlew).
SLep4, lleldwork or daLa collecLlon (fleldwork when lnLervlewlng ls lnvolved).
SLep3, uaLa preperaLlon and analysls (edlLlng, codlng, LranscrlpLlon and verlflcaLlon of daLa).
SLep6, 8eporL preperaLlon and presenLaLlon (Lhe speclflc research quesLlons ldenLlfled, descrlbes Lhe
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approach, Lhe research deslgn, daLa collecLlon and daLa analysls procedures adopLed, and presenLs
Lhe resulLs and Lhe ma[or flndlngs - ln a well wrlLLen formaL. An oral presenLaLlon wlLh Lables, flgures
and graphs glves clarlLy and lmpacL- ch23).

Steps |n a research des|gn:
1. ueflnlLlon of Lhe lnfo needed
2. Secondary daLa analysls
3. CuallLaLlve research
4. MeLhods of collecLlng quanLlLaLlve daLa (survey,
observaLlon, experlmenLaLlon)
3. MeasuremenL and scallng procedures
6. CuesLlonnalre deslgn
7. Sampllng process and sample slze
8. lan of daLa analysls


1he declslon Lo conducL research depends on cosLs vs. beneflLs / Lhe resources avallable Lo conducL
research and Lo lmplemenL Lhe flndlngs / managemenL's aLLlLude Lowards research.
kesearch supp||ers: IN1LkAL VS. Lk1LkNAL
Interna|
Lxterna| ! lull servlce ! SyndlcaLed servlces
! CusLomlzed servlces
! lnLerneL servlces
! LlmlLed servlce ! lleld servlces
! locus groups & quallLaLlve servlces
! 1echnlcal & analyLlcal servlces
! CLher servlces


Chapter 2 'Def|n|ng the market|ng research prob|em and deve|op|ng an approach'
roblem deflnlLlon ls Lhe mosL lmporLanL sLep.
rob|em def|n|t|on A broad sLaLemenL of Lhe general problem and ldenLlflcaLlon of Lhe speclflc componenLs of Lhe
markeLlng research problem.
rob|em aud|t A comprehenslve examlnaLlon of a markeLlng problem Lo undersLand lLs orlgln and naLure. lL provldes
a useful framework for lnLeracLlng wlLh Lhe declslon maker.
key-|nformant
techn|que
AnoLher name for experlence surveys - lnLervlews wlLh people very knowledgeable abouL Lhe Loplc
belng lnvesLlgaLed
Lead-user survey lnLervlews wlLh lead-users of Lhe Lechnology
Secondary data uaLa collecLed for some purpose oLher Lhan Lhe problem aL hand
r|mary data uaLa orlglnaLed by Lhe researcher speclflcally Lo adress Lhe research problem
ua||tat|ve
research
An unsLrucLured, exploraLory research meLhodology based on small samples lnLended Lo provlde
lnslghL and undersLandlng of Lhe problem seLLlng. 1hey lnclude focus groups, word assoclaLlon and
depLh lnLervlews, plloL surveys and case sLudles.
||ot surveys Surveys LhaL Lend Lo be less sLrucLured Lhan large scale surveys ln LhaL Lhey generally conLaln more
open-ended quesLlons and Lhe sample slze ls much smaller
Case stud|es lnvolve an lnLenslve examlnaLlon of a few selecLed cases of Lhe phenomenom of lnLeresL. Cases could
be cusLomers, sLores or oLher unlLs.
Lnv|ronmenta|
context of the
prob|em
ConslsLs of Lhe facLors LhaL have an lmpacL on Lhe deflnlLlon of Lhe markeLlng research problem,
lncludlng pasL lnformaLlon and forecasLs, resources and consLralnLs of Lhe flrm, ob[ecLlves of Le
declslon maker, buyer behavlour, legal envlronmenL, economlc envlronmenL, and markeLlng and
Lechnologlcal skllls of Lhe flrm.



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8uyer behav|our A cenLral componenL of Lhe envlronmenLal conLexL. undersLandlng Lhls can provlde valuable lnslghLs
Lo Lhe problem. lacLors LhaL should be consldered lnclude: Lhe nr and geographlcal locaLlon of Lhe
buyers and nonbuyers / demographlc and psychologlcal characLerlsLlcs / producL consumpLlon hablLs
and Lhe consumpLlon of relaLed producL caLegorles / medla consumpLlon behavlour and response Lo
promoLlons / prlce senslLlvlLy / reLall ouLleLs paLronlzed / buyer preferences
Lega| env|ronment
Management
dec|s|on prob|em
1he problem confronLlng Lhe declslon maker. lL asks whaL Lhe declslon maker needs Lo do. (acLlon
orlenLed)
Market|ng research
prob|em
A problem LhaL enLalls deLermlnlng whaL lnformaLlon ls needed and how lL can be obLalned ln Lhe
mosL feaslble way (effecLlvely and efflclenLly). (lnformaLlon orlenLed)
1heory A concepLual scheme ls based on foundaLlonal sLaLemenLs, or axloms, LhaL are assumed Lo
be Lrue
Cb[ect|ve ev|dence unblased evldence LhaL ls supporLed by emperlcal flndlngs
Ana|yt|ca| mode| An expllclL speclflcaLlon of a seL of varlables and Lhelr lnLerrelaLlonshlps deslgned Lo represenL some
real sysLem or process on whole or ln parL
Verba| mode| AnalyLlcal models LhaL provlde a wrlLLen represenLaLlon of Lhe relaLlonshlps beLween varlables
Graph|c mode| AnalyLlcal model LhaL provldes a vlsual plcLure of Lhe relaLlonshlps beLween varlables
Mathemat|ca|
mode|
AnalyLlcal model LhaL expllclLly descrlbe Lhe relaLlonshlps beLween varlables, usually ln equaLlon form


kesearch quest|ons 8eflned sLaLemenLs of Lhe speclflc componenLs of Lhe problem. 1hey ask whaL speclflc lnformaLlon ls
requlred wlLh respecL Lo Lhe problem componenLs. 1he maklng of Lhe 8C should be gulded by Lhe
problem deflnlLlon, Lhe LheoreLlcal framework and Lhe analyLlcal model adopLed. 8C are
lnLerrogaLlve
nypothes|s An unproven sLaLemenL or proposlLlon abouL a facLor or phenomenom LhaL ls of lnLeresL Lo Lhe reshr.
SLaLemenLs abouL relaLlonshlps or proposlLlons. P are declaraLlve and can be LesLed emplrlcally. An
lmporLanL role of an P ls Lo suggesL varlables Lo be lncluded ln Lhe research deslgn. P's provlde
guldellnes on whaL and how daLa are Lo be collecLed and analyzed.
Stat|st|ca|
hypothes|s
When operaLlonal hypoLheses are sLaLed uslng symbollc noLaLlon
Se|f-reference
cr|ter|on
1he unconsclous reference Lo one's own culLural values

1he process of def|n|ng the prob|em and deve|op|ng an approach
1asks lnvolved for flndlng Lhe problem deflnlLlon:
-ulscossloos wltb Jeclsloo mokets, -lotetvlews wltb expetts,
-5ecooJoty Joto ooolysls, -Ooolltotlve teseotcb!
1hls all helps undersLandlng Lhe envlronmenLal conLexL of Lhe problem. lacLors wlLhln Lhe
envlronmenLal conLexL Lo flnd ouL: pasL lnformaLlon and forecasLs, resources and consLralnLs,
ob[ecLlves, buyer behavlour, legal envlronmenL, economlc envlronmenL, markeLlng and Lechnologlcal
skllls (see word llsL for furLher explanaLlons). Above faclllLaLes help wlLh Lhe ldenLlflcaLlon of (step1)
the prob|em def|n|t|on: Lhe managemenL declslon problem. 1hen Lhe mdp can be LranslaLed lnLo a
markeLlng research problem. AfLer LhaL, an appropr|ate approach (step2) ls developed. 1he
componenLs of Lhls approach: ob[ecLlve and LheoreLlcal foundaLlons / analyLlcal, verbal, graphlcal
and maLhemaLlcal / research quesLlons / hypoLheses / speclflcaLlon of lnfo needed.
AfLer LhaL, Lhe research des|gn (step 3).
lnLeracLlon beLween Lhe declslon maker and researcher should be characLerlzed by 7 c's:
communlcaLlon, cooperaLlon, confldence, candor, closeness, conLlnulLy and creaLlvlLy.

Management dec|s|on prob|ems VS the market|ng research prob|em
1he formulaLlon of Lhe managemenL declslon problem musL be base don a clear undersLandlng of 2
Lypes of ob[ecLlves: 1) Lhe organlzaLlonal goals and 2) Lhe personal ob[ecLlves of Lhe declslon maker.
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A good way Lo llnk Lhe broad sLaLemenL of Lhe mrp wlLh Lhe mdp ls Lhrough Lhe use of a concepLual
map. lL lnvolves Lhree componenLs: ManagemenL wanLs Lo Lake an octloo, Lherefore we need Lo
sLudy a toplc, so LhaL we can explaln a poestloo (wbo, bow, wby). 1hls helps us ln undersLandlng how
Lhe mrp should be deflned.
MD Mk
-Asks whaL Lhe uM needs Lo do,
-AcLlon orlenLed,
-locuses on sympLoms
- Asks whaL lnfo ls needed and how lL should be obLalned,
-lnformaLlon orlenLed,
-locuses on Lhe underlylng causes

1he markeLlng research problem deflnlLlon should 1) allow Lhe researcher Lo obLaln all Lhe
lnformaLlon needed Lo adress Lhe mdp and 2) gulde Lhe researcher ln proceedlng wlLh Lhe pro[ecL.
1wo common errors when maklng an M8: Loo broadly or Loo narrow deflnlLlon. 1hls can be reduced
by sLaLlng Lhe mrp ln broad, general Lerms and ldenLlfylng lLs speclflc componenLs. 1he broad
sLaLemenL provldes perspecLlve on Lhe problem and acLs as a safeguard agalnsL deflnlng Loo narrow.
1he speclflc componenLs focus on Lhe key aspecLs of Lhe problem and provlde clear guldellnes on
how Lo proceed furLher, Lhereby reduclng Lhe llkellhood of deflnlng Loo broad.
Components of the r|ght approach
When developlng Lhe approach, keep ln mlnd Lhe goals (ouLpuLs). 1he ouLpuLs should lnclude Lhe
followlng componenLs: (see word llsL for deflnlLlons):
- Objectlve/tbeotetlcol ftomewotk,
- Aoolytlcol moJels.
vetbol/qtopblcol/motbemotlcol moJels,
- keseotcb poestloos,
- nypotbeses,
- 5peclflcotloo of lofotmotloo oeeJeJ (focuslng
on each componenL).


Chapter 3 'kesearch des|gn'
'1he research deslgn ls Lhe hearL and soul of a markeLlng research pro[ecL. lL ouLllnes how Lhe
markeLlng research pro[ecL wlll be conducLed and guldes daLa collecLlon, analysls and reporL
preparaLlon.'

1wo ma[or types of research des|gn: exploraLory & concluslve
Lxp|oratory
research des|gn

Conc|us|ve
research des|gn
! uescrlpLlve research ! Cross-secLlonal deslgn (slngle cs / mulLlple cs)
! LonglLudlnal deslgn
! Causal research

ulfferences beLween exp|oratory & conc|us|ve research:
Lxp|oratory research Conc|us|ve research
- 1o provlde lnslghLs and undersLandlng,
- lnformaLlon needed ls deflned only loosely,
- 8esearch process ls flexlble and unsLrucLured.
- Sample ls small and nonrepresenLaLlve,
- Analysls of prlmary daLa ls quanLlLaLlve,
- llndlngs and resulLs are LenLaLlve
- CuLcome ls generally followed by furLher exploraLory or
concluslve research.
- 1o LesL speclflc hypoLheses and examlne
relaLlonshlps,
- lnformaLlon needed ls clearly deflned,
- 8esearch process ls more formal and sLrucLured,
- Sample ls large and represenLaLlve,
- uaLa analysls ls quanLlLaLlve,
- lndlngs used as lnpuL lnLo declslon maklng.
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Compar|son of bas|c research des|gn:
Lxp|oratory Descr|pt|ve Causa|
Cb[ecLlve ulscovery of ldeas and
lnslghLs
uescrlbe markeL characLerlsLlcs or
funcLlons
ueLermlne cause-and-effecL
relaLlonshlps
CharacLerlsLlcs llexlble & versaLlle
CfLen Lhe frond end of LoLal
research deslgn
Marked by Lhe prlor formulaLlon of
speclflc hypoLheses
replanned and sLrucLured deslgn
ManlpulaLlon of one or more
lndependenL varlables, measures Lhe
effecL on dependenL varlable(s)
ConLrol of oLher medlaLlng varlables
replannend and sLrucLured deslgn
MeLhods LxperL surveys
lloL surveys or case sLudles
Secondary daLa (quallLaLlve
analysls)
CuallLaLlve research
Secondary daLa: quanLlLaLlve analysls
Surveys
anels
CbservaLlon and oLher daLa
LxperlmenLs

1= Lxp|oratory research Lxplore or search Lhrough a problem or slLuaLlon Lo provlde lnslghLs and
undersLandlng. lL ls meanlngful for any slLuaLlon where Lhe researcher does noL have enough
undersLandlng Lo proceed wlLh Lhe pro[ecL. lL could be used for:
- lotmolote o ptoblem / Jefloe o ptoblem
pteclsely,
-lJeotlfy oltetootlve cootses of octloo,
- uevelop bypotbeses,

- lsolote key votlobles ooJ telotloosblps fot fottbet
exomlootloo,
- Colo loslqbts fot Jeveloploq oo opptoocb to tbe
ptoblem,
- stobllsb ptlotltles fot fottbet teseotcb.

2= Descr|pt|ve research Lo descrlbe someLhlng- usually markeL characLerlsLlcs or funcLlons. lL
assumes LhaL Lhe researcher has much knowledge abouL Lhe problem slLuaLlon. lL requlres a
sLrucLured speclflcaLlon of who,whaL,where,why when and way. lL ls conducLed for Lhe followlng:
- 1o Jesctlbe cbotoctetlstlcs of o speclflc qtoop (coosomets,
solespeople),
- 1o estlmote tbe petceotoqe of oolts lo o speclfleJ popolotloo
exblbltloq o cettolo bebovloot,
- 1o Jetetmloe tbe petceptloos of ptoJoct cbotoctetlstlcs,
- 1o Jetetmloe tbe Jeqtee to
wblcb motketloq votlobles ote
ossocloteJ,
- 1o moke speclflc pteJlctloos.
ln summary, descrlpLlve research ls marked by a clear sLaLemenL of Lhe problem, speclflc hypoLheses,
and deLalled lnformaLlon needs. lL can be furLher classlfled lnLo cross-secLlonal and longlLudlnal.
! cross-secLlonal: mosL used descrlpLlve deslgn. lnvolves Lhe collecLlon of lnformaLlon from any
glven sample of populaLlons elemenLs only once.
! longlLudlnal: a flxed sample ls measured repeaLedly on Lhe same varlables. 1he sample remalns
Lhe same (panels)! See Lhe Lable below for advanLages of boLh descrlpLlve research deslgns:

anel daLa vs. crosssecLlonal daLa: panel daLa mlghL be more accuraLe, lndlvldual change can be
measured and large amounLs of daLa provlded. A dlsadvanLage ls LhaL panels maL noL be
represenLaLlve and a blas exlsLs. norepresenLaLlveness may arlse because of refusal Lo cooperaLe /
Lva|uat|on cr|ter|a Cross-sect|ona| des|gn Long|tud|na| des|gn
ueLecLlng change (lndlvldual) - +
Large amounL of daLa collecLlon - +
Accuracy - +
8epresenLaLlve sampllng + -
8esponse blas + -
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morLallLy (losL lnLeresL) / paymenL. 8las arlses because new panel members are ofLen blased of Lhelr
lnlLlal responses (Lhey wanL Lo look good or are Llred or bored).
3= Causa| research used Lo obLaln evldence of cause-and-effecL relaLlonshlps. MarkeLlng managers
make consLanLly declslons base don assumed causal relaLlonshlps. 1hese assumpLlons may noL be
[usLlflable, and Lhe valldlLy of Lhe causal relaLlonshlps should be examlned vla formal research. Causal
research ls conducLed for Lhe followlng:
- 1o ooJetstooJ wblcb votlobles ote tbe coose (lv)
ooJ wblcb votlobles ote tbe effect (uv) of o
pbeoomeooo

- 1o Jetetmloe tbe ootote of tbe telotloosblp
betweeo tbe coosol votlobles ooJ tbe effect to
be pteJlcteJ.
lL requlres a plannend and sLrucLured deslgn ([usL as 2). 1he lv or uv are manlpulaLed ln a conLrolled
envlronmenL (ln whlch Lhe oLher varlables are conLrolled and checkec as much as posslble). 1hls Lo
lnfer causallLy. 1he maln meLhod ls experlmenLlng. lL ls complex.

kesearch des|gn A framework or blueprlnL for conducLlng Lhe markeLlng research pro[ecL. lL speclfles Lhe deLalls
of Lhe procedures necessary for obLalnlng Lhe lnformaLlon needed Lo sLrucLure and/or solve
markeLlng research problems.
Lxp|oratory research A Lype of research deslgn whlch has lLs prlmary ob[ecLlve Lhe provlslon of lnslghLs lnLo and
comprehenslon of Lhe problem slLuaLlon confronLlng Lhe researcher. used ln cases when you
musL deflne Lhe problem more preclsely, ldenLlfy relevanL courses of acLlon or galn addlLlonal
lnslghLs before an approach can be developed
Conc|us|ve research 8esearch deslgned Lo asslsL Lhe declslon maker deLermlnlng, evaluaLlng and selecLlng Lhe besL
course of acLlon Lo Lake ln a glven slLuaLlon. More formal and sLrucLured Lhan exploraLory
research.
Descr|pt|ve research A Lype of concluslve research LhaL has lLs ma[or ob[ecLlve Lhe descrlpLlon of someLhlng- usually
markeL characLerlsLlcs or funcLlons
Lxp|oratory quest|on Cpen ended quesLlon
Cross-sect|ona|
des|gn
A Lype of research deslgn lnvolvlng Lhe collecLlon of lnformaLlon from any glven sample of
populaLlon elemenLs only once.
S|ng|e cross-
sect|ona| des|gn
Cne sample of respondenLs ls drawn from Lhe LargeL populaLlon and lnformaLlon ls obLalned
from Lhls sample once. 'sample survey research deslgns'.
Mu|t|p|e cross-
sect|ona| des|gn
1here are Lwo or more samples of respondenLs, lnformaLlon from each sample ls obLalned only
once. CfLen lnformaLlon from dlfferenL samples ls obLalned aL dlfferenL Llmes over long
lnLervals. lL allows comparlsons aL Lhe aggregaLe level buL noL aL Lhe lndlvldual respondenL level
(because a dlfferenL sample ls Laken each Llme a survey ls conducLed). Cne speclal Lype ls
cohorL:
Cohort ana|ys|s A mulLlple cross-secLlonal deslgn conslsLlng of a serles of surveys conducLed aL approprlaLe Llme
lnLervals. 1he cohorL refers Lo Lhe group of respondenLs who experlence Lhe same evenL wlLhln
Lhe same Llme lnLerval. lor example a blrLh (age) cohorL. uSed Lo predlcL changes over Llme.
Long|tud|na| des|gn A Lype of research deslgn lnvolvlng a flxed sample of populaLlon elemenLs LhaL ls measured
repeaLedly. 1he sample remalns Lhe same over Llme, Lhus provldlng a serles of plcLures LhaL,
when revlewed LogeLher, porLay a vlvld lllusLraLlon of Lhe slLuaLlon and Lhe changes LhaL are
Laklng place over Llme. lndlvldual respondenL level comparlson ls posslble, blg advanLage.
ane| A sample of respondenLs who have agreed Lo provlde lnformaLlon aL speclfled lnLervals over an
exLended perlod. lor longlLudlnal research. AdvanLage: large amounL of daLa and lndlvldual
change can be measured. anel daLa can be more accuraLe Lhen cross-secLlonal daLa
(conLlnuous behavlour vs. pasL behavlour). ulsadvanLage: lL may noL be represenLaLlve, and blas.
Causa| research A Lype of concluslve research where Lhe ma[or ob[ecLlve ls Lo obLaln evldence regardlng cause-
and-effecL (causal) relaLlonshlps
1ota| error 1he varlaLlon beLween Lhe Lrue mean value ln Lhe populaLlon of Lhe varlable of lnLeresL and Lhe
observed mean value obLalned ln Lhe markeLlng research pro[ecL

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kandom samp||ng
error
1he error due Lo Lhe parLlcular sample selecLed belng an lmperfecL represenLaLlon of Lhe
populaLlon of lnLeresL. lL may be deflned as Lhe varlaLlon beLween Lhe Lrue mean value for Lhe
sample and Lhe Lrue mean value of Lhe populaLlon
Nonsamp||ng error Lrrors LhaL can be aLLrlbuLed Lo sources oLher Lhan sampllng, and Lhey can be random or
nonrandom. 1hey resulL from a varleLy of reasons (errors ln problem deflnlLlon, approach,
scales, quesLlonnalre deslgn, lnLervlewlng meLhods, daLa preperaLlon and analysls).
Nonresponse error A Lype of nonsampllng error LhaL occurs when some of Lhe respondenLs lncluded ln Lhe sample
do noL respond. 1hls error may be deflned as Lhe varlaLlon beLween Lhe Lrue mean value of Lhe
varlable ln Lhe orlglnal sample and Lhe Lrue mean value ln Lhe neL sample. MosLly noL-aL-home
and refusals.
kesponse error A Lype of nonsampllng error arlslng from respondenLs who do respond, buL glve lnaccuraLe
answers or Lhelr answers are mlsrecorded or mlsanalyzed. lL may be deflned as Lhe varlaLlon
beLween Lhe Lrue mean value of Lhe varlable and Lhe neL sample and Lhe observed mean value
obLalned ln Lhe markeLlng research pro[ecL.
Surrogate
|nformat|on error
(response error)
1he varlaLlon beLween Lhe lnfo needed for Lhe research problem and Lhe lnfo soughL by Lhe
researcher.
Measurement error
(response error)
1he varlaLlon beLween Lhe lnfo soughL and Lhe lnfo generaLed by Lhe measuremenL process
employed by Lhe researcher. (a scale LhaL measures percepLlons raLher Lhan preferences)
opu|at|on def. Lrror
(response error)
1he varlaLlon beLween Lhe acLlal populaLlon relevanL Lo Lhe problem aL hand and Lhe populaLlon
as deflned by Lhe researcher.
8udget|ng and
schedu||ng
ManagemenL Lools needed Lo help ensure LhaL Lhe markeLlng research pro[ecL ls compleLed
wlLhln Lhe avallable resources . A useful approach Lo manage Lhe pro[ecL ls wlLh CM.
CM- cr|t|ca| path
method
ManagemenL Lechnlque of dlvllng a research pro[ecL lnLo componenL acLlvlLles, deLermlnlng Lhe
sequence of Lhese componenLs and Lhe Llme each acLlvlLy wlll requlre.
Lk1- program
eva|uat|on and
rev|ew techn|que
A more sophlsLlcaLed crlLlcal paLh meLhod LhaL accounLs for Lhe uncerLalnLy ln pro[ecL
compleLlon Llmes.
GLk1- graph|ca|
eva|uat|on and
rev|ew techn|que
A soplsLhlcaLed crlLlal paLh meLhod LhaL accounLs for boLh Lhe compleLlon probablllLles and Lhe
acLlvlLy cosLs
Market|ng research
proposa|
1he offlclal layouL of Lhe plannend markeLlng research acLlvlLy for managemenL. lL descrlbes Lhe
research problem, Lhe approach, Lhe research deslgn, daLa collecLlon meLhods, daLa analysls
meLhods and reporLlng meLhods.

A research des|gn speclfles Lhe deLalls of lmplemenLlng Lhe broad approach Lo Lhe problem. lL ls Lhe
foundaLlon for conducLlng Lhe pro[ecL. lL wlll ensure LhaL Lhe markeLlng research pro[ecL ls conducLed
effecLlvely and efflclenLly. 1yplcally lL lnvolves:
1. uefloe tbe lofotmotloo oeeJeJ (cb2),
2. ueslqo tbe explotototy, Jesctlptlve ooJ/ot coosol pboses of tbe teseotcb (cb J-7),
J. 5peclfy tbe meosotemeot ooJ scolloq ptoceJotes (cb8,9),
4. coosttoct ooJ pte-test o poestloooolte (lotetvlewloq fotm) ot oo opptoptlote fotm fot Joto
collectloo (cb10),
5. 5peclfy tbe somplloq ptocess ooJ somple slze (cb11,12),
6.uevelop o ploo of Joto ooolysls (cb14),

Lrrors A good research deslgn aLLempLs Lo conLrol Lhe varlous sources of error. 1he LoLal error ls Lhe
varlaLlon beLween Lhe Lrue mean value ln Lhe populaLlon of Lhe varlable of lnLeresL and Lhe observed
mean value obLalned ln Lhe markeLlng research pro[ecL.



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1oLal errors ln research deslgns:
kandom samp||ng
error

Nonsamp||ng error ! nonresponse error
! 8esponse error ! 8esearcher errors
! lnLervlewer errors
! 8espondenL errors
kesearcher errors: surrogaLe lnformaLlon error / measuremenL error / populaLlon deflnlLlon error / sampllng
frame error / daLa anlysls error
Interv|ewer errors: 8espondenL selecLlon error / quesLlonlng error / recordlng error / cheaLlng error
kespondent errors: lnablllLy error / unwllllngness error
lncreaslng Lhe sample slze does decrease Lhe sampllng error, buL lL may also lncrease nonsampllng
error by lncreaslng lnLervlew errors. nonsampllng error ls llkely Lo be more problemaLlc Lhan
sampllng errors- sampllng error can be calculaLed.
Market|ng research proposa| - afLer Lhe research deslgn has been formulaLed and budgeLs have
been seL, a wrlLLen research proposal should be prepared. LlemenLs:
1. LxecuLlve summary
2. 8ackground
3. roblem def/ob[ecLlves
4. Approach Lo Lhe problem
3. 8esearch deslgn
6. lleldwork/daLa collecLlon
7. uaLa analysls
8. 8eporLlng (presenLaLlon)
9. CosL and Llme schedule
10. Appendlces

Chapter S 'Lxp|oratory research des|gn: qua||tat|ve research'
MosL ofLen used ln exploraLory research Lo deflne a problem or develop an approach (generaLlng
hypoLheses and ldenLlfylng varlables LhaL should be lncluded ln Lhe research). lL ls also very useful for
dlscoverlng whlch sensory feellngs are lmporLanL Lo cusLomers.
ulfferences beLween quallLaLlve and quanLlLaLlve:
ua||tat|ve research uant|tat|ve research
Cb[ect|ve 1o galn a quallLaLlve undersLandlng of
Lhe underlylng reasons and moLlvaLlons
1o quanLlfy daLa and generallze Lhe resulLs from
Lhe sample Lo Lhe populaLlon of lnLeresL
Samp|e Small nr of nonrepresenLaLlve cases Large number of represenLaLlve cases
Data co||ect|on unsLrucLured SLrucLured
Data ana|ys|s nonsLaLlsLlcal SLaLlsLlcal
Cutcome uevelop an lnlLlal undersLandlng 8ecommend a flnal course of acLlon

Whenever a new markeLlng problem ls belng adressed, quanLlLaLlve research musL be preceded by
approprlaLe quallLaLlve research. SomeLlmes quallLaLlve research ls underLaken Lo explaln Lhe
flndlngs obLalned from quanLlLaLlve research. Powever, Lhe flndlngs of quallLaLlve research are
mlsused when Lhey are regarded as concluslve and are used Lo make generallzaLlons abouL Lhe
populaLlon of lnLeresL. ou need to v|ew qua||tat|ve and quant|tat|ve research as comp|ementary,
raLher Lhan ln compeLlLlon wlLh each oLher.
Secondary data
r|mary data ! CuallLaLlve daLa


! CuanLlLaLlve daLa ! uescrlpLlve (survey daLa / observaLlonal and oLher daLa)
! Causal (experlmenLal daLa)


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A c|ass|f|cat|on of qua||tat|ve research procedures
D|rect (nond|sgu|sed) ! locus groups
! uepLh lnLervlews ! Ladderlng
! Pldden lssue quesLlonlng
! Symbollc analysls
Ind|rect (d|sgu|sed) ! ro[ecLlve Lechnlques ! AssoclaLlon Lechnlques (word ass)
! CompleLlon Lechnlques (senLence/sLory compleLlon)
! ConsLrucLlon Lechnlques (plcLure/carLoon response)
! Lxpresslve Lechnlques (role playlng/3rd person)

D|rect approach (nond|sgu|sed)
Iocus groups are Lhe mosL lmporLanL quallLaLlve research procedure. CharacLerlsLlcs:
8-12 persons, homegeneous (demographlc and socloeconomlc), relaxed and lnformal aLmosphere, 1-
3 hours duraLlon, recorded by vldeoLapes and recorders, Lhe moderaLor ls observlng, lnLerpersonal
and has good communlcaLlon skllls (he ls flexlble, senslLlve, encouraglng, lnvolved, klnd). 1he
respondenLs musL have experlence wlLh Lhe Loplc, and noL have already parLlclpaLed ln numerous
focus groups.

1he procedure for plannlng and conducLlng focus groups: deLermlne Lhe ob[ecLlves of Lhe markeLlng
research pro[ecL and deflne Lhe problem ! speclfy Lhe ob[ecLlves of quallLaLlve research ! sLaLe Lhe
ob[ecLlves/quesLlons Lo be answered by focus groups ! wrlLe a screenlng quesLlonnalre ! develop
a moderaLor's ouLllne ! conducL Lhe focus group lnLervlews ! revlew Lapes and analyze Lhe daLa !
summarlze Lhe flndlngs and plan follow-up research or acLlon.

uurlng Lhe focus group, Lhe moderaLor musL 1) esLabllsh rapporL wlLh Lhe group, 2) sLaLe Lhe rules of
group lnLeracLlon, 3) seL ob[ecLlves, 4) probe Lhe respondenLs and provoke lnLense dlscusslon ln Lhe
relevanL areas, 3) aLLempL Lo summarlze Lhe group's response Lo deLermlne Lhe exLenL of agreemenL.
lrequencles and percenLages are nC1 used ln reporLlng a focus group summary.
AdvanLages and dlsadvanLages of focus groups:
Advantages D|sadvantages
1- Synerglsm (wlde range of lnfo)
2- Snowballlng (Lrlggers)
3- SLlmulaLlon (express yourself)
4- SecurlLy (feellngs slmalar, comforL)
3- SponLaelLy (no requlremenLs)
6- SerendlplLy (ouL of Lhe blue ldeas)
7- SpeclallzaLlon
8- SclenLlflc scrunlLy(recorded for laLer)
9- SLrucLure (allows for flexlblllLy)
10- Speed (lnLervlewed durlng same Llme)
1- Mlsuse (conslderlng resulL
concluslve)
2- Mls[udge
3- ModeraLlon dependenceness
4- Messy
3- MlsrepresenLaLlon

locus groups are used for Lhe followlng:
- uoJetstooJloq coosomets ptefeteoces, petceptloos
ooJ bebovlot coocetoloq o ptoJoct coteqoty,
- Obtololoq lmptessloos of oew ptoJoct coocepts,
- Ceoetotloq oew lJeos oboot olJet ptoJocts,
- ueveloploq cteotlve coocepts ooJ copy motetlol
fot oJvettlsemeots,
- 5ecotloq ptlce lmptessloos,
- Obtololoq ptellmlooty coosomet teoctloo to
speclflc motketloq ptoqtoms.

8ased on meLhodologlcal appllcaLlons of focus group:
1. uefloloq o ptoblem mote pteclsely,
2. Ceoetotloq oltetootlve cootses of octloo,
J. ueveloploq oo opptoocb to o ptoblem,
4. Obtololoq lofo belpfol lo sttoctotloq coosomet poestlooooltes,
5. Ceoetotloq bypotbeses tbot coo be testeJ poootltlvely,
6. lotetptetloq ptevloosly obtoloeJ poootltotlve tesolts.
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Depth |nterv|ews are anoLher meLhod of obLalnlng quallLaLlve daLa, buL now ln a one-Lo-one seLLlng.
30mlns-1hour, sLarLlng wlLh a general quesLlon. 1he dlrecLlon ls deLermlned by Lhe respondenL's
lnlLlal reply, Lhe lnLervlewer's probes for elaboraLlon and Lhe respondenL's answers. roblng ls of
crlLlcal lmporLance ln obLalnlng meanlngful responses and uncoverlng hldden lssues (asklng). roblng
ls effecLlve ln uncoverlng underlylng or hldden lnformaLlon. lL ls ln lnLegral parL of depLh lnLervlews
and ls used ln all depLh-lnLervlewlng Lechnlques. lL asks quesLlons llke 'why do you say LhaL', 'can you
Lell me more abouL lL' and 'would you llke Lo add anyLhlng'. 1hree Lechnlques: Ladderlng, Pldden
lssue quesLlonlng and Symbollc analysls.
Ladderlng: allows Lo Lap lnLo Lhe consumers' neLwork of meanlngs. rovldes a way Lo probe lnLo
consumers' deep underlylng psychologlcal and emoLlonal reasons LhaL affecL Lhelr purchase
declslons. 1he ulLlmaLe goal ls Lo comblne menLal maps of consumers who are slmllar, whlch wlll lead
Lo Lhe reasons why people purchase parLlcular producLs. When asked when people llke a producL,
responses are lnlLlally aLLrlbuLe-relaLed. We go from aLLrlbuLe Lo consequences Lo value.
Pldden lssue quesLlonlng: focus ls noL on soclally shared values buL raLher on personal 'sore spoLs'-
noL on general llfesLyles buL on deeply felL personal concerns.
Symbollc analysls: aLLempLs Lo analyze Lhe symbollc meanlng of ob[ecLs by comparlng Lhem wlLh
Lhelr opposlLes (Lo learn whaL someLhlng ls, Lhe researcher aLLempLs Lo learn whaL lL's noL).

Agaln, Lhe lnLervlewer's role ls crlLlcal Lo Lhe success. 1he lnLervlewer should 1) avold appearlng
superlor and puL Lhe respondenL aL ease, 2) be deLached and ob[ecLlve, yeL personable, 3) ask
quesLlons ln an lnformaLlve manner, 4) noL accepL brlef 'yes' or 'no' answers, 3) probe Lhe
respondenL. Skllled lnLervlewers are expenslve and dlfflculL Lo flnd.
AppllcaLlons for depLh lnLervlews:
- uetolleJ ptobloq of tbe tespooJeot,
- ulscossloo of cooflJeotlol, seosltlve ot
embottosloq toplcs
- 5ltootloos wbete sttooq soclol ootms exlst ooJ
tbe tespooJeot moy be eoslly swoyeJ by qtoop
tespoose
- uetolleJ ooJetstooJloq of compllcoteJ bebovloot
- lotetvlews wltb ptofessloools
- lotetvlews wltb competltots, wbo ote oollkely to teveol
lofo lo o qtoop settloq
- 5ltootloos wbete tbe ptoJoct coosomptloo expetleoce ls
seosoty lo ootote, offectloq mooJ stotes ooJ emotloos

A speclal way ln whlch depLh-lnLervlews are used ls grounded Lheory. An lnducLlve and more
sLrucLured approach ln whlch each subsequenL depLh lnLervlew ls ad[usLed base don Lhe cumulaLlve
flndlngs from prevlous depLh lnLervlews wlLh Lhe purpose of developlng general concepLs or
Lheorles. SomeLlmes hlsLorlcal records are also analyzed. useful ln deslgnlng new producLs or
modlfylng exlsLlng producLs and developlng adverLlslng and promoLlon sLraLegles. AnoLher varlaLlon
ls a proLocol lnLervlew, A respondenL ls placed ln a declslon-maklng slLuaLlon and asked Lo verballze
Lhe process and acLlvlLles LhaL he or she would underLake Lo make Lhe declslon.

Nond|rect approach (d|sgu|sed) - pro[ect|ve techn|ques. unsLrucLured and lndlrecL, whlch
encourages respondenLs Lo pro[ecL Lhelr underlylng moLlvaLlons, bellefs, aLLlLudes or feellngs
regardlng Lhe lssue of concern. 8espondenLs are asked Lo lnLerpreL Lhe behavlour of oLhers (Lhey
lndlrecLly pro[ecL Lhelr own feellngs, moLlvaLlons, bellefs and aLLlLudes lnLo Lhe slLuaLlon). 1he more
amblglous/vague Lhe slLuaLlon, Lhe beLLer Lhe responds. 4 Lechnlques: assoclaLlon, compleLlon,
consLrucLlon and expresslve Lechnlques.
Assoc|at|on techn|ques: an lndlvldual ls presenLed wlLh a sLlmulus and asked Lo respond wlLh Lhe
flrsL Lhlng LhaL comes Lo mlnd. 8esponses are analyzed by calculaLlng 1) Lhe frequency of Lhe words
glven, 2) Lhe amounL of Llme LhaL elapses before a word ls glven, 3)Lhe nr of respondenLs who do noL
respond aL all.
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Comp|et|on techn|ques: Lhe respondenL ls asked Lo compleLe an lncompleLe sLlmulus slLuaLlon.
Construct|on techn|ques: requlre Lhe respondenL Lo consLrucL a response ln Lhe form of a sLory,
dlalogue or descrlpLlon. Less lnlLlal sLrucLure Lhan ln compleLlon Lechnlques.
Lxpress|ve techn|ques: 8espondenLs are presenLed wlLh a verbal or vlsual slLuaLlon and asked Lo
relaLe Lhe feellngs and aLLlLudes of oLher people Lo Lhe slLuaLlon.
ro[ecLlve Lechnlques are useful for Lhe followlng slLuaLlons:
- 8ecoose tbe tepolteJ lofotmotloo coooot be occototely obtoloeJ by Jltect metboJs,
- 5boolJ be oseJ fot explotototy teseotcb to qolo loltlol loslqbts ooJ ooJetstooJloq,
- Clveo tbelt complexlty, ptojectlve tecbolpoes sboolJ oot be oseJ oolvely.

A compar|son of focus groups, depth |nterv|ews and pro[ect|ve techn|ques:
Cr|ter|a Iocus groups Depth |nterv|ews ro[ect|ve techn|ques
Degree of structure 8elaLlvely hlgh 8elaLlvely medlum 8elaLlvely low
rob|ng of |nd|v|dua| respondents Low Plgh Medlum
Moderator b|as 8elaLlvely medlum 8elaLlvely hlgh Low Lo hlgh
Interpretat|on b|as 8elaLlvely low 8elaLlvely medlum 8elaLlvely hlgh
Uncover|ng subconsc|ous |nfo Low Medlum Lo hlgh Plgh
D|scover|ng |nnovat|ve |nfo Plgh Medlum Low
Cbta|n|ng sens|t|ve |nfo Low Medlum Plgh
Invo|ve unusua| behav|or]quest|on|ng no 1o a llmlLed exLend ?es
Cvera|| usefu|nes Plghly useful useful SomewhaL useful

ro[ecLlve Lechnlques have a ma[or advanLage: Lhey may ellclL responses LhaL sub[ecLs would be
unwllllng or unable Lo glve lf Lhey knew Lhe purpose of Lhe sLudy. ln dlrecL quesLlonlng, Lhe
respondenL may mlsundersLand or mlslead Lhe researcher. ro[ecLlve Lechnlques can lncrease Lhe
valldlLy by dlsgulslng Lhe purpose (especlally for personal/senslLlve Loplcs). M are used less frequenL
Lhan dlrecL meLhods (expecL for word assoclaLlon).
ua||tat|ve
research
An unsLrucLured, exploraLory research meLhodology based on small samples LhaL provldes lnslghLs
and undersLandlng of Lhe problem seLLlng
uant|tat|ve
research
A research meLhodology LhaL seeks Lo quanLlfy Lhe daLa, and, Lyplclally, applles some form of
sLaLlsLlcal analysls
D|rect approach
(nond|sgu|sed)
Cne Lype of quallLaLlve research ln whlch Lhe purposes of Lhe pro[ecL are dlsclosed Lo Lhe
respondenL or are obvlous, glven Lhe naLure of Lhe lnLervlew. unsLrucLured and dlrecL. ConslsLs of
focus groups and depLh lnLervlews.
Ind|rect approach
(d|sgu|sed)
A Lype of quallLaLlve research ln whlch Lhe purposes of Lhe pro[ecL are dlsgulsed from Lhe
respondenLs
Iocus group An lnLervlew conducLed by a Lralned moderaLor among a small grouf respondenLs ln an
unsLrucLured and naLural manner. 1he maln purpose ls Lo galn lnslghLs by llsLenlng Lo a group of
people from Lhe approprlaLe LargeL markeL Lalk abouL lssues of lnLeresL of Lhe researcher. 1he
value of Lhls Lechnlque lles ln Lhe unexpecLed flndlngs ofLen obLalned from a free-flowlng dlscuss.
Depth |nterv|ew An unsLrucLured, dlrecL, personal lnLervlew ln whlch a slngle respondenL ls probed by a hlghly
skllled lnLervlewer Lo uncover underlylng moLlvaLlons, bellefs, aLLlLudes and feellngs
Ladder|ng A Lechnlque for conducLlng depLh lnLervlews ln whlch a llne of quesLlonlng proceeds from producL
characLerlsLlcs Lo user characLerlsLlcs.
n|dden |ssue
quest|on|ng
A Lype of depLh lnLervlew LhaL aLLempLs Lo locaLe personal sore spoLs relaLed Lo deeply felL
personal concerns.
Symbo||c ana|ys|s A Lechnlque for conducLlng depLh lnLervlews ln whlch Lhe symbollc meanlng of ob[ecLs ls analyzed
by comparlng Lhem wlLh Lhelr opposlLes.
Grounded theory An lnducLlve and more sLrucLured approach ln whlch each subsequenL depLh lnLervlew ls ad[usLed
base don Lhe cumulaLlve flndlngs from prevlous depLh lnLervlews wlLh Lhe purpose of developlng
general concepLs or Lheorles.

MarlL url[fhouL - 2013 !#
rotoco| |nterv|ew A respondenL ls placed ln a declslon-maklng slLuaLlon and asked Lo verballze Lhe process and
acLlvlLles LhaL he or she would underLake Lo make Lhe declslon.
ro[ect|ve
techn|que
An unsLrucLured and lndlrecL form of quesLlonlng LhaL encourages Lhe respondenLs Lo pro[ecL
Lhelr underlylng moLlvaLlons, bellefs, aLLlLudes or feellngs regardlng Lhe lssues of concern.
Assoc|at|on
techn|ques
A Lype of pro[ecLlve Lechnlque ln whlch Lhe respondenL ls presenLed wlLh a sLlmulus and asked Lo
respond wlLh Lhe flrsL Lhlng LhaL comes Lo mlnd
Comp|et|on
techn|que
A pro[ecLlve Lechnlque LhaL requlres Lhe respondenL Lo compleLe an lncompleLe sLlmulus slLuaLlon
Construct|on
techn|que
A pro[ecLlve Lechnlque ln whlch Lhe respondenL ls reqlred Lo consLrucL a response ln Lhe form of a
sLory, dlalogue or descrlpLlon
Lxpress|ve
techn|ques
ro[ecLlve Lechnlques ln whlch Lhe respondenL ls presenLed wlLh a verbal or vlsual slLuaLlon and
asked Lo relaLe Lhe feellngs and aLLlLudes of oLher people Lo Lhe slLuaLlon
1h|rd-person
techn|que
A pro[ecLlve Lechnlque ln whlch Lhe respondenL ls presenLed wlLh a verbal or vlsual slLuaLlon and
asked Lo relaLe Lhe bellefs and aLLlLudes of a Lhlrd person Lo Lhe slLuaLlon

Ana|ys|s of qua||tat|ve data 1he goal ls Lo declpher, examlne and lnLerpreL meanlngful paLLerns or
Lhemes LhaL emerge ouL of Lhe daLa. 1hree general sLeps: uaLa reducLlon ! uaLa dlsplay (a vlsual
lnLerpreLaLlon whlch helps Lo lllumlnaLe paLLerns and lnLerrelaLlonshlps of Lhe daLa) ! Concluslon
drawlng and verLlflcaLlon.

Chapter 6 'Descr|pt|ve research des|gn: survey and observat|on'
LxploraLory deslgn employs secondary daLa analysls and quallLaLlve research meLhods.
Concluslve research deslgns may be classlffled causal or descrlpLlve.
lor descrlpLlve deslgns (mosLly markeL characLerlsLlcs), survey and observaLlon are lmporLanL
meLhods. Survey methods are based on Lhe quesLlonlng of respondenLs. 8y far Lhe mosL common
meLhod of prlmary daLa collecLlon ln markeLlng research.
Advantages surveys: D|sadvantages surveys:
1) Slmple Lo admlnlsLer,
2) 1he daLa obLalned are rellable because
Lhe responses are llmlLed Lo Lhe alLernaLlves
sLaLed,
3) Codlng, analysls and lnLerpreLaLlon of
daLa are relaLlvely slmple.

1) 8espondenLs are unable or unwllllng Lo provlde Lhe deslred
lnformaLlon,
2) 8espondenLs may be unwllllng Lo respond lf Lhe lnfo requesLed
ls senslLlve or personal,
3) SLrucLured quesLlons may resulL ln a loss of valldlLy for cerLaln
Lypes of daLa such as bellefs and feellngs.
4) Wordlng quesLlons properly ls noL easy.

A classlflcaLlon of survey meLhods by mode of admlnlsLraLlon:
1e|ephone |nterv|ew|ng ersona| |nterv|ew|ng Ma|| |nterv|ew|ng L|ectron|c |nterv|ew|ng
! 1radlLlonal
! CompuLer-asslsLed (CA1l)
! ln home
! Mall lnLercepL
! CompuLer-asslsLed (CAl)
! Mall
! Mall panel
! L-mall
! lnLerneL

When Lo use whlch meLhod? 1here are a varleLy of facLors (Lask, slLuaLlonal and respondenL) whlch
need Lo be compared wlLh Lhe dlfferenL survey meLhods:
1ask factors 8elaLe Lo Lasks LhaL have Lo be performed Lo collecL Lhe daLa and Lhe Loplc of Lhe survey. 1hese
facLors conslsL of dlverslLy/complexlLy of quesLlons and flexlblllLy, use of psyslchal sLlmull,
sample conLrol, quanLlLy of daLa and response raLe.
S|tuat|ona| factors Comprlse conLrol of Lhe daLa-collecLlon envlronmenL, conLrol of fleld force, poLenLlal for Lhe
lnLervlewer blas, speed and cosLs.
kespondent factors erLaln Lo survey repondenLs and lnclude percelved anonymlLy, soclal deslrablllLy, obLalnlng
senslLlve lnformaLlon, low lncldence raLe and respondenL conLrol.

MarlL url[fhouL - 2013 !$
Survey method A sLrucLured quesLlonnalre glven Lo a sample of a populaLlon and deslgned Lo ellclL speclflc
lnfo from respondenLs. 8espondenLs are asked quesLlons regardlng Lhelr behavlour,
lnLenLlons, aLLlLudes, awareness, moLlvaLlons and demographlc and llfesLyle characLerlsLlcs.
Structured data co||ect|on use of a formal quesLlonnalre LhaL presenLs quesLlons ln a prearranged order.
I|xed-a|ternat|ve
quest|ons
CuesLlons LhaL requlre respondenLs Lo choose from a seL of predeLermlned answers
Samp|e contro| 1he ablllLy of Lhe survey mode Lo reach Lhe unlLs speclfled ln Lhe sample effecLlvely and
efflclenLly
Samp||ng frame A represenLaLlon of Lhe elemenLs of Lhe LargeL populaLlon. lL conslsLs of a llsL or seL of
dlrecLlons for ldenLlfylng Lhe LargeL group
kandom d|g|t d|a||ng
(kDD)
A Lechnlque used Lo overcome Lhe blas of unpubllshed and recenL Lelephone numbers by
selecLlng all Lelephone number dlglLs ln random
kandom d|g|t d|rectory
des|gns
A research deslgn for Lelephone surveys ln whlch a sample of numbers ls drawn from Lhe
Lelephone dlrecLory and modlfled Lo allow unpubllshed numbers a chance of belng
lncluded ln Lhe sample
kesponse rate 1he percenLage of he LoLal aLLempLed lnLervlews LhaL are compleLed
Nonresponse b|as When acLual respondenLs dlffer from Lhose who refuse Lo parLlclpaLe
Cr|t|ca| request 1he LargeL behavlor LhaL ls belng researched
I|e|d force 1he fleld force ls made up of boLh Lhe acLual lnLervlewers and Lhe supervlsors lnvolved ln
daLa collecLlon
erce|ved anonym|ty 1he respondenL's percepLlons LhaL Lhelr ldenLlLles wlll noL be dlscerned by Lhe lnLervlewer
Soc|a| des|rab|||ty 1he Lendency of Lhe respondenLs Lo glve answers LhaL may noL be accuraLe buL LhaL may be
deslrable from a soclal sLandpolnL.
Inc|dence rate 8efers Lo Lhe raLe of occurrce or Lhe percenLage of persons ellglble Lo parLlclpaLe ln Lhe
sLudy
Cbservat|on 1he recordlng of behavloral paLLerns of people, ob[ecLs, and evenLs ln a sysLemaLlc manner
Lo obLaln lnfo abouL Lhe phenomenom of lnLeresL
Structured observat|on CbservaLlon Lechnlques where Lhe researcher clearly deflnes Lhe behavlors Lo be observed
and Lhe meLhods by whlch Lhey wlll be measured
Unstructured observat|on CbservaLlon LhaL lnvolves a researcher monlLorlng all relevenL phenomena wlLhouL
speclfylng Lhe deLalls ln advance
Natura| observat|on 1akes place ln Lhe naLural envlronmenL
Contr|ved observat|on 1akes place ln an arLlflclal envlronmenL
ersona| observat|on An observaLlonal research sLraLegy ln whlch human observers record Lhe phenomenom
belng observed as lL occurs
Mechan|ca| observat|on An observaLlonal research sLraLegy ln whlch mechanlcal devlces raLher Lhan human
observers record Lhe phenomenom belng observed
sychoga|vanometer An lnsLrumenL LhaL measures a respondenL's galvanlc skln response
Ga|van|c sk|n response Changes ln Lhe elecLrlcal reslsLence of Lhe skln LhaL relaLe Lo a person's affecLlve sLaLe
Vo|ce p|tch ana|ys|s MeasuremenL of emoLlonal reacLlons Lhrough changes ln Lhe respondenLs' volce
kesponse |atency 1he amounL of Llme lL Lakes Lo respond
antry aud|t A Lype of audlL where Lhe researcher lnvenLorles Lhe brands, quanLlLles and package slzes
of producLs ln a consumer's home.
Content ana|ys|s 1he ob[ecLlve, sysLemaLlc, and quanLlLaLlve descrlpLlon of Lhe manlfesL conLenL of a
communlcaLlon
1race ana|ys|s An approach ln whlch daLa collecLlon ls base don physlcal Lraces, or evldence, of pasL
behavlour
Mystery shopp|ng 1ralned observers pose ar consumers and shop aL company- or compeLlLor-owned sLores
Lo collecL daLa abouL cusLomer-employee lnLeracLlon and oLher markeLlng varlables



MarlL url[fhouL - 2013 !%
nexL Lo surveys, we have observat|on methods. lL lnvolves recordlng Lhe behavloral paLLerns of people,
ob[ecLs, and evenLs ln a sysLemaLlc manner Lo obLaln lnformaLlon abouL Lhe phenomenom of lnLeresL. 1hree
ways Lo make a dlsLlncLlon:
5ttoctoteJ vs. uosttoctoteJ
(SLrucLured when Lhe problem ls clearly deflned and Lhe researcher knows whaL lnfo ls needed -for concluslve
research. unsLrucLured when Lhe problem lsn'L formulaLed preclsely yeL, flexlblllLy ls needed and Lhe
observaLlon resulLs ln hypoLheses whlch needs Lo be LesLed - for exploraLory research).
NooJlsqolseJ vs. ulsqolseJ
(ulsgulsed enables respondenLs Lo behave naLurally - uslng mlrrors or cameras, mysLery shopplng-)
Nototol vs. coottlveJ.

CbservaLlon meLhods classlfled by mode of admlnlsLraLlon:
ersona| observat|on Mechan|ca| observ. Aud|t Content ana|ys|s 1race ana|ys|s
Cbservlng acLual
behavlor as lL occurs,
wlLhouL conLrol and
manlpulaLlon
Mechanlcal devlces
record Lhe
phenomena.
8esearcher collecLs
daLa by examlnlng
physlcal records or
lnvenLory analysls
(ex: panLry audlL)
When Lhe ob[ecL Lo
observe ls
communlcaLlon
lnsLead of behavlor.
lnexpenslve-
based on physlcal
Lraces or evldence
of pasL behavlor.

When we evaluaLe Lhe meLhods above:
Cr|ter|a ersona| observ. Mechan|ca| observ. Aud|t Content ana|ys|s 1race ana|ys|s
uegree of sLrucLure Low Low Lo hlgh Plgh Plgh Medlum
uegree of dlsgulse Medlum Low Lo hlgh Low Plgh Plgh
AblllLy Lo observe
ln naLural seLLlng
Plgh Low Lo hlgh Plgh Medlum Low
CbservaLlon blas Plgh Low Low Medlum Medlum
Analysls blas Plgh Low Lo medlum Low Low Medlum
Ceneral remarks MosL flexlble Can be lnLruslve Lxpenslve LlmlLed Lo
communlcaLlons
MeLhod of lasL
resorL

Advantages and d|sadvantages of Lhe Lwo descrlpLlve research deslgns compared:
Advantages observat|on D|sadvantages observat|on
1. 1hey permlL measuremenL of acLual
behavlor raLher Lhan reporLs of lnLended or
preffered behavlour
2. no reporLlng blas (blas by researcher
reduced)
3. lor frequenLly occured behavlor Lo be
observed, observaLlon ls cheaper and fasLer
Lhan surveylng.
1. 1he reasons for Lhe observed behavlor may noL be deLermlned
because llLLle ls known abouL Lhe underlylng moLlves, bellefs,
aLLlLudes and preferences.
2. SelecLlve percepLlon (blas ln researcher's percepLlon) can blas
Lhe daLa.
3. CbservaLlon ls Llme consumlng and ofLen expenslve, and lL ls
dlfflculL Lo observe cerLaln forms of behavlor such as personal
acLlvlLles
4. ln some cases, Lhe use may be uneLhlcal

1he besL ls Lo complemenL survey and observaLlon meLhods.
LLhnographlc research: Lhe sLudy of human behavlor ln lLs naLural conLexL. lnvolves observaLlon and depL
lnLervlews. CuesLlonlng and observaLlon meLhods are comblned Lo undersLand Lhe behavlor of consumers.



MarlL url[fhouL - 2013 !&
Chapter 8 'Measurement and sca||ng: fundamenta|s and comparat|ve sca||ng'
When we analyze research resulLs, we musL belleve LhaL Lhe measuremenL provlde reallsLlc represenLaLlons of
oplnlons and behavlors and properly capLure how a responden's daLa relaLe Lo all oLher respondenLs.
We don'L measure an ob[ecL, buL a characLerlsLlc. numbers are asslgned because Lhey permlL sLaLlsLlcal
analysls of resulLlng daLa. Also, Lhey faclllLaLe Lhe communlcaLlon of measuremenL rules and resulLs. 1he laLLer
process ls lsomorphlc, Lhere musL be a one-Lo-one correspondence beLween Lhe nr's and characLerlsLlcs belng
measured. Scallng ls an exLenslon of measuremenL. Scales can be descrlbed wlLh four baslc characLerlsLlcs
(descrlpLlon, order, dlsLance and orlgln) LogeLher Lhey deflne Lhe level of measuremenL of a scale - whlch
denoLes whaL properLles of an ob[ecL Lhe scale ls measurlng or noL measurlng.
-uescrlpLlon: 1he unlque labels or descrlpLors LhaL are used Lo deslgnaLe each value of Lhe scale. All scales posess
descrlpLlons.(1.female, 2.male or 1-dlsagree 3-agree)
-Crder: 1he relaLlve slzes or poslLlons of Lhe descrlpLors. Crder ls denoLed by descrlpLors such as greaLher Lhan, less Lhan,
and equal Lo. 1here are no absoluLe values, only relaLlve values. ('greaLher Lhan, less Lhan, equal Lo' - for example wlLh
brand preference. Cr age groups)
-ulsLance: 1he characLerlsLlc of dlsLance means LhaL absoluLe dlfferences beLween Lhe scale descrlpLors are known and
may be expressed ln unlLs. ('a flve-person household')- dlsLance lmplles order buL Lhe reverse may noL be Lrue!
-Crlgln: 1he orlgln characLerlsLlc means LhaL Lhe scale has a unlque or flxed beglnnlng or Lrue zero polnL. ('lncome of
household: _____' - could be zero ls Lrue zero polnL). A scale LhaL has orlgln also has dlsLance, order and descrlpLlon. noL
very common ln markeLlng research (Lhe agree/dlsagree example could sLarL aL 1-dlsagree as well as 3-dlsagree, so no
0polnL). All scales have a descrlpLlon. When dlsLance: also order & descrlpLlon, eLc.

r|mary sca|es of measurement:
Sca|e 8as|c charact. Common ex. Market|ng ex. Descr|pt|ve Inferent|a|
1.Nom|na| nr's ldenLlfy and classlfy
ob[ecLs
Soclal securlLy nr's,
nr's of rugby
players
8rand nr's, sLore
Lypes, sex
classlflcaLlon
ercenLages,
mode
Chl-square,
blnomlal LesL
2.Crd|na| nr's lndlcaLe Lhe relaLlve
poslLlons of Lhe ob[ecLs buL
noL Lhe magnlLude of
dlfferences beLween Lhem
CuallLy ranklngs,
ranklngs of Leams
ln LournamenL
reference ranklngs,
markeL poslLlon,
soclal class
ercenLlle,
medlan
8ank-order
correlaLlon,
lrledman AnCvA
3.Interva| ulfferences beLween ob[ecLs
can be compared, 0polnL ls
arblLrary
1emperaLure ALLlLudes,
oplonlons, lndex nr's
8ange, mean, Su roducL-momenL
correlaLlons, L-LesLs,
AnCvA, regresslon,
facLor analysls
4.kat|o 0 polnL ls flxed, raLlos of scale
values can be compuLed
LengLh, welghL Age, lncome, cosLs,
sales, markeL shares
CeomeLrlc mean,
harmonlc mean
CoefflclenL of
varlaLlon

Lxamp|e of the pr|mary sca|es of measurements:


MarlL url[fhouL - 2013 !'
A c|ass|f|cat|on of sca||ng techn|ques
ComparaLlve scales: 'nonmeLrlc scallng': 1here ls dlrecL comparlson of sLlmulus ob[ecLs wlLh one anoLher. ('uo
you prefer epsl or Cola'). ComparaLlve daLa musL be lnLerpreLed ln relaLlve Lerms and have only ordlnal or
rank order properLles. AdvanLage: small dlfferences beLween sLlmulus ob[ecLs can be deLecLed, easlly
undersLood and can be applled easy. 1hey lnvolve fewer LheoreLlcal assumpLlons, and Lend Lo recude halo or
carryover effecLs from one [udgemenL Lo anoLher. ulsadvanLages: ordlnal naLure of Lhe daLa and Lhe lnablllLy Lo
generallze beyond Lhe sLlmulus ob[ecLs scaled.
noncomparaLlve scales: 'monadlc or meLrlc scales': Lach sLlmulus ob[ecL ls scaled lndependenLly on Lhe oLher
ob[ecLs ln Lhe sLlmulus seL. 1he resulLlng daLa are generally lnLerval or raLlo scaled. ('LvaluaLe coke on a 1-6
preference scale'). 1hey can be conLlnuous raLlng or lLemlzed raLlng scales (see below). noncomparaLlve scallng
ls Lhe mosL used scallng Lechnlque worldwlde.
Comparat|ve sca|es ! alred comparlson
! 8ank order
! ConsLanL sum
! C-sorL and oLher procedures

Noncomparat|ve sca|es ! ConLlnuous raLlng scales
! lLemlzed raLlng scales ! LlkerL
! SemanLlc dlfferenLlal
! SLapel

CCMAkA1IVL SCALING 1LCnNIULS ln Lhls chapLer, we look aL Lhe comparlLlve scale Lechnlques.
a|red compar|son sca||ng A comparlLlve scallng Lechnlque ln whlch a respondenL ls presnLed wlLh Lwo
ob[ecLs aL a Llme and asked Lo selecL one ob[ecL ln Lhe palr accordlng Lo some crlLerlon. 1he daLa obLalned are
ordlnal ln naLure. lrequenLly used when Lhe sLlmulus ob[ecLs are physlcal producLs (prefer kellogs cereal over
Cuaker). 1he mosL wldely used comparlson Lechnlque. useful when Lhe nr of brands ls llmlLed (because lL
requlres dlrecL comparlson and overL cholce). (Lhe order may blas Lhe resulLs). (also, respodenLs may prefer
one ob[ecL Lo cerLaln oLhers, buL Lhey may noL llke lL ln an absoluLe sense).
kank order sca||ng A comparaLlve scallng Lechnlque ln whlch respondenLs are presenLed wlLh several ob[ecLs
slmulLaneously and asked Lo order or rank Lhem accordlng Lo some crlLerlon. (rank LooLpasLe brands accordlng
Lo overall preference). lL resulLs l ordlnal daLa. Commonly used Lo measure preferences for brands as well as
aLLrlbuLes. lrequenLly obLalned from respondenLs ln con[olnL analysls. lL more closely resembles Lhe shopplng
envlronmenL (when we compare lL Lo compalred scallng). lL also Lakes less Llme and ellmlnaLes lnLranslLlve
responses. lL ls easy Lo undersLand for respondenLs. Ma[or dlsadvanLage: lL produces only ordlnal daLa. 8ank
order daLa can be converLed Lo equlvalenL palred comparlson daLa, and vlce versa.
Constant sum sca||ng A comparaLlve scallng Lechnlque ln whlch respondenLs are requlred Lo allocaLe a
consLanL sum of unlLs such as polnLs, dollars, chlLs, sLlckers or chlps among a seL of sLlmulus ob[ecLs wlLh
respecL Lo some crlLerlon. 1he consLanL sum has an absoluLe 0-polnL and. 1he rank order daLa ls LranslaLed lnLo
lnLerval daLa Lo obLaln Lhe lnformaLlon. 1he consLanL sum should be consldered an ordlnal scale because lLs
comparlLlve naLure and Lhe resulLlng lack of generallzablllLy. Maln advanLage: lL allows for flne dlscrlmlnaLlon
among sLlmulus ob[ecLs wlLhouL requlrlng Loo much Llme. ulsadvanLages: respondenLs may allocaLe fewer or
more unlLs Lhan Lhose speclfled & roundlng error lf Lo few unlLs are used (buL Loo many unlLs may cause faLlgue
and confuslon for Lhe respondenL).
-sort and other procedures A comparaLlve scallng Lechnlque LhaL uses a rank order procedure Lo sorL
ob[ecLs based on slmllarlLy wlLh respecL Lo some crlLeron. lL was developed Lo dlscrlmlnaLe qulckly among a
relaLlvely large nr of ob[ecLs. Cb[ecLs are sorLd lnLo plles based on slmllarlLy. AnoLher sorL ls magnlLude
esLlmaLlon: nr's are asslgned Lo ob[ecLs such LhaL Lhe raLlos beLwen Lhe asslgned nrs reflecL raLlos on Lhe
speclfled crlLerlon. AnoLher one ls CuLLman scallng/scalogram analysls: a procedure for deLermlnlng wheLher a
seL of ob[ecLs can be ordered lnLo an lnLernally conslsLenL, unldlmenslonal scale.

Measurement 1he asslgnmenL of numbers or oLher symbols Lo characLerlsLlcs of ob[ecLs accordlng Lo cerLaln prespeclfled rules
Sca||ng 1he generaLlon of a conLlnuum upon whlch measured ob[ecLs are locaLed. 1he process of placlng respondenLs on
a conLlnuum wlLh respecL Lo Lhelr aLLlLuLude Loward a cerLaln Loplc.
Descr|pt|on 1he unlque labels or descrlpLors LhaL are used Lo deslgnaLe each value of Lhe scale. All scales posess descrlpLlons
Crder 1he relaLlve slzes or poslLlons of Lhe descrlpLors. Crder ls denoLed by descrlpLors such as greaLher Lhan, less Lhan,
and equal Lo.
D|stance 1he characLerlsLlc of dlsLance means LhaL absoluLe dlfferences beLween Lhe scale descrlpLors are known and may
MarlL url[fhouL - 2013 !(
be expressed ln unlLs. ulsLance lmplles order buL Lhe reverse may noL be Lrue
Cr|g|n 1he orlgln characLerlsLlc means LhaL Lhe scale has a unlque or flxed beglnnlng or Lrue zero polnL. A scale LhaL has
orlgln also has dlsLance, order and descrlpLlon. noL very common ln markeLlng.
Nom|na| sca|e A scale whose numbers serve only as labels or Lags for ldenLlfylng and classlfylng ob[ecLs. When used for
ldenLlflcaLlon, Lhere ls a sLrlcL one-Lo-one correspondence beLween Lhe nr's and Lhe ob[ecLs. 1he only
characLerlsLlc ls descrlpLlon (Lhe only permlsslble operaLlon ls couLlng).
Crd|na| sca|e A ranklng scale ln whlch nr's are asslgned Lo ob[ecLs Lo lndlcaLe Lhe relaLlve exLenL Lo whlch some characLerlsLlc ls
possesed. 1hus lL ls posslble Lo deLermlne wheLher an ob[ecL has more or less of a characLerlsLlc Lhan some oLher
ob[ecL (buL noL how much more or less). lL lndlcaLes relaLlve posllon. 1he ordlnal scale posesses descrlpLlon and
order characLerlsLlcs buL noL dlsLance (or orlgln). ermlsslble operaLlon: couLlng and use of sLaLlsLlcs based on
cenLlles (percenLlle, quarLlle, medlan, rank order correlaLlon and oLher summary sLaLlsLlcs).
Interva| sca|e A scale ln whlch Lhe nr's are used Lo raLe ob[ecLs such LhaL numerlcally equal dlsLances on Lhe scale represenL
equal dlsLances ln Lhe characLerlsLlc belng measured. lL conLalns all lnfo of an ordlnal scale, buL also allows Lo
compare Lhe dlfferences beLween Lhe ob[ecLs. 1he dlfference beLween any Lwo scale values ls ldenLlcal Lo Lhe
dlfference beLween any oLher Lwo ad[acenL values of an lnLerval scale. 1here ls a consLanL or equal lnLerval
beLween scale values. 1he dlfference beLween 1-2 ls Lhe same as Lhe dlfference beLween 2-3. 1he locaLlon of Lhe
0-polnL lsn'L flxed. 1he 0-polnL and unlLs of measuremenL ar arblLrary. 8ecause Lhe 0-polnL lsn'L flxed, lL lsn'L
meanlngful Lo Lake raLlos of scale values.
kat|o sca|e 1he hlghesL scale: posesses all properLles of Lhe nomlnal, ordlnal and lnLerval scales and has an absoluLe 0-polnL.
8aLlo scales posess Lhe characLerlsLlc of Lhe orlgln (so also descr, dlsLance and order) lL allows Lhe researcher Lo
ldenLlfy or classlfy ob[ecLs, and compare lnLervals or dlfferences. lL ls also meanlngful Lo compuLe raLlos of scale
values. (helghL, welghL, age, money).
Comparat|ve
sca|es
Cne of Lwo Lypes of scallng Lechnlques ln whlch Lhere ls dlrecL comparlson of sLlmulus ob[ecLs wlLh one anoLher.
Also called 'nonmeLrlc scallng' - only rank or ordlnal order properLles. (Lypes: comparlsons, rank orders, consLanL
sum scales, C-sorL) advanLage: small dlfferences beLween sLlmulus ob[ecL scan be deLecLed, easy Lo undersLand
and easy Lo apply. 1hey lnvolve fewer LheoreLlcal assumpLlons, and Lend Lo recude halo or carryover effecLs from
one [udgemenL Lo anoLher. ulsadvanLages: ordlnal naLure of Lhe daLa and Lhe lnablllLy Lo generallze beyond Lhe
sLlmulus ob[ecLs scaled.
Noncomparat|ve
sca|es
Cne or Lwo Lypes of scallng Lechnlques ln whlch each sLlmulus ob[ecL ls scaled lndependenLly of Lhe oLher ob[ecLs
ln Lhe sLlmulus seL. Also called 'monadlc' or 'meLrlc scales'. 1he resulLlng daLa are generally lnLerval or raLlo scaled.
1hey can be conLlnuous raLlng or lLemlzed raLlng scales (see Lable above). noncomparaLlve scallng ls Lhe mosL
used scallng Lechnlque worldwlde.
a|red
compar|son
sca||ng
A comparlLlve scallng Lechnlque ln whlch a respondenL ls presnLed wlLh Lwo ob[ecLs aL a Llme and asked Lo selecL
one ob[ecL ln Lhe palr accordlng Lo some crlLerlon. 1he daLa obLalned are ordlnal ln naLure. MosL popular Lechn.
8esulLs ln ordlnal daLa
1rans|t|v|ty of
preference
An assumpLlon ls made ln order Lo converL palred comparlson daLa Lo rank order daLa. lL lmplles LhaL lf brand A ls
preffered Lo brand 8 and brand 8 ls preffered Lo brand C, Lhen brand A ls preffered Lo brand C.
kank order
sca||ng
A comparaLlve scallng Lechnlque ln whlch respondenLs are presenLed wlLh several ob[ecLs slmulLaneously and
asked Lo order or rank Lhem accordlng Lo some crlLerlon. 8esulLs ln ordlnal daLa
Constant sum
sca||ng
A comparaLlve scallng Lechnlque ln whlch respondenLs are requlred Lo allocaLe a consLanL sum of unlLs such as
polnLs, dollars, chlLs, sLlckers or chlps among a seL of sLlmulus ob[ecLs wlLh respecL Lo some crlLerlon
-sort sca||ng A comparaLlve scallng Lechnlque LhaL uses a rank order procedure Lo sorL ob[ecLs based on slmllarlLy wlLh respecL
Lo some crlLeron









MarlL url[fhouL - 2013 !)
Chapter 9 'Measurement and sca||ng: noncomparat|ve sca||ng techn|ques '
'lL ls lmporLanL LhaL we esLabllsh rellablllLy and valldlLy of our scales. CLherwlse, we cannoL belleve ln our daLa.'

8as|s noncomparat|ve sca|es:
Sca|e 8as|c character|st|cs Lxamp|es Advantages D|sadvantages
Cont|nuous rat|ng
sca|e
lace a mark on a
conLlnuous llne
8eacLlon Lo 1v
commerclals
Lasy Lo consLrucL Scorlng can be
cumbersome
unless
compuLerlzed
L|kert sca|e
(|tem|zed rs)
uegree of agreemenL on a 1
(sLrongly dlsagree) Lo a 3
(sLrongly agree) scale
MeasuremenL of
aLLlLudes
Lasy Lo consLrucL,
admlnlsLer and
undersLand
More Llme
consumlng
Semant|c
d|fferent|a|
(|tem|zed rs)
Seven-polnL scale wlLh
blpolar labels
8rand, producL and
company lmages
versaLlle ConLroversy as Lo
wheLher Lhe daLa
are lnLerval
Stape| sca|e
(|tem|zed rs)
unlpolar Len-polnL scale, -3
Lo +3, wlLhouL a neuLral
(zero) polnL
MeasuremenL of
aLLlLudes and lmages
Lasy Lo consLrucL,
admlnlsLered over
Lelephone
Confuslng and
dlfflculL Lo apply

A cont|nous rat|ng sca|e ('graphlc raLlng scale'), needs respondenLs Lo raLe ob[ecLs by placlng a mark aL Lhe
approprlaLe poslLlon on a llne LhaL runs from one exLreme crlLerlon varlable Lo Lhe oLher. 1he respondenLs
aren'L resLrlcLed Lo selecLlng from marks from Lhe researcher. lL can be wlLh scale polnLs or ln Lhe form of
numbers or brlef descrlpLlons (probably Lhe worsL vs. robably Lhe besL on a scale from 0-100 polnLs). 1he
scores are Lyplcally LreaLed as lnLerval daLa. 1hey posess Lhe characLerlsLlcs of descrlpLlon, order & dlsLance.
AdvanLage: easy Lo consLrucL. ulsadvanLage: scorlng ls cumbersome and unrellable. lL provldes llLLle new lnfo.
WlLh Lhe lncreased popularlLy of CAl and lnLerneL surveys, Lhey became more used.
ln an Item|zed rat|ng sca|e, respondenLs are provlded wlLh a scale LhaL has a nr or brlef descrlpLlon assoclaLed
wlLh each caLegory. 1hree wldely used raLlng scales: LlkerL, semanLlc dlfferenLlal and SLapel scales.
LlkerL scale: A measuremenL scale wlLh flve response caLegorles ranglng from 'sLrongly dlsagree' Lo 'sLrongly agree',
whlch requlres Lhe respondenLs Lo lndlcaLe a degree of agreemenL or dlsagreemenL wlLh each of a serles of sLaLemenLs
relaLed Lo Lhe sLlmulus ob[ecLs. 1he daLa are LreaLed lnLerval. 1he LlkerL scale possesses descrlpLlon, order and dlsLance. 1o
conducL Lhe analysls, each sLaLemenL ls asslgned a numerlcal score, ranglng elLher from -2 Lo +2 or 1 Lo 3. 1he analysls can
be conducLed on an lLem-by-lLem basls (proflle analysls), or a LoLal (summed) score can be calculaLed for each respondenL
by summlng accross lLems. 1he summaLed approach ls mosLly used, and Lherefore Lhe LlkerL scale ls also called 'summaLed
scale'. When uslng Lhls approach Lo deLermlne Lhe LoLal score for each respondenL, lL ls lmporLanL Lo use a conslsLenL
scorlng procedure so LhaL a hlgh (or low) score conslsLenLly reflecLs a favorable response. 1hls requlres LhaL Lhe caLegorles
asslgned Lo Lhe negaLlve sLaLemenLs by Lhe respondenLs be scored by reverslng Lhe scale when analyzlng Lhe daLa. A
'sLrongly agree' and a 'sLrongly dlsagree' response would boLh recelve scores of 3. 1he reason for havlng boLh poslLlve and
negaLlve sLaLemenLs ls Lo conLrol Lhe Lendency of some respondenLs Lo mark one or Lhe oLher end of Lhe scale wlLhouL
readlng Lhe lLems. AdvanLages: easy Lo consLrucL and admlnlsLer. Lasy Lo undersLand. ulsadvanLage: lL Lakes longer Lo
compleLe Lhan oLher lLemlzed raLlng scales because respondenLs have Lo read each sLaLemenL. lL ls someLlmes dlfflculL Lo
lnLerpreL (especlally for unfavorable sLaLemenLs).
SemanLlc dlfferenLlal scale: A 7-polnL raLlng scale wlLh endpolnLs assocleLed wlLh blpolar labels LhaL have semanLlc
meanlng. 8espondenLs raLe ob[ecLs on a number of lLlmlzed, 7-p raLlng scales bounded aL each end by one of Lwo blpolar
ad[ecLlves, such as 'cold' and 'warm'. 1he respondenLs mark Lhe blank LhaL besL lndlcaLes how Lhey would descrlbe Lhe
ob[ecL belng raLed. 1he negaLlve ad[ecLlve appears aL Lhe lefL as well as Lhe rlghL someLlmes, Lo conLrol Lhe Lendency of
some respondenLs (wlLh very negaLlve or poslLlve aLLlLudes Lo mark wlLhouL readlng Lhe labels).Lhe resulLlng daLa are
analyzed Lhrough proflle analysls. lndlvldual lLems on a semanLlc dlff scale may be scored on elLher a -3 Lo +3 or from 1-7. ln
a proflle analysls, means or medlan values on each raLlng scale are calculaLed and compared by ploLLlng or sLaLlsLlcal
analysls. 1hls helps deLermlne Lhe overall dlfferences and slmllarlLles among Lhe ob[ecLs. 1o assess dlfferences across
segmenLs or respondenLs, Lhe researcher can compare mean responses of dlfferenL segmenLs. AlLhough Lhe mean ls mosL
ofLen used as a summary sLaLlsLlc, Lhere ls some conLroversy as Lo wheLher Lhe daLa obLalned should be LreaLed as lnLerval
scale. As ln Lhe case of Lhe LlkerL scale, Lhe scores for Lhe negaLlve lLems are reversed before summlng. Wldely used Lo
compare brand, proucL and company lmages and Lo develop adverLlslng and promoLlon sLraLegles for new producL
developmenL sLudles. lL ls a very versaLlle Lechnlque.
SLapel scale: A scale measurlng aLLlLudes LhaL conslsLs of a slngle ad[ecLlve ln Lhe mlddle of an even-numbered range of
values, from -3 Lo 3, wlLhouL a neuLral polnL (zero). lL ls unlpolar, wlLh 10 caLegorles wlLhouL a neuLral 0-polnL. usually
presenLed verLlcally. 8espondenLs are asked Lo lndlcaLe how accuraLely or lnnacuraLely each Lerm descrlbes Lhe ob[ecL by
selecLlng an approprlaLe numerlcal response caLegory. 1he hlgher Lhe nr, Lhe more accuraLely Lhe Lerm descrlbes Lhe
ob[ecL. 1he daLa obLalned are generally LreaLed as lnLerval and can be analyzed ln Lhe same way as semanLlc dlfferenLlal
MarlL url[fhouL - 2013 !*
daLa. 1he SLapel scale produces slmllar resulLs. AdvanLages: lL doesn'L requlre a preLesL of Lhe ad[ecLlves or phrases Lo
ensure Lrue blpolarlLy, and can be admlnlsLered over Lhe Lelephone. ulsadvanLages: some say lL ls confuslng and dlfflculL Lo
apply. lL ls Lhe leasL used one of Lhe Lhree descrlbed above.

Noncomparat|ve |tem|zed rat|ng sca|e dec|s|ons- lLlmlzed scales can Lake many forms and Lherefore a
researcher musL make 6 declslons when consLrucLlng one of Lhe Lechnlques:
1. 1he number of scale caLegorles Lo use
2. 8alanced versus unbalanced scale
3. Cdd or even number caLegorles
4. lorced versus nonforced cholce
3. 1he naLure and degree of Lhe verbal descrlpLlon
6. 1he physlcal form of Lhe scale
1. 1he number of scale caLegorles Lo use: Lhe greaLher Lhe number of scale caLegorles, Lhe flner Lhe
dlscrlmlnaLlon among sLlmulus ob[ecLs LhaL ls posslble. 8uL, mosL respondenLs cannoL handle more Lhan a few
caLegorles. 1radlLlonal guldellnes: 7+-2 (so 3 Lo 9). lacLors LhaL should be Laken lnLo accounL when decldlng: lf
respondenLs are lnLeresLed ln Lhe scallng Lask and are knowleadgeble abouL Lhe ob[ecLs, a larger number of
caLegorles may be employed // Lhe naLure of Lhe ob[ecL // Lhe mode of daLa collecLlon (Lelehpone lnLervlews
make many caLegorles confuslng) // how Lhe daLa are Lo be analyzed. Also, Lhe slze of Lhe correlaLlon
coefflclenL, a common measure od relaLlonshlp beLween varlables (ch17) ls lnfluenced by Lhe number of
caLegorles. 1hls has lmpacL on all sLaLlsLlcal analysls based on Lhe correlaLlon coefflclenL.
2. 8alanced versus unbalanced scale: ln a balanced scale, Lhe number of favorable and unfavorable caLegorles
are equal (ln an unbalanced scale Lhey are unequal). ln general, Lhe scale should be balanced ln order Lo obLaln
ob[ecLlve daLa. Powever, lf Lhe dlsLrlbuLlon of responses ls llkely Lo be skewed (pos or neg), an unbalanced
scale wlLh more caLegorles ln Lhe dlrecLlon of skewness may be approprlaLe. lf an unbalanced scale ls used, Lhe
naLure and degree of unbalance ln Lhe scale should be Laken lnLo accounL ln daLa analysls.
3. Cdd or even number caLegorles: wlLh an odd number, Lhe mlddle scale poslLlon ls generally deslgnaed as
neuLra lor lmparLlal. 1he presence, poslLlon and labellng of a neuLral caLegory can have a slgnlflcanL lnfluence
on Lhe response. 1he LlkerL scale ls a balanced raLlng scale wlLh an odd number of caLegorles and a neuLral
polnL. 1he declslon depends on wheLher some of Lhe respondenLs may be neuLral on Lhe response belng
measured. lf a neuLral response ls posslble from aL leasL some of Lhe respondenLs, an odd number of caLegorles
should be used. lf Lhe researcher wanLs Lo force a response or belleves LhaL neuLrallLy doesn'L exlsLs, a raLlng
scale wlLh even numbers should be used.
4. lorced versus nonforced cholce: 8espondenLs could be forces Lo express an oplnlon, because a 'no oplnlon'
ls noL provlded. ln such case, respondenLs wlLhouL an oplnlon may mark Lhe mlddle scale poslLlon, lf a
sufflclenL proporLlon of Lhe respondenLs do noL have oplnlons on Lhe Loplc, marklng Lhe mlddle poslLlon wlll
dlsLorL measures of cenLral Lendency and varlance. ln slLuaLlons where Lhe respondenLs are expecLed Lo have
no oplnlon, as opposed Lo slmply belng relucLanL Lo dlsclose lL, Lhe accuracy of daLa may be lmproved by a
nonforced scale LhaL lncludes Lhe 'no oplnlon' caLegory.
3. 1he naLure and degree of Lhe verbal descrlpLlon: 1hls varles conslderably and can have an effecL on Lhe
responses. 1he researcher musL declde wheLher Lo label every scale caLegory, or some, or only exLremely scale
caLegorles. rovldlng a verbal descrlpLlon for each caLegory may noL lmprove Lhe accuracy and rellablllLy of Lhe
daLa. ?eL an argumenL can be made for labelllng all or many scale caLegorles Lo reduce scale amblgulLy. 1he
caLegory descrlpLlons should be locaLed as close Lo Lhe response caLegorles as posslble. 1he sLrengLh of Lhe
ad[ecLlves used Lo anchor Lhe scale may lnfluence Lhe dlsLrlbuLlon of Lhe responses. WlLh sLrong anchors
(compleLely dlsagree and agree), respondenLs are llkely less Lo use Lhe exLreme caLegorles. 1hls resulLs ln less
varlable and more peaked response dlsLrlbuLlons. Weak anchors (generally dlsagree and agree) produce
unlform or flaL dlsLrlbuLlons. rocedures have been developed Lo asslgn values Lo caLegory descrlpLors so as Lo
resul ln balanced or equal-lnLerval scales.
6. 1he physlcal form of Lhe scale: a number of opLlons are avallable wlLh respecL Lo scale form or conflguraLlon.
Scales can be presenLed horlzonLally or verLlcally, caLegorles can be expressed by boxes/dlscreLe llnes/unlLs on
a conLlnuum and may or may noL have numbers asslgned Lo Lhem. lf numerlcal values are used, Lhey may be
poslLlve, negaLlve or boLh. 1wo unlque raLlng scales used ln markeLlng research are Lhe LhermomeLer scale and
Lhe smlllng face scale (especlally useful for chlldren).
1. Number of categor|es 8etween S-9 categor|es
2. 8a|anced versus unba|anced 1he scale should be balanced Lo obLaln ob[ecLlve daLa
3. Cdd or even number categor|es lf a neuLral/lndlfferenL scale response ls posslble, an odd nr should be used
4. Iorced versus nonforced When respondenLs are expecLed Lo have no oplnlon, a nonforced scale lmproves accuracy
S. Verba| descr|pt|on 1he caLegory descrlpLlon should be locaLed as close Lo Lhe response caLegorles ass poss.
6. hys|ca| form A number of opLlons should be Lrled and Lhe besL one selecLed
MarlL url[fhouL - 2013 #+
Some common|y used sca|es |n market|ng:
ConsLrucL Scale descrlpLor Scale descrlpLor Scale descrlpLor Scale descrlpLor Scale descrlpLor
Att|tude very bad 8ad nelLher bad nor
good
Cood very good
Importance noL aL all
lmporLanL
noL lmporLanL neuLral lmporLanL very lmporLanL
Sat|sfact|on very dlssaLlsfled ulssaLlsfled nelLher
dlssaLlsfled nor
saLlsfled
SaLlsfled very saLlsfled
urchase |ntent ueflnlLely wlll noL
buy
robably wlll noL
buy
MlghL or mlghL
noL buy
robably wlll buy ueflnlLely wlll buy
urchase
frequency
never 8arely SomeLlmes CfLen very ofLen

Mu|t| |tem sca|e: ConslsLs of mulLlple lLems, where an lLem ls a slngle quesLlon or sLaLemenL Lo be evaluaLed.
1he LlkerL, semanLlc dlfferenLlal and SLapel scales are examples of Lhose mulLl-lLem scales. 1he developmenL of
Lhese scales requlres experLlse. lL sLarLs wlLh developlng Lhe consLrucL of lnLeresL (consLrucL = a speclflc Lype of
concepL LhaL exlsLs aL a hlgher level of absLracLlon Lhan do everyday concepLs: brand loyalLy, producL
lnvolvemenL, aLLlLude, saLlsfacLlon). nexL ls Lhe developmenL of a LheoreLlcal deflnlLlon of Lhe consLrucL LhaL
sLaLes Lhe meanlng of Lhe consLrucL belng measured. A Lheory ls necessary for consLrucLlng Lhe scale and for
lnLerpreLlng Lhe resulLlng scores. 1he developmenL of a mulLl-lLem scale ls as follows:
uevelop a Lheory ! generaLe an lnlLlal pool of lLems (Lheory, secondary daLa and quallLaLlve research) !
selecL a reduced seL of lLems based on quallLaLlve [udgmenL ! collecL daLa from a large preLesL sample !
perform sLaLlsLlcal analysls (correlaLlons, exploraLory facLor analysls, conformaLory facLor analysls, clusLer
analysls, dlscrlmlnanL analysls and sLaLlsLlcal LesLs) ! develop a purlfled scale ! collecL more daLa from a
dlfferenL sample ! evaluaLe scale rellablllLy, valldlLy and generallzablllLy ! prepare Lhe flnal scale.

Sca|e eva|uat|on a mulLl-lLem scale should be evaluaLed for accuracy and appllcablllLy. 1hls lnvolves an
assesmenL of rellablllLy, valldlLy, and generallzablllLy of Lhe scale:
ke||ab|||ty (1he exLenL Lo whlch a scale produces conslsLenL
resulLs lf repeaLed measuremenLs are made on Lhe characLerlsLlc)
! 1esL / reLesL
! AlLernaLlve forms
! lnLernal conslsLency
Va||d|ty (1he exLenL Lo whlch dlfferences ln observed scale scores
reflecL Lrue dlfferences among ob[ecLs on Lhe characLerlsLlc belng
measured, raLher Lhan sysLemaLlc or random errors)
! ConLenL
! CrlLerlon
! ConsLrucL (convergenL / dlscrlmlnanL / nomologlcal)
Genera||zab|||ty (1he degree Lo whlch a sLudy whlch ls based on a
sample applles Lo a unlverse of generallzaLlons)


8efore we can examlne rellablllLy and valldlLy, we need an undersLandlng of accuracy, whlch ls fundamenLal for
scale evaluaLlon. MeasuremenL ls a nr LhaL reflecLs some characLerlsLlc of an ob[ecL. lL lsn'L Lhe Lrue value buL
raLher an observaLlon of lL. A varleLy of facLors can cause measuremenL error, whlch resulLs ln Lhe
measuremenL or observed score belng dlfferenL from Lhe Lrue score of Lhe characLerlsLlc belng measured. 1he
Lrue score model provldes framework for undersLandlng Lhe accuracy of measuremenL.
ko (the observed score or measurement) = kt (the true score of the character|st|c) + ks (systemat|c error) +
kr (random error)
xs + xr are LogeLher Lhe LoLal measuremenL error. A sysLemaLlc error affecLs Lhe measuremenL consLanLly,
whlle a random error represenLs LranslenL facLors LhaL affecL Lhe observed score ln dlfferenL ways each Llme
Lhe measuremenL ls made (LranslenL personal or slLuaLlonal facLors). 1he dlsLlncLlon beLween sysLemaLlc and
random errors ls cruclal Lo undersLand rellablllLy and valldlLy.

ke||ab|||ty: Lhe exLenL Lo whlch measures are free from random error (xr). 8andom error produces
lnconslsLency, leadlng Lo lower rellablllLy. xr=0 means perfecL rellablllLy. 8ellablllLy ls assessed by deLermlnlng
Lhe proporLlon of sysLemaLlc varlaLlon ln a scale. 1hls ls done by deLermlnlng Lhe assoclaLlon beLween scores
obLalned from dlfferenL admlnlsLraLlons of Lhe scale. lf Lhe assoclaLlon ls hlgh, Lhe scale ylelds conslsLenL resulLs
and ls Lherefore rellable. Approaches for assesslng rellablllLy are Lhe LesL-reLesL, alLernaLlve forms and lnLernal
conslsLency meLhods.
MarlL url[fhouL - 2013 #!
Assess|ng re||ab|||ty
1est-retest (respondenLs are
admlnlsLered ldenLlcal seLs of scale
lLems aL Lwo dlfferenL Llmes under as
nearly equlvalenL condlLlons as
posslble) Lhe Llme lnLerval ls 2-4 weeks.
1he degree of slmllarlLy beLween Lhe
Lwo measuremenLs ls deLermlned by
compuLlng a correlaLlon coefflclenL.
1he hlgher Lhe correlaLlon coefflclenL,
Lhe greaLher Lhe rellablllLy.
A|ternat|ve forms re||ab|||ty (An approach
for assesslng rellablllLy LhaL requlres Lwo
equlvalenL forms of Lhe scale Lo be
consLrucLed and Lhen Lhe same
respondenLs are measured aL Lwo dlfferenL
Llmes) 2-4 weeks aparL, wlLh a dlfferenL
scale form belng admlnlsLered each Llme.
8oLh scores are correlaLed Lo assess
rellablllLy.
Interna| cons|stency re||ab|||ty (An approach
for assesslng Lhe lnLernal conslsLency of Lhe
seL of lLems when several lLems are
summaLed ln order Lo form a LoLal score for
Lhe scale). Lach lLem measures some aspecL
of Lhe consLrucL measured by Lhe enLlre
scale, and Lhe lLems should be conslsLenL ln
whaL Lhey lndlcaLe abouL Lhe characLerlsLlc.
1hls measure of rellablllLy focuses on Lhe
lnLernal conslsLency of Lhe seL of lLems
formlng Lhe scale. 1wo Lypes: spllL-half
rellablllLy & coefflclenL alpha.

Va||d|ty: 1he exLenL Lo whlch dlfferences ln observed scale scores reflecL Lrue dlfferences among ob[ecLs on Lhe
characLerlsLlc raLher Lhan sysLemaLlc or random errors. erfecL valldlLy requlres LhaL Lhere be no measuremenL
error (xo=xL, xr=0, xs=0). 1hree Lypes of valldlLy: conLenL valldlLy, consLrucL valldlLy and crlLerlon valldlLy.
ConLenL valldlLy: A Lype of valldlLy, also called face valldlLy- LhaL conslsLs of a sub[ecLlve buL sysLemaLlc evaluaLlon of Lhe
represenLaLlLveness of Lhe conLenL of a scale for Lhe measurlng Lask aL hand. 1he researcher examlnes wheLher Lhe scale
lLems adequaLely cover Lhe enLlre domaln of Lhe consLrucL belng measured. ConLenL valldlLy alone ls noL sufflclenL.
CrlLerlon valldlLy: A Lype of valldlLy LhaL examlnes wheLher Lhe measuremenL scale performs as expecLed ln relaLlon Lo
oLher varlables selecLed as meanlngful crlLerla. 1hey may lnclude demographlc and psychographlc characLerlsLlcs,
aLLlLudlnal and behavloral measures, or scores obLalned from oLher scales. 8ased on Llme perlod lnvolved, crlLerlon valldlLy
can Lake 2 forms: concurrenL and predlcLlve valldlLy. ConcurrenL valldlLy ls assessed when Lhe daLa on Lhe scale belng
evaluaLed and on Lhe crlLerlon varlables are collecLed aL Lhe same Llme. 1herefore a researcher may develop shorL forms of
sLandard personallLy lnsLrumenLs. lor predlclLlve valldlLy, Lhe researcher collecLs daLa on Lhe scale aL one polnL ln Llme and
daLa on Lhe crlLerlon varlables aL a fuLure Llme (example: Lhe aLLlLudes Loward cereal brands could be used Lo predlcL fuLure
purchases by members of a scanner panel).
ConsLrucL valldlLy: A Lype of valadlLy LhaL addresses Lhe quesLlon of whaL consLrucL or characLerlsLlc Lhe scale ls
measurlng. An aLLempL ls made Lo answer LheoreLlcal quesLlons of why a scale works and whaL deducLlons can be made
concernlng Lhe Lheory underlylng Lhe scale. lL requlres a sound Lheory of Lhe naLure of Lhe consLrucL belng measured and
ho wlL relaLes Lo oLher consLrucLs. lL ls Lhe mosL sophlsLlcaLed and dlfflculL Lype of valldlLy Lo esLabllsh. lL lncludes
convergenL, dlscrlmlnanL and nomologlcal valldlLy. ConvergenL valldlLy ls Lhe exLenL Lo whlch Lhe scale correlaLes poslLlvely
wlLh oLher measures of Lhe same consLrucL. lL lsn'L necessary LhaL all Lhese measures be obLalned by uslng convenLlonal
scallng Lechnlques. ulscrlmlnanL valldlLy ls Lhe exLenL Lo whlch a measure does noL correlaLe wlLh oLher consLrucLs from
whlch lL ls supposed Lo dlffer. lL lnvolves demonsLraLlng a lack of correlaLlon among dlfferlng consLrucLs. nomologlcal
valldlLy ls Lhe exLenL Lo whlch Lhe scale correlaLes ln LheoreLlcally predlcLed ways wlLh measures of dlfferenL buL relaLed
consLrucLs. A LheoreLlcal model ls formulaLed LhaL leads Lo furLher deducLlons, LesLs and lnferences. Cradually, a
nomologlcal neL ls bullL ln whlch several consLrucLs are sysLemaLlcally lnLerrelaLed.
1he relaLlonshlp beLween rellablllLy & valldlLy: can be undersLood ln Lerms of Lhe Lrue score model. lf a
measure ls perfecLly valld, lL ls also perfecLly rellable. xo= xL, xr =0 and xs=0. lf a measure ls unrellable, lL
cannoL be perfecLly valld. lf a measure ls perfecL rellable, lL may or may noL be perfecLly valld, because
sysLemaLlc error can be presenL. AlLhough lack of rellablllLy consLlLuLes negaLlve evldence for valldlLy, rellablllLy
does noL ln lLself lmply valldlLy. 8ellablllLy ls a necessary, buL noL sufflclenL, condlLlon for valldlLy.
Genera||zab|||ty refers Lo Lhe exLenL Lo whlch one can generallze from Lhe observaLlons aL hand Lo a unlverse of
generallzaLlons. 1he seL of all condlLlons of measuremenL over whlch Lhe lnvesLlgaLor wlshes Lo generallze ls
Lhe unlverse of generallzaLlons. 1hese condlLlons may lnclude lLems, lnLervlewers, slLuaLlons of observaLlon,
eLc. A researcher may wlsh Lo generallze a scale developed for use ln personal lnLervlews Lo oLher modes of
daLa collecLlon, such as mall and Lelephone lnLervlews. Llkewlse, one may wlsh Lo generallze from a sample of
lLems Lo Lhe unlverse of lLems, eLc. ln generallzablllLy sLudles, measuremenL procedures are deslgned Lo
lnvesLlgaLe Lhe unlverses of lnLeresL by sampllng condlLlons of measuremenL from each of Lhem. lor each
unlverse of lnLeresL, an aspecL of measuremenL called a faced ls lncluded ln Lhe sLudy. 1radlLlonal rellablllLy
meLhods can be vlewed as slngle-faceL generallzablllLy sLudles. A LesL-reLesL correlaLlon ls concerned wlLh
wheLher scores obLalned from a measuremenL scale are generallzable Lo Lhe unlverse scores across all Llmes of
posslble measuremenL. Lven lf Lhe LesL-reLesL correlaLlon ls hlgh, noLhlng can be sald abouL Lhe generallzablllLy
of Lhe scale Lo oLher unlverses. 1o generallze oLher unlverses, generallzablllLy Lheory procedures musL be
employed.
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Noncomparat|ve
sca|e
Cne of Lwo Lypes of scallng Lechnlques ln whlch each sLlmulus ob[ecL ls scaled lndependenLly of Lhe oLher ob[ecLs
ln Lhe sLlmulus seL.
Cont|nuous
rat|ng sca|e
Also 'graphlc raLlng scale', Lhls measuremenL scale has Lhe respondenLs raLe Lhe ob[ecLs by placlng a markL aL Lhe
approprlaLe poslLlon on a llne LhaL runs from one exLreme of Lhe crlLerlon varlable Lo Lhe oLher.
Item|zed rat|ng
sca|e
A measuremenL scale havlng numbers and/or brlef descrlpLlons assoclaLed wlLh each caLegory. 1he caLegorles are
ordered ln Lerms of scale poslLlon
L|kert sca|e A measuremenL scale wlLh flve response caLegorles ranglng from 'sLrongly dlsagree' Lo 'sLrongly agree', whlch
requlres Lhe respondenLs Lo lndlcaLe a degree of agreemenL or dlsagreemenL wlLh each of a serles of sLaLemenLs
relaLed Lo Lhe sLlmulus ob[ecLs. Also called 'summaLed scale'.
Semant|c
d|fferent|a|
A 7-polnL raLlng scale wlLh endpolnLs assocleLed wlLh blpolar labels LhaL have semanLlc meanlng
Stape| sca|e A scale measurlng aLLlLudes LhaL conslsLs of a slngle ad[ecLlve ln Lhe mlddle of an even-numbered range of values,
from -3 Lo 3, wlLhouL a neuLral polnL (zero)
8a|anced sca|e A scale wlLh an equal number of favorable and unfavorable caLegorles
Iorced rat|ng
sca|es
A raLlng scale LhaL forces Lhe respondenLs Lo express an oplnlon because 'no oplnlon' or 'no knowledge' opLlon ls
noL provlded
Mu|t|-|tem
sca|es
ConslsLs of mulLlple lLems, where an lLem ls a slngle quesLlon or sLaLemenL Lo be evaluaLed
Construct A speclflc Lype of concepL LhaL exlsLs aL a hlgher level of absLracLlon Lhan do everyday concepLs
Measurement
error
1he varlaLlon ln Lhe lnformaLlon soughL by Lhe researcher and Lhe lnformaLlon generaLed by Lhe measuremenL
process employed
1rue score
mode|
A maLhemaLlcal model LhaL provldes a framework for undersLandlng Lhe accuracy of measuremenL
Systemat|c error AffecLs Lhe measuremenL ln a consLanL way and represenLs sLable facLors LhaL affecL Lhe observed score ln Lhe
same way each Llme Lhe measuremenL ls made
kandom error MeasuremenL error LhaL arlses from random changes or dlfferences ln respondenLs or measuremenL slLuaLlons
ke||ab|||ty 1he exLenL Lo whlch a scale produces conslsLenL resulLs lf repeaLed measuremenLs are made on Lhe characLerlsLlc
1est-retest
re||ab|||ty
An approach for assesslng rellablllLy ln whlch respondenLs are admlnlsLered ldenLlcal seLs of scale lLems aL Lwo
dlfferenL Llmes under as nearly equlvalenL condlLlons as posslble
A|ternat|ve-
forms re||ab|||ty
An approach for assesslng rellablllLy LhaL requlres Lwo equlvalenL forms of Lhe scale Lo be consLrucLed and Lhen
Lhe same respondenLs are measured aL Lwo dlfferenL Llmes
Interna|
cons|stency
re||ab|||ty
An approach for assesslng Lhe lnLernal conslsLency of Lhe seL of lLems when several lLems are summaLed ln order
Lo form a LoLal score for Lhe scale
Sp||t-ha|f
re||ab|||ty
A form of lnLernal conslsLency rellablllLy ln whlch Lhe lLems consLlLuLlng Lhe scale are dlvlded lnLo Lwo halves and
Lhe resulLlng half scores are correlaLed
Coeff|c|ent
a|pha
A measure of lnLernal conslsLency rellablllLy LhaL ls Lhe average of all posslble spllL-half coefflclenLs resulLlng from
dlfferenL spllLLlngs of Lhe scale lLems. A value of 0.6 or less generally lndlcaLes unsaLlsfacLory lnLernal conslsLency
rellablllLy. 1he value of Lhe alpha Lends Lo lncrease wlLh an lncrease ln Lhe nr of scale lLems, and may Lherefore be
lnnaproprlaLe.
Va||d|ty 1he exLenL Lo whlch dlfferences ln observed scale scores reflecL Lrue dlfferences among ob[ecLs on Lhe
characLerlsLlc belng measured, raLher Lhan sysLemaLlc or random errors
Content va||d|ty A Lype of valldlLy, also called face valldlLy- LhaL conslsLs of a sub[ecLlve buL sysLemaLlc evaluaLlon of Lhe
represenLaLlLveness of Lhe conLenL of a scale for Lhe measurlng Lask aL hand
Cr|ter|on va||d|ty A Lype of valldlLy LhaL examlnes wheLher Lhe measuremenL scale performs as expecLed ln relaLlon Lo oLher
varlables selecLed as meanlngful crlLerla. 2 forms: concurrenL and predlcLlve valldlLy.
Construct
va||d|ty
A Lype of valadlLy LhaL addresses Lhe quesLlon of whaL consLrucL or characLerlsLlc Lhe scale ls measurlng. An
aLLempL ls made Lo answer LheoreLlcal quesLlons of why a scale works and whaL deducLlons can be made
concernlng Lhe Lheory underlylng Lhe scale. lL ls Lhe mosL sophlsLlcaLed and dlfflculL Lype of valldlLy Lo esLabllsh. lL
lncludes convergenL, dlscrlmlnanL and nomologlcal valldlLy.
Convergent
va||d|ty
A measure of consLrucL valldlLy LhaL measures Lhe exLenL Lo whlch Lhe scale correlaLes poslLlvely wlLh oLher
meausres of Lhe same consLrucL
D|scr|m|nant
va||d|ty
A Lype of consLrucL valldlLy LhaL assesses Lhe exLenL Lo whlch a measure does noL correlaLe wlLh oLher consLrucLs
from whlch lL ls supposed Lo dlffer
Nomo|og|ca|
va||d|ty
A Lype of valldlLy LhaL assesses Lhe relaLlonshlp beLweeen LheoreLlcal consLrucLs. lL seeks Lo conflrm slgnlflcanL
correlaLlons beLween Lhe consLrucLs as predlcLe by Lheory
Genera||zab|||ty 1he degree Lo whlch a sLudy whlch ls base don a sample applles Lo a unlverse of generallzaLlons

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Choos|ng a sca||ng techn|que - factors to be cons|dered:
-1he level of lnformaLlon (nomlnal, ordlnal, lnLerval or raLlo) deslred,
-1he capablllLles of Lhe respondenLs,
-1he characLerlsLlcs of Lhe sLlmulus ob[ecLs,
-MeLhod of admlnlsLraLlon,
-1he conLexL,
-CosLs.
A general rule: uslng Lhe scallng Lechnlque LhaL wlll yleld Lhe hlghesL level of lnformaLlon feaslble ln a glven
slLuaLlon wlll permlL Lhe use of Lhe greaLesL varleLy of sLaLlsLlcal analyses. Also, regardless Lhe Lype of scale
used, whenever feaslble, several scale lLems should measure Lhe characLerlsLlc of lnLeresL. 1hls provldes more
accuraLe measuremenL Lhan a slngle-lLem scale. ln many slLuaLlons, lL ls deslrable Lo use more Lhan one scallng
Lechnlque or Lo obLaln addlLlonal measures uslng maLhemaLlcally derlved scales.
Mathemat|ca| sca||ng techn|ques - All scallng Lechnlques ln Lhls chapLer requlre Lhe respondenLs Lo evaluaLe
dlrecLly varlous characLerlsLlcs of Lhe sLlmulus ob[ecLs. ln conLrasL, maLhemaLlcal scallng Lechnlques allow
researchers Lo lnfer respondenLs' evaluaLons of characLerlsLlcs of sLlmulus ob[ecLs. 1wo popular Lechnlques are
mulLldlmenslonal scallng and con[olnL analysls. (see chapLer 21).






















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Chapter 11 'Samp||ng: des|gn and procedures'
'Sampllng ls Lhe only feaslble way Lo collecL markeLlng research daLa ln mosL slLuaLlons. 1hls lnevlLably
lnLroduces errors. Powever, sampllng errors are ofLen only a small parL of Lhe LoLal research errors'.

Sample characLerlsLlcs are called sLaLlsLlcs and are used Lo make lnferences abouL Lhe populaLlon parameLers.
1he lnferences LhaL llnk sample characLerlsLlcs and populaLlon parameLers are esLlmaLlon procedures and LesLs
of hypoLheses.

Samp|e versus census:
Samp|e Census
1.8udget Small Large
2.1|me ava||ab|e ShorL Long
3.opu|at|on s|ze Large Small
4.Var|ance |n the character|st|cs Small Large
S.Cost of samp||ng errors Low Plgh
6.Cost of nonsamp||ng errors Plgh Low
7.Nature of measurement uesLrucLlve nondesLrucLlve
8.Attent|on to |nd|v|dua| cases ?es no
*nonsampllng errors are found Lo be Lhe ma[or conLrlbuLor Lo LoLal error, whereas random sampllng errors have been
relaLlvely small ln magnlLude. ln mosL slLuaLlons, accuracy conslderaLlons favor a sample over a census.
1he samp||ng process des|gn lncludes 3 sLeps:
1 .uefloe tbe totqet popolotloo
lnvolves LranslaLlng Lhe problem deflnlLlon lnLo a preclse sLaLemenL of who should and should noL be lncluded ln Lhe
sample. lL should be deflned ln Lerms of elemenLs (who- 18 year olds), sampllng unlLs (vla where-households or 18 year olds
on Lhe sLreeLs), exLenL (geographlcal boundarles) and Llme.
2. uetetmloe tbe somplloq ftome
1he sampllng frame ls Lhe represenLaLlon of Lhe elemenLs of Lhe LargeL populaLlon. lL conslsLs of a llsL or seL of dlrecLlons for
ldenLlfylng Lhe LargeL populaLlon. (examples: Lelephone book, clLy dlrecLory, malllng llsL). lf a llsL cannoL be complled, Lhan
aL leasL some dlrecLlons for ldenLlfylng Lhe LargeL populaLlon should be speclfled ('random dlglL dlallng' or so). When uslng a
llsL of populaLlon elemenLs, Lhe llsL may omlL some elemenLs of Lhe populaLlon or lnclude oLher elemenLs LhaL do noL
belong ! Lhe use of a llsL wlll lead Lo sampllng frame error. 1he sampllng frame error can be LraLed ln Lhree ways: redeflne
Lhe populaLlon ln Lerms of Lhe sampllng frame / screenlng Lhe respondenLs wlLh respecL Lo demographlcs or producL usage
/ ad[usL Lhe daLa collecLed by a welghLlng scheme Lo counLerbalance Lhe sampllng frame error. 8egardless of whlch
approach ls adopLed, lL ls lmporLanL Lo recognlze any sampllng frame error LhaL exlsLs, so LhaL lnnaproprlaLe populaLlon
lnferences can be avolded.
J. 5elect o somplloq tecbolpoe
Make a declslon Lo use a 8ayeslan or LradlLlonal sampllng approach, Lo sample wlLh or wlLhouL replacemenL, and Lo use
nonprobablllLy or probablllLy sampllng. 1he LradlLlonal approach selecLs Lhe enLlre sample before daLa collecLlon beglns, ln
Lhe 8ayeslan approach Lhls goes sequenLlally, afLer each added elemenL, daLa are collecLed, sample sLaLlsLlcs compuLed and
sample cosLs deLermlned. lor sampllng wlLh/wlLhouL replacemenL: sLaLlsLlcal lnference ls noL very dlfferenL lf Lhe sampllng
frame ls large relaLlve Lo Lhe ulLlmaLe sample slze. 8uL Lhe mosL lmporLanL declslon abouL Lhe cholce of sampllng
Lechnlques ls wheLher Lo use probablllLy or nonprobablllLy sampllng. lf Lhe sampllng unlL ls dlfferenL from Lhe elemenL, lL ls
necessary Lo speclfy preclsely how Lhe elemenLs wlLhln Lhe sampllng unlL should be selecLed. When a probablllLy sampllng
Lechnlque ls belng employed, a random selecLlon musL be made from all Lhe ellglble persons ln each household (such as
'nexL blrLhday').
4. uetetmloe tbe somple slze
1he number of elemenLs Lo be lncluded ln Lhe sLudy. lmporLanL quallLaLlve facLors LhaL should be consldered when
deLermlnlng Lhe sample slze are 1)tbe lmpottooce of tbe Jeclsloo 2)tbe ootote of tbe teseotcb J)tbe oombet of votlobles
4)tbe ootote of tbe ooolysls 5)somple slzes oseJ lo slmllot stoJles 6)loclJeoce totes 7)completloo totes 8)tesootce
coosttolots.1he degree of preclslon may be measured ln Lerms of Lhe sLandard devlaLlon of Lhe mean (whlch ls lnversely
proporLlonal Lo Lhe square rooL of Lhe sample slze: Lhe larger Lhe sample, Lhe smaller Lhe galn ln preclslon by lncreaslng Lhe
sample slze by one unlL). LxploraLory deslgns use small sample slzes, concluslve and descrlpLlve deslgns ask for larger
samples. 1he cumulaLlve effecLs of sampllng error across varlables are reduced ln a large sample. 1he sample slze requlred
should be ad[usLed for Lhe lncldence of ellglble respondenLs and Lhe compleLlon raLe.
5. xecote tbe somplloq ptocess
8equlres a deLalled speclflcaLlon of how Lhe sampllng deslgn declslons wlLh respecL Lo Lhe populaLlon, sampllng frame,
sampllng unlL, sampllng Lechnlque and sample slze are Lo be lmplemenLed. CperaLlonal deflnlLlons are needed, procedures
should be speclfled (for non responds aL home eLc). ueLalled lnformaLlon musL be provlded for all sampllng deslgn
declslons.
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C|ass|f|cat|on of samp||ng techn|ques
Nonprobab|||ty (personal [udgmenL of Lhe
researcher)
! Convenlence sampllng
! !udgemenLal sampllng
! CuoLa sampllng
! Snowball sampllng
robab|||ty (sampllng unlLs are selecLed by
chance)
! Slmple random sampllng
! SysLemaLlc sampllng
!ClusLer sampllng
!CLher sampllng Lechnlques
! SLraLlfled sampllng (! proporLlonaLe or dlsproporLlonaLe)

ln probab|||ty samp||ng, sampllng unlLs are selecLed by chance. lL ls posslble Lo prespeclfy every poLenLlal
sample of a glven slze LhaL could be drawn from Lhe populaLlon, as well as Lhe probablllLy of selecLlng each
sample. Lvery poLenLlal sample need noL have Lhe same probablllLy of selecLlon, buL lL ls posslble Lo speclfy Lhe
probablllLy of selecLlng any parLlcular sample of a glven slze. 1hls requlres a preclse deflnlLlon of Lhe populaLlon
as well as a general speclflcaLlon of Lhe sampllng frame. 8ecause sample elemenLs are selecLed by chance, lL ls
posslble Lo deLermlne Lhe preclslon of Lhe sample esLlmaLes of Lhe characLerlsLlcs of lnLeresL. Confldence
lnLervals, whlch conLaln Lhe Lrue populaLlon value wlLh a glven level of cerLalnLy, can be calculaLed. 1hls
permlLs Lhe researcher Lo make lnferences or pro[ecLlons abouL Lhe LargeL populaLlon from whlch Lhe sample
was drawn. robablllLy sampllng Lechnlques are classlfled based on:
- lemeots vs. clostet somplloq
- pool oolt ptoboblllty vs. ooepool ptobobllltles
- uosttotlsfleJ vs. sttotlfleJ selectloo
- kooJom vs. systemotlc selectloo
- 5loqle-stoqe vs. moltlstoqe
All posslble comblnaLlons of Lhese flve aspecLs resulL ln 32 dlfferenL probablllLy sampllng Lechnlques. Cf Lhese
Lechnlques, we conslder slmple random sampllng, sysLemaLlc sampllng, sLraLlfled sampllng and clusLer
sampllng ln depLh and brlefly Louch on some oLhers.
robab|||ty samp||ng techn|ques Lhey vary ln Lerms of sampllng efflclency, a concepL LhaL reflecLs a Lrade-off
beLween sampllng cosL and preclslon (Lhe level of uncerLalnLy abouL Lhe characLerlsLlc belng measured:
lnversely relaLed Lo sampllng errors buL poslLlvely relaLed Lo cosL). 1he greaLer Lhe preclslon, Lhe greaLer Lhe
cosL: Lhe researcher should sLrlve for Lhe mosL efflclenL sampllng deslgn, sub[ecL Lo Lhe budgeL allocaLed. 1he
efflclency of a probablllLy sampllng Lechnlque may be assessed by comparlng lL Lo LhaL of slmple random
sampllng.
S8S: Lhe researcher flrsL complles a sampllng frame ln whlch each elemenL ls asslgned a unlque ldenLlflcaLlon number. 1hen
random nrs are generaLed Lo deLermlne whlch elemenLs Lo lnclude ln Lhe sample. lL ls easy Lo undersLood, buL has 4 serlous
llmlLaLlons: 1) dlfflculL Lo consLrucL a sampllng frame LhaL wlll permlL a slmple random sample Lo be drawn, 2) S8S can resulL
ln samples LhaL are very large or spread over large geographlc areas, lncreaslng Llme and cosL of daLa collecLlon, 3) S8S
ofLen resulLs ln lower preclslon wlLh larger sLandard errors Lhan oLher probablllLy sampllng Lechnlques, 4) S8S may or may
noL resulL ln a represenLaLlve sample (more llkely lf Lhe slze of Lhe sample ls small)
SysLemaLlc sampllng,:Lhe researcher assusmes LhaL Lhe populaLlon elemenLs are ordered ln some respecL (unrelaLed or
relaLed Lo Lhe characLerlsLlc of lnLeresL) when Lhe orderlng of elemenLs ls relaLed Lo Lhe characLerlsLlc of lnLeresL,
sysLemaLlc sampllng lncreases Lhe represenLaLlveness of Lhe sample. lL ls less cosLly and easler Lhan S8S because random
selecLlon ls done only once and Lhe random nrs do noL have Lo be maLched wlLh lndlvldual elemenLs as ln S8S. SysLemaLlc
sampllng can even be used wlLhouL knowledge of Lhe composlLlon (elemenLs) of Lhe sampllng frame. lL ls ofLen employed ln
consumer mall, Lelephone, mall-lnLercepL and lnLerneL lnLervlews.
SLraLlfled sampllng dlffers from quoLa sampllng ln LhaL sample elemenLs are selecLed probablllsLlcally raLher Lhan based
on [udgmenL. A ma[or ob[ecLlve of sLraLlfled sampllng ls Lo lncrease preclslon wlLhouL lncreaslng cosL. 1he varlables used Lo
parLlLlon Lhe populaLlon lnLo sLraLa are called sLraLlflcaLlon varlables. 1he crlLerla of selecLlng Lhese conslsL of homogelnlLy
(a sLraLum), heLerogelnlLy (dlfferences beLween sLraLa), relaLedness (closely relaLed Lo Lhe characLerlsLlc of lnLeresL) and
cosLs. 1he more closely Lhese varlables are meL, Lhe greaLher Lhe effecLlveness ln conLrolllng exLraneous sampllng
varlaLlon. 1he varlables should decrease Lhe cosL of sLraLlflcaLlon process by belng easy Lo measure and apply. More Lhan
Lwo varlables used for sLraLlflcaLlon are seldom used (for pragmaLlc and cosLs reasons) - Lhe nr of sLraLa used ls personal,
buL no more Lhan 6 (>6, any galn ln preclslon ls more Lhan offseL by Lhe lncreased cosLs of sLraLlflcaLlon and sampllng).
AnoLher lmporLanL declslon lnvolves Lhe use of proporLlonaLe or dlsproporLlonaLe sampllng (see word llsL) (noLe LhaL boLh
meLhods are ldenLlcal lf Lhe characLerlsLlc of lnLeresL has Lhe same sLandard devlaLlon wlLhln each sLraLum). SLraLlfled
sampllng can ensure LhaL all Lhe lmporLanL subpopulaLlons are represenLed ln Lhe sample. 1hls ls parLlcularly lmporLanL lf
Lhe dlsLrlbuLlon of Lhe characLerlsLlc of lnLeresL ln Lhe populaLlon ls skewed. lL comblnes Lhe slmpllclLy of S8S wlLh poLenLlal
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galns ln preclslon. lL ls Lherefore a popular sampllng Lechnlque.
ClusLer sampllng: Lhey key dlfference beLween clusLer and sLraLlfled ls LhaL ln clusLer sampllng, only a sample of
subpopulaLlons (clusLers) ls chosen, whereas ln sLraLlfled sampllng, all subpopulaLlons (sLraLa) are selecLed for furLher
sampllng. 1he ob[ecLlves of Lhe Lwo meLhods also dlfferenL:clusLer sampllng wanLs Lo lncrease sampllng efflclency by
decreaslng cosLs, whlle sLraLlfled sampllng wanLs Lo lncrease preclslon. WlLh respecL Lo homogelnlLy and heLerogenelLy, lL ls
Lhe oLher way around as well. LlemenLs wlLhln a clusLer should be as heLerogeneous as posslble, buL clusLers Lhemselves
should be as homogeneous as posslble. Lach clusLer should be a small-scale represenLaLlon of Lhe populaLlon. ln clusLer
sampllng, a sampllng frame ls needed only for Lhose clusLers selecLed for Lhe sample. See below for all dlfferences:
lacLor SLraLlfled sampllng ClusLer sampllng (one-sLage)
Objectlve lncrease preclslon uecrease cosL
5obpopolotloos All sLraLa are lncluded A sample of clusLers ls chosen
wltblo sobpopolotloos Lach sLraLum should be homogeneous Lach clusLer should be heLerogeneous
Actoss sobpopolotloos SLraLa should be heLerogeneous ClusLers should be homogeneous
5omplloq ftome needed for Lhe enLlre populaLlon needed for only Lhe selecLed clusLers
5electloo of elemeots LlemenLs selecLed from each sLraLum
randomly
All elemenLs from each selecLed
clusLer are lncluded
A common form of clusLer sampllng ls area sampllng (ln whlch Lhe clusLers conslsL of geographlc areas). ClusLer sampllng
has Lwo ma[or advanLages: feaslblllLy and low cosLs. ln many slLuaLlons, Lhe only sample frames readlly avallable for Lhe
LargeL populaLlon are clusLers, noL populaLlon elemenLs. ClusLer sampllng ls Lhe mosL cosL-effecLlve probablllLy sampllng
Lechnlque. LlmlLaLlons: lL resulLs ln relaLlvely lmpreclse samples, and lL ls dlfflculL Lo form heLerogeneous clusLers because,
for example, households ln a block Lend Lo be slmllar raLher Lhan dlsslmllar.
CLher Lechnlques: sequenLlal and double sampllng are menLloned.
1be somplloq lotetvol l ls JetetmloeJ by JlvlJloq tbe popolotloo N by somple slze o ooJ toooJloq to tbe oeotest
loteqet).

Strengths and weaknesses of bas|c samp||ng techn|ques:
Sort 1echn|que Strengths Weaknesses
Nooptoboblllty
somplloq
Conven|ence samp||ng LeasL expenslve, LeasL Llme-
consumlng, MosL convenlenL
SelecLlon blas, sample noL
represenLaLlve, noL
recommended for descrlpLlve or
causal research
Iudgmenta| samp||ng Low cosL, convenlenL, noL Llme-
consumlng
uoes noL allow generallzaLlon,
sub[ecLlve
uota samp||ng Sample can be conLrolled for
cerLaln characLerlsLlcs
SelecLlon blas, no assurance of
represenLaLlveness
Snowba|| samp||ng Can esLlmaLe rare characLerlsLlcs 1lme-consumlng
ltoboblllty
somplloq
SkS (s|mp|e random samp||ng) Laslly undersLood, resulLs
pro[ecLable
ulfflculL Lo consLrucL sampllng
frame, expenslve, lower
preclslon, no assurance of
represenLaLlveness
Systemat|c samp||ng Can lncrease represenLaLlveness,
easler Lo lmplemenL Lhan S8S,
sampllng frame noL necessary
Can decrease represenLaLlveness
lf Lhere are cycllcal paLLerns
Strat|f|ed samp||ng lncludes all lmporLanL
subpopulaLlons, preclslon
ulfflculL Lo selecL relevanL
sLraLlflcaLlon varlables, noL
feaslble Lo sLraLlfy on many
varlables, expenslve
C|uster samp||ng Lasy Lo lmplemenL, cosL-effecLlve lmpreclse, dlfflculL Lo compuLe
and lnLerpreL resulLs

See p389 for an overvlew of Lhe probablllLy samples.

Choos|ng nonprobab|||ty versus probab|||ty sampllng should be based on conslderaLlons such as Lhe naLure of
Lhe research, relaLlve magnlLude of nonsampllng versus sampllng errors, varlablllLy ln Lhe populaLlon, as well as
sLaLlsLlcal and operaLlonal conslderaLlons such as cosLs and Llme. (see Lable below). lor some research
problems, hlghly accuraLe esLlmaLes of populaLlon characLerlsLlcs are requlred. ln Lhese slLuaLlons, Lhe
ellmlnaLlon of selecLlon blas and Lhe ablllLy Lo calculaLe sampllng error make probablllLy sampllng deslrable.
Powever, probablllLy sampllng wlll noL always resulL ln more accuraLe resulLs - lf nonsampllng errors are llkely
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Lo be an lmporLanL facLor, Lhen nonprobablllLy sampllng may be preferable, as Lhe use of [udgmenL allow
greaLer conLrol over Lhe sampllng process. ln general, probablllLy sampllng glves more cosLs and Lakes more
Llme.
lacLors Nonprobab|||ty samp||ng robab|||ty samp||ng
tbe ootote of tbe teseotcb LxploraLory Concluslve
telotlve moqoltoJe of ooosomplloq vetsos
somplloq ettots
nonsampllng errors are larger Sampllng errors are larger
votloblllty lo tbe popolotloo, Pomogeneous (low) PeLerogeneous (hlgh)
5totlstlcol cooslJetotloos unfavorable lavorable
opetotloool cooslJetotloos socb os costs
ooJ tlme
lavorable unfavorable

When to use wh|ch samp||ng techn|que (probab|||ty vs. nonprobaba|||ty)
nonprobablllLy sampllng ls used ln concepL, package, name and copy LesLs - where pro[ecLlons Lo Lhe
populaLlons are usually noL needed. ln such sLudles, lnLeresL cenLers on Lhe proporLlon of Lhe sample LhaL glves
varlous responses or expresses varlous aLLlLudes. Samples for Lhese sLudles can be drawn uslng meLhods such
as mall-lnLercepL quoLa sampllng.

robablllLy sampllng ls used when Lhere ls need for hlghly accuraLe esLlmaLes of markeL share or sales volume
for Lhe enLlre markeL. naLlonal markeL Lracklng sLudles, whlch provlde lnfo on producL caLegory and brand
usage raLes, as well as psychographlc and demographlc proflles of users, use probablllLy sampllng. SLudles LhaL
use probablllLy sampllng generally employ Lelephone lnLervlews. SLraLlfled and sysLemaLlc sampllng are
comblned wlLh some form of random dlglL dlallng Lo selecL Lhe respondenLs.
Cn||ne samp||ng techn|ques classlfled as onllne lnLercepL (nonrandom and random), onllne recrulLed (panel or
non-panel) and oLher Lechnlques.
Cn||ne |ntercept samp||ng (v|s|tors to a
webs|te are |ntercepted)
! nonrandom
! 8andom
kecru|ted on||ne samp||ng ! anel (recrulLed or opL-ln panels)
! nonpanel (opL-ln llsL renLals)
Cther techn|ques

Cnllne lnLercepL sampllng ! nonrandom: every vlslLor ls lnLercepLed - for low Lrafflc slLes, shorL Llme frame or wlLhouL
an lncenLlve belng offered: resulLs ln convenlence sample. CuoLas can be lmposed Lo lmprove represenLaLlveness.
Cnllne lnLercepL sampllng ! random: Lhe sofLware selecLs vlslLors aL a random pop-up wlndow. 1he selecLlon
can be made based on slmple random or sysLemaLlc random sampllng. lf Lhe populaLlon ls oLher Lhan webslLe
vlslLors, Lhen Lhe resulLlng sample ls more slmllar Lo a nonprobablllLy sample. neverLheless, randomlzaLlon
lmproves represenLaLlveness and dlscourages mulLlple responses from Lhe same respondenL.

1o malnLaln rellablllLy and lnLegrlLy ln Lhe sample, Lhe followlng procedures are used:
- assword proLecLlon, -remlnder lnvlLaLlons, -summary of Lhe survey flndlngs.
opu|at|on 1he aggregaLe of all Lhe elemenLs, sharlng some common seL of characLerlsLlcs, LhaL comprlses Lhe
unlverse for Lhe purpose of Lhe markeLlng research problem
Census A compleLe enumeraLlon of Lhe elemenLs of a populaLlon or sLudy ob[ecLs
Samp|e A subgroup of Lhe elemenLs of Lhe populaLlon selecLed for parLlclpaLlon ln Lhe sLudy
1arget popu|at|on 1he collecLlon of elemenLs or ob[ecLs LhaL possess Lhe lnformaLlon soughL by Lhe researcher and
abouL whlch lnferences are Lo be made
-L|ement An ob[ecL LhaL possesses Lhe lnformaLlon soughL by Lhe researcher
-Samp||ng un|t 1he basls unlL conLalnlng Lhe elemenLs of populaLlon Lo be sampled
Samp||ng frame A represenLaLlon of Lhe elemenLs of Lhe LargeL populaLlon. lL conslsLs of a llsL or seL of dlrecLlons for
ldenLlfylng Lhe LargeL populaLlon
8ayes|an approach A selecLlon meLhod ln whlch Lhe elemenLs are selecLed sequenLlally. 1he 8ayeslan approach
expllclLly lncorporaLes prlor lnformaLlon abouL populaLlon parameLers as well as Lhe cosLs and
probablllLles assoclaLed wlLh maklng wrong declslons (much lnfo on Lhe cosLs and probablllLles ls noL
avallable).
Samp||ng w|th A sampllng Lechnlque ln whlch an elemenL can be lncluded ln Lhe sample more Lhan once
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rep|acement
Samp||ng w|thout
rep|acement
A sampllng Lechnlque ln whlch an elemenL cannoL be lncluded ln Lhe sample more Lhan once
Samp|e s|ze 1he number of elemenLs Lo be lncluded ln a sLudy
Nonprobab|||ty
samp||ng
Sampllng Lechnlques LhaL do noL use chance selecLlon procedures. 8aLher, Lhey rely on Lhe personal
[udgemenL of Lhe researcher
robab|||ty
samp||ng
A sampllng procedure ln whlch each elemenL of Lhe populaLlon has a flxed probablllsLlc chance of
belng selecLed for Lhe sample
Conven|ence
samp||ng
A nonprobablllLy sampllng Lechnlque LhaL aLLempLs Lo obLaln a sample of convenlenL elemenLs. 1he
selecLlon of sampllng unlLs ls lefL prlmarlly Lo Lhe lnLervlewer. lL ofLen happens Lo be ln Lhe rlghL
place aL Lhe rlghL Llme. LeasL expenslve and leasL Llme consumlng of all sampllng Lechnlques. LoLs of
selecLlon blas are presenL. nC1 approprlaLe for markeLlng research. lL can be used for focus groups,
pre-LesLlng surveys and plloL sLudles (be cauLlous anyways)
Iudgmenta|
samp||ng
A form of convenlence sampllng ln whlch Lhe populaLlon elemenLs are purposely selecLed based on
Lhe [udgemenL of Lhe researcher. lL ls low cosL, convenlenL and qulck, buL sub[ecLlve. lL may be useful
lf broad populaLlon lnferences are noL requlred.
uota samp||ng A nonprobablllLy sampllng Lechnlque LhaL ls a Lwo-sLage resLrlcLed [udgemenLal sampllng. 1he flrsL
sLage conslsLs of developlng conLrol caLegorles or quoLas of populaLlon elemenLs (Lhe researcher llsLs
relevanL conLrol characLerlsLlcs -age, sex, race, ldenLlfled on [udgemenL- and deLermlnes Lhe
dlsLrlbuLlon of Lhese characLerlsLlcs ln Lhe LargeL populaLlon). ln Lhe second sLage, sample elemenLs
are selecLed based on convenlence or [udgmenL. Cnce Lhe quoLas have been asslgned, Lhere ls
conslderable freedom ln selecLlng Lhe elemenLs Lo be lncluded ln Lhe sample. 1he only requlremenL
ls LhaL Lhe elemenLs selecLed flL Lhe conLrol characLerlsLlcs. CfLen Lhe quoLas are asslgned such LhaL
Lhe composlLlon of Lhe sample ls Lhe same as LhaL of Lhe populaLlon. Many sources of selecLlon blas
are presenL. lL does noL permlL assessmenL of sampllng error.
Snowba|| samp||ng A nonprobablllLy sampllng Lechnlque ln whlch an lnlLlal group of respondenLs ls selecLed randomly.
SubsequenL respondenLs are selecLed based on Lhe referrals or lnfo provlded by Lhe lnlLlal
respondenLs. 1hls process may be carrled ouL ln waves by obLalnlng referrals from referrals. 1he
referrals wlll have more demographlc and psychographlc characLerlsLlcs LhaL are more slmllar Lo Lhe
persons refferlng Lhem Lhan would occur by chance. A ma[or ob[ecLlve ls Lo esLlmaLe characLerlsLlcs
LhaL are rare ln Lhe populaLlon. lL lncreases Lhe llkellhood of locaLlng Lhe deslred characLerlsLlc ln Lhe
populaLlon. lL also resulLs ln relaLlvely low sampllng varlance and cosLs.
SkS: S|mp|e
random samp||ng
A probablllLy sampllng Lechnlque ln whlch each elemenL ln Lhe populaLlon has a known and equal
probablllLy of selecLlon .Lvery elemenL ls selecLed lndependenLly of every oLher elemenL and Lhe
sample ls drawn by a random sample procedure from a sampllng frame. (loLLery sysLem)
Systemat|c
samp||ng
A probablllLy sampllng Lechnlque ln whlch Lhe sample ls chosen by selecLlng a random sLarLlng polnL
and Lhen plcklng every lLh elemenL ln successlon from Lhe sampllng frame. ulfference wlLh S8S: Lhe
only permlsslble samples of slze n LhaL can be drawn have a known and equal probablllLy of
selecLlon. 1he remalnlng samples of slze n have a zero probablllLy of belng selecLed.
Strat|f|ed samp||ng A probablllLy sampllng Lechnlque LhaL uses a Lwo-sLep process Lo parLlLlon Lhe populaLlon lnLo
subpopulaLlons, or sLraLa. LlemenLs are selecLed from each sLraLum by a random procedure. 1he
sLraLa are muLually excluslve and collecLlvely exhausLlve ln LhaL every populaLlon elemenL should
asslgned Lo one and only one sLraLum and no populaLlon elemenLs should be omlLLed. nexL, all
elemenLs are selecLed from each sLraLum by a random procedure, usually S8S. 1echnlcally one S8S
should be employed ln selecLlng Lhe elemenLs from each sLraLum.
- roport|onate
strat|f|ed samp||ng
1he slze of Lhe sample drawn from each sLraLum ls proporLlonaLe Lo Lhe relaLlve slze of LhaL sLraLum
ln Lhe LoLal populaLlon
- D|sproport|onate
strat|f|ed samp||ng
1he slze of Lhe sample from each sLraLum ls proporLlonaLe Lo Lhe relaLlve slze of LhaL sLraLum and Lo
Lhe sLandard devlaLlon of Lhe dlsLrlbuLlon of Lhe characLerlsLlc of lnLeresL among all Lhe elemenLs ln
LhaL sLraLum. 1he loglc: sLraLa wlLh larger relaLlve slzes are more lnfluenLlal ln deLermlnlng Lhe
populaLlon mean and Lhese sLraLa should also exerL a greaLer lnfluence ln derlvlng Lhe sample
esLlmaLes. Also, Lo lncrease preclslon, more elemenLs should be drawn from sLraLa wlLh smaller
sLandard devlaLlons (lf all elemenLs ln a sLraLum are ldenLlcal, a sample slze of 1 wlll resulL ln perfecL
lnfo). ulsproporLlonaLe sampllng requlres LhaL some esLlmaLe of Lhe relaLlve varlaLlon, or sLandard
devlaLlon of Lhe dlsLrlbuLlon of Lhe characLerlsLlc of of lnLeresL, wlLhln sLraLa be known. As Lhls lnfo ls
noL always avallable, Lhe researcher may have Lo rely on lnLulLlon and loglc Lo deLermlne sample
slzes for each sLraLum. When Lhe researcher ls prlmarlly lnLeresLed ln examlnlng Lhe dlfferences
beLween sLraLa, a common sampllng sLraLegy ls Lo selecL Lhe same sample slze from each sLraLum.
C|uster samp||ng llrsL, Lhe LargeL populaLlon ls dlvlded lnLo muLually excluslve and collecLlvely exhausLlve
subpopulaLlons called clusLers. 1hen, a random sample of clusLers ls selecLed based on a probablllLy
sampllng Lechnlque such as slmple random sampllng. lor each selecLed clusLer, elLher all Lhe
elemenLs are lncluded ln Lhe sample or a sample of elemenLs ls drawn probablllsLlcally.
*When all elemenLs ln each selecLed clusLer are lncluded ln Lhe sample: one-sLage clusLer sampllng
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*lf a sample of elemenLs ls drawn probablllsLlcally from each selecLed clusLer: Lwo-sLage clusLer
sampllng (slmple clusLer sampllng (uslng S8S) or probablllLy proporLlonaLe Lo slze sampllng (uslng
S- probablllLy proporLlonaLe Lo slze sampllng))
*When a clusLer sample has mulLlple (>2) sLages
Area samp||ng A common form of clusLer sampllng ln whlch Lhe clusLer conslsLs of geographlc areas such as
counLles, houslng LracLs, blocks or oLher area descrlpLlons
*Slngle sLage area sampllng: when only one level of sampllng Lakes place ln selecLlng Lhe basls
elemenLs (all of Lhe households ln Lhe selecLed blocks are lncluded ln Lhe sample)
*1wo(mulLl)-sLage area sampllng: when Lwo (or more) levels of sampllng Lake place before Lhe baslc
elemenLs are selecLed
robab|||ty
proport|onate to
s|ze samp||ng
A selecLlon meLhod ln whlch Lhe clusLers are selecLed wlLh probablllLy proporLlonal Lo slze and Lhe
probablllLy of selecLlng a sample unlL ln a selecLed clusLer varles lnversely wlLh Lhe slze of Lhe clusLer.
Sequent|a|
samp||ng
A probablllLy sampllng Lechnlque ln whlch Lhe populaLlon elemenLs are sampled sequenLlally, daLa
collecLlon and analysls are done aL each sLage, and a declslon ls made as Lo wheLher addlLlonal
populaLlon elemenLs should be sampled.
Doub|e samp||ng
('two phase
samp||ng')
A sampllng Lechnlque ln whlch cerLaln populaLlon elemenLs are sampled Lwlce.lrom Lhe flrsL sample,
Lhey make a subsample, and addlLlonal lnfo ls obLalned.



















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Chapter 12 'Samp||ng: f|na| and |n|t|a| samp|e s|ze determ|nat|on'
'Lhe slze of Lhe sample ls deLermlned noL only by sLaLlsLlcal calculaLlons, buL also managerlal conslderaLlons
lncludlng Llme and cosL'.

SLaLlsLlcal deLermlnaLlon of sample slze requlres knowledge of Lhe normal dlsLrlbuLlon and Lhe use of normal
probablllLy Lables.


Lxample: suppose a slmple random sample of 3 hosplLals ls Lo be drawn from a populaLlon of 20 hosplLals.
1here are 13304 dlfferenL samples of 3 LhaL can be drawn (20 x 19 x 18 x 17 x 16)(1 x 2 x 3 x 4 x 3).

*1be telotlve ftepoeocy Jlsttlbotloo of tbe voloes of tbe meoo of tbese 15504 somples woolJ speclfy tbe
somplloq Jlsttlbotloo of tbe meoo.
*nypotbetlcolly, lo otJet to estlmote tbe popolotloo potometet ftom tbe somple stotlstlc, evety posslble somple
tbot coolJ bove beeo Jtowo sboolJ be exomloeJ. lf oll posslble somples wete octoolly be Jtowo, tbe Jlsttlbotloo
of tbe stotlstlc woolJ be tbe somplloq Jlsttlbotloo.

AlLhough ln pracLlce only one sample ls acLually drawn, Lhe concepL of a sampllng dlsLrlbuLlon ls sLlll relevanL. lL
enables us Lo use probablllLy Lheory Lo make lnferences abouL Lhe populaLlon values. 1he lmporLanL properLles
of Lhe sampllng dlsLrlbuLlon of Lhe mean and Lhe correspondlng properLles for Lhe proporLlon for large samples
(>30) are as follows:
1.1he sampllng dlsLrlbuLlon of Lhe mean ls a normal dlsLrlbuLlon (sLrlcLly speaklng, Lhe sampllng dlsLrlbuLlon of
proporLlon ls blnomlal). Powever, for large samples (n=>30), lL can be approxlmaLed by Lhe normal dlsLrlbuLlon.
2. 1he mean of Lhe sampllng dlsLrlbuLlon of Lhe mean or Lhe proporLlon equals Lhe correspondlng populaLlon
parameLer value (see oLher polnLs below)

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Several quallLaLlve facLors should be also Laken lnLo conslderaLlon when deLermlnlng Lhe sample slze (Lhe
lmporLance of Lhe declslon, Lhe naLure of Lhe research, Lhe nr of varlables, Lhe naLure of Lhe analysls, sample
slzes used ln slmllar sLudles, lncldence raLes, compleLlon raLes, and resource consLralLs. 1he sLaLlsLlcally
deLermlned sample slze (Lhe neL or flnal sample slze): dependlng on lncldence and compleLlon raLes, Lhe slze of
Lhe lnlLla, sample may have Lo be much larger. LlmlLs on Llme, money and resources can lnfluence sample slze
deLermlnaLlon. 1he sLaLlsLlcal approach Lo deLermlnlng sample slze LhaL we conslder ls based on LradlLlonal
sLaLlsLlcal lnference. ln Lhls approach, Lhe level ls speclfled ln advance. 1hls approach ls based on Lhe
consLrucLlon of confldence lnLervals around sample means or proporLlons.
1he conf|dence |nterva| approach Lo sample slze deLermlnaLlon ls based ln Lhe consLrucLlon of confldence
lnLervals around Lhe sample mean or proporLlon uslng Lhe sLandard error formula (sampllng errors are relaLed
Lo sample slze and confldence level). We wanL Lo flnd an lnLerval wlLhln whlch a flxed proporLlon of Lhe sample
means wlll fall (so a lower and upper level):























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1hls approach Lo consLrucL a confldence lnLerval can be adapLed Lo deLermlne Lhe sample slze LhaL wlll resulL ln
a deslred confldence lnLerval. See also Lhe followlng Lable, wlLh Lhe correspondlng sLory: 'A researcher wanLs Lo
esLlmaLe Lhe monLhly household expense for deparLmenL sLore shopplng more preclsely so LhaL Lhe esLlmaLe
wlll be wlLhln +- $3000 of Lhe Lrue populaLlon value. WhaL should be Lhe slze of Lhe sample?' sLeps:

Sample slze lncreases wlLh an lncrease ln Lhe populaLlon varlablllLy, degree of confldence, and Lhe preclslon
level requlred of Lhe esLlmaLe. lf Lhe resulLlng sample slze represenLs >10 of Lhe populaLlon, Lhe flnlLe
populaLlon correcLlon (fpc) should be applled. 1he populaLlon slze does noL affecL Lhe sample slze, excepL
when Lhe fpc has Lo be applled. A larger sample wlll resulL ln a narrower confldence lnLerval. (Lake a look aL
p411 for more calculaLlons) free calculaLlons: www.surveysysLem.com or www.drguLah.com
CLher probablllLy sampllng Lechnlques Lo deLermlne Lhe sample slze are based on Lhe same underlylng
prlnclples. 1he researcher musL speclfy Lhe level of preclslon and Lhe degree of confldence and esLlmaLe Lhe
sampllng dlsLrlbuLlon of Lhe LesL sLaLlsLlc. ln slmple random sampllng, cosL does noL enLer dlrecLly lnLo Lhe
calculaLlons of Lhe sample slze. ln Lhe case of sLraLlfled or clusLer sampllng, cosLs does play a role. 1he cosL per
observaLlon varles by sLraLa/clusLer and Lhe researcher needs some lnlLlal esLlmaLes of Lhese cosLs. 1he
researcher musL Lake lnLo accounL wlLhln-sLraLa varlablllLy or wlLhln-and-beLween-clusLer varlablllLy. Cnce Lhe
overall sample ls deLermlned, Lhe ample ls apporLloned among sLraLa or clusLers. ln general, Lo provlde Lhe
same rellablllLy as slmple random sampllng, sample slzes are Lhe same for sysLemaLlc sampllng, smaller for
sLraLlfled sampllng and larger for clusLer sampllng.
1he sample slze deLermlned sLaLlsLlcally (flnal or neL sample slze) ls Lhe slze LhaL musL be achleved ln order Lo
ensure LhaL Lhe parameLers are esLlmaLed wlLh Lhe deslred degree of preclslon and Lhe glven level of
confldence.
In|t|a| samp|e s|ze = lncldence raLe x compleLlon raLe
kesponse rate = number of compleLed lnLervlews / number of ellglble unlLs ln sample
Nonresponse |ssues |n samp||ng: Lwo ma[or nonresponse lssues are lmprovlng response raLes and ad[usLlng for
nonresponse: reduclng refusals and reduclng noL-aL-homes.
keduc|ng refusa|s rlor noLlflcaLlon // moLlvaLlng respondenLs // lncenLlves // quesLlonnalre deslgn and
admlnlsLraLlon // follow-up // oLher faclllLaLors (personallzaLlon)
keduc|ng not-at-homes Callbacks
MoLlvaLlng respondenLs: fooL-ln-Lhe-door (do you have 3mlns - followed by a larger requesL)& door-ln-Lhe-face
sLraLegles (oLher way around). looL-ln-Lhe-door ls more effecLlve.
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lf Lhe nonresponders dlffer from Lhe respondenLs on Lhe characLerlsLlcs of lnLeresL, Lhe sample esLlmaLes wlll
be serlously blased. Plgher response raLes lmply lower raLes of nonresponse blas, yeL response raLe may noL be
an adequaLe lndlcaLor of nonresponse blas. 8esponse raLes Lhemselves do noL lndlcaLe wheLher Lhe
respondenLs are represenLaLlve of Lhe orlglnal sample. lncreaslng Lhe response raLe may noL reduce
nonresponse blas lf Lhe addlLlonal respondenLs are noL dlfferenL from Lhose who already have responded buL
dlffer from Lhose who sLlll do noL respond. 8ecause low response raLe lncreases Lhe probablllLy of nonresponse
blas, an aLLempL should always be made Lo lmprove Lhe response raLe.
NootespooJeots Jlffet ftom tespooJeots lo tetms of Jemoqtopblc, psycboqtopblc, petsooollty, ottltoJlool, ooJ
motlvotloool ooJ bebovlotol votlobles.
nonrespons should be reporLed and Lhe effecLs should be esLlmaLed. 1hls can be done by llnklng Lhe
nonresponse raLe Lo esLlmaLed dlfferences beLween respondenLs and nonrespondenLs. lnfo on dlfferences
beLween Lhe Lwo groups may be obLalned from Lhe sample lLself. AlLernaLlvely lL may be posslble Lo esLlmaLe
Lhese dlfferences from oLher sources. Lven lf lLs noL feaslble Lo esLlmaLe Lhe effecLs of nonresponse, some
ad[usLmenLs should sLlll be made durlng daLa anlysls and lnLerpreLaLlon. 1he sLraLegles avalalble Lo ad[usL non-
response error lnclude subsampllng of nonrepondenLs, replacemenLs, subsLlLuLlon, sub[ecLlve esLlmaLes, Lrend
analysls, slmple welghLlng and lmpuLaLlon (see word llsL).

arameter


A summary descrlpLlon of a flxed characLerlsLlc or measure of Lhe LargeL populaLlon. A
parameLer denoLes Lhe Lrue value LhaL would be obLalned lf a census raLher Lhan a sample
were underLaken.
Stat|st|c A sLaLlsLlc ls a summary descrlpLlon of a characLerlsLlc or measure of Lhe sample, Lhe sample
sLaLlsLlc ls used as an esLlmaLe of Lhe populaLlon parameLer
I|n|te popu|at|on
correct|on (fpc)
A correcLlon for overesLlmaLlon of Lhe varlance of a populaLlon paramLer, for example, a
mean or proporLlon, when Lhe sample slze ls 10 or more of Lhe populaLlon slze
rec|s|on |eve| When esLlmaLlng a populaLlon parameLer by uslng a sample sLaLlsLlc, Lhe preclslon level ls
Lhe deslred slze of Lhe esLlmaLlng lnLerval. 1hls ls Lhe maxlmum permlsslble dlfference
beLween Lhe sample sLaLlsLlc and Lhe populaLlon parameLer
Conf|dence |nterva| 1he range lnLo whlch Lhe Lrue populaLlon parameLer wlll fall, assumlng a glven level of
confldence
Conf|dence |eve| 1hls ls Lhe probablllLy LhaL a confldence lnLerval wlll lnclude Lhe populaLlon parameLer
Samp||ng d|str|but|on 1he dlsLrlbuLlon of Lhe values of a sample sLaLlsLlc compuLed for each posslble sample LhaL
could be drawn from Lhe LargeL populaLlon under a speclfled sampllng plan
Stat|st|ca| |nference 1he process of generallzlng Lhe sample resulLs Lo Lhe populaLlon resulLs
Norma| d|str|ut|on A basls for classlcal sLaLlsLlcal lnference LhaL ls bell-shaped and symmeLrlcal ln appearance.
lLs measures of cenLral Lendency are all ldenLlcal.
Standard error 1he sLandard devlaLlon of Lhe sampllng dlsLrlbuLlon of Lhe mean or proporLlon
z-va|ue 1he number of sLandard errors a polnL ls away from Lhe mean
Inc|dence rate 1he raLe of occurrence of persons ellglble Lo parLlclpaLe ln Lhe sLudy expressed as a
percenLage. lL deLermlnes how many conLacLs need Lo be screened for a glven sample slze
requlremenL.
Comp|et|on rate 1he percenLage of quallfled respondenLs who compleLe Lhe lnLervlew. lL enables researchers
Lo Lake lnLo accounL-anLlclpaLed refusals by people who quallfy.
Subst|tut|on A procedure LhaL subsLlLuLes for nonrespondenLs oLher elemenLs from Lhe sampllng frame
LhaL are expecLed Lo respond. noLe LhaL Lhls approach would noL reduce nonresponse blas lf
Lhe subsLlLuLes are slmllar Lo respondenLs already ln Lhe sample.
1rend ana|ys|s A meLhod of ad[usLlng for nonresponse ln whlch Lhe researcher Lrles Lo dlscern a Lrend
beLween early and laLe respondenLs. 1hls Lrend ls pro[ecLed Lo nonrespondenLs Lo esLlmaLe
Lhelr characLerlsLlc of lnLeresL. AlLough Lhe Lrend esLlmaLe ls wrong, Lhe error ls smaller Lhan
Lhe error LhaL would have resulLed from lgnorlng Lhe non-respondenLs.
We|gth|ng A sLaLlsLlcal procedure LhaL aLLempLs Lo accounL for nonresponse by asslgnlng dlfferenLlal
welgLhs Lo Lhe daLa dependlng on Lhe response raLes. AlLhough welghLlng can correcL for Lhe
dlfferenLlal effecLs of nonresponse, lL desLroys Lhe self-welghLlng naLure of Lhe sampllng
deslgn and can lnLroduce compllcaLlons.
Imputat|on A meLhod Lo ad[usL for nonresponse by asslgnlng Lhe characLerlsLlc of lnLeresL Lo Lhe
nonrespondenLs based on Lhe slmllarlLy of Lhe varlables avallable for boLh nonrespondenLs
and respondenLs. - ofLen Lhere ls a hlgh correlaLlon beLween Lhe characLerlsLlc of lnLeresL
and some oLher varlables. ln such cases, Lhe correlaLlon can be used Lo predlcL Lhe value of
Lhe characLerlsLlc for Lhe nonrespondenLs.
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Chapter 1S 'Irequency d|str|but|on, Cross-tabu|at|on and nypothes|s test|ng' (13 dec)
ltepoeocy Jlsttlbotloo ooJ ctoss-tobolotloos ote boslc tecbolpoes tbot ptovlJe tlcb loslqbts loto tbe Joto ooJ
loy tbe foooJotloo fot mote oJvooceJ ooolysls.
A flrsL sLep ln analysls ls Lo examlne Lhe frequency dlsLrlbuLlons of Lhe relevanL varlables, where one varlable ls
consldered aL a Llme. lL produces a Lable of frequency counLs, percenLages and cumulaLlve percenLages for all
Lhe values assoclaLed wlLh LhaL varlable. 1he mosL commonly used sLaLlsLlcs assoclaLed wlLh frequencles, are
meosotes of locotloo (mean, mode and medlan), meosotes of votloblllty (range, lnLerquarLlle range, sLandard
devlaLlon and coefflclenL of varlaLlon) and meosotes of sbope (skewness and kurLosls).
MosL approprlaLe measure of locaLlon:
Mean lnLerval or raLlo scale 1he mean makes use of all Lhe lnfo avallable because all of Lhe values are used ln
compuLlng lL. 8uL- senslLlve Lo ouLllers. When Lhere are ouLllers, Lhe medlan
should be conducLed as well.
Mode nomlnal scale
Med|an Crdlnal

lor Lhe sample varlance (and Su), we dlvlde by n-1 because Lhe populaLlon
mean ls unknown, Lhe use of Lhe sample mean makes Lhe sample seem less
varlable Lhan lL really ls. 8y dlvldlng n-1, lnsLead of n, we compensaLe for Lhe
smaller varlablllLy observed ln Lhe sample.
Measures of varlablllLy are lmporLanL because lf a characLerlsLlc shows good
varlablllLy, Lhen perhaps Lhe markeL could be segmenLed based on LhaL
characLerlsLlc.
ln a symmeLrlc dlsLrlbuLlon, Lhe values on elLher slde of Lhe cenLer of
dlsLrlbuLlon are Lhe same, and Lhe mean, mode and medlan are equal.
Measures of shape are lmporLanL, because lf a dlsLrlbuLlon ls hlghly skewed
or markedly peaked or flaL, Lhen sLaLlsLlcal procedures LhaL assume
normallLy should be used wlLh cauLlon.
A genera| procedure for hypothes|s test|ng
1. lotmolote n0 ooJ n1,
2. 5elect oo opptoptlote stotlstlcol tecbolpoe ooJ tbe cottespooJloq test stotlstlc,
1he researcher should Lake lnLo conslderaLlon how Lhe LesL sLaLlsLlc ls compuLed and Lhe sampllng dlsLrlbuLlon LhaL Lhe
sample sLaLlsLlc follows.
J. cboose tbe level of slqolflcooce (olpbo),
1wo error Lypes could occur. Alpha (Lype 1 error) ls known, buL Lype 2 lsn'L. 1hey are relaLed: an exLremely low value of
alpha wlll resulL ln hlgh Lype 2 errors. lL ls necessary Lo flnd a balance. 1herefore alpha ls ofLen 0.03. Lhe level of alpha wlll,
LogeLher wlLh Lhe sample slze, deLermlne Lhe Lype2error level. 1he rlsk of boLh errors can be conLrolled by lncreaslng Lhe
sample slze. lor a glven level of alpha, lncreaslng sample slze wlll decrease error2, Lhereby lncreaslng Lhe power of Lhe LesL.
4. uetetmloe tbe somple slze ooJ collect tbe Joto. colcolote tbe voloe of tbe test-stotlstlc,
5. uetetmloe tbe ptoboblllty ossocloteJ wltb tbe test stotlstlc ooJet tbe n0, osloq tbe somplloq Jlsttlbotloo of tbe test
stotlstlc. Altetootlvely, Jetetmloe tbe ctltlcol voloes ossocloteJ wltb tbe test stotlstlc tbot JlvlJe tbe tejectloo ooJ
oootejectloo teqloo,
noLe LhaL ln deLermlnlng Lhe crlLlcal value of Lhe LesL sLaLlsLlc, Lhe area ln Lhe Lall beyond Lhe crlLlcal value ls elLher alpha
(for a one-Lalled LesL) or alpha/2 (for a Lwo-Lalled LesL).
6. compote tbe ptoboblllty ossocloteJ wltb tbe test stotlstlc wltb tbe level of slqolflcooce speclfleJ, Altetootlvely, Jetetmloe
wbetbet tbe test stotlstlc bos folleo loto tbe tejectloo ot tbe oootejectloo teqloo,
1wo opLlons: see lf ls less Lhan alpha (Lo re[ecL Lhe P0) or see lf Lhe Z sLaLlsLlc lles ln Lhe 88.
7. Moke tbe stotlstlcol Jeclsloo to teject ot oot teject tbe ooll bypotbesls,
lf Lhe absoluLe value of Lhe LesL sLaLlsLlc ls greaLher Lhan Lhe absoluLe value of Lhe crlLlcal value of Lhls LesL sLaLlsLlc, P0 ls
re[ecLed. 1he reason for Lhls slgn shlfL ls LhaL Lhe larger Lhe absoluLe value of Lhe observed value of Lhe LesL sLaLlsLlc, Lhe
smaller Lhe probablllLy of obLalnlng a more exLreme value of Lhe LesL sLaLlsLlc under Lhe h0. <alpha Lo re[ecL h0, buL
absoluLe value of 1esLsLaLlsLlc > crlLlcal value of LesLsLaLlsLlc Lo re[ecL h0.
8. xptess tbe stotlstlcol Jeclsloo lo tetms of motketloq teseotcb ptoblem.
ln LesLs of assoclaLlons, P0 ls LhaL Lhere ls no assoclaLlon beLween Lhe varlables (.. ls nC1 relaLed Lo ..). ln LesLs of
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dlfferences, Lhe P0 ls LhaL Lhere ls no dlfference (.. ls nC1 dlfferenL from ..) LesLs of dlfferences could relaLe Lo dlsLrlbuLlons,
means, proporLlons, medlans or ranklngs. lor LesLs of assoclaLlons, we can puL Lhem ln Lhe conLexL of cross-LabulaLlons.
v|sua| overv|ew steps
Cross-tabu|at|ons are Lhe follow-up of Lhe frequency dlsLrlbuLlon. 1he lu descrlbes one varlable aL a Llme,
whlle a C1 descrlbes Lwo/more varlables slmulLaneously. lL helps Lo undersLand how one varlable (brand
loyalLy) relaLes Lo anoLher varlable (sex). lL resulLs ln Lables LhaL reflecL Lhe [olnL dlsLrlbuLlon of Lwo/more
varlables wlLh a llmlLed nr of caLegorles or dlsLlncL values. AnoLher name ls a conLlngency Lable. A C1 ls easy,
clear, and provldes lnslghL. C1 wlLh Lwo varlables ! blvarlaLe cross-LabulaLlon. ercenLages could be
compuLed rowwlse as well as columnwlse. 1he general rule ls Lo compuLe Lhe percenLages ln Lhe dlrecLlon of
Lhe lndependenL varlable, across Lhe dependenL
varlable. (lu ls sex, uv ls lnLerneL usage)
When uslng Lhree varlables, Lhere are four
posslblllLes.
1-lL can reflne Lhe assoclaLlon beLween Lhe Lwo
orglnal varlables.
2-lL can lndlcaLe no assoclaLlon beLween Lhe Lwo,
alLhough an assoclaLlon was lnlLlally observed
3-lL can reveal some assoclaLlon beLween Lhe Lwo,
alLhough no assoclaLlon was lnlLlally observed. 1he
3
rd
varlable reveals a suppressed assoclaLlon
beLween Lhe flrsL 2 varlables (a suppressor effecL)
4-lL can lndlcaLe no change ln Lhe lnlLlal assoclaLlon.
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AnoLher general rule voor cross-LabulaLlon: Lhere should be aL leasL flve expecLed observaLlons ln each cell for
Lhe sLaLlsLlcs compuLed Lo be rellable. C1 ls an lnefflclenL way of examlnlng relaLlonshlps when Lhere are
several varlables. C1 examlnes assoclaLlon beLween varlables, noL causaLlon. 1he stat|st|ca| s|gn|f|cance of the
observed assoc|at|on |s common|y measured by the ch|-square stat|st|c. 1he sLrengLh of assoclaLlon (or
degree) ls lmporLanL, only lf Lhe assoclaLlon ls sLaLlsLlcally slgnlflcanL. 1hls can be measured by Lhe phl
correlaLlon coefflclenL, Lhe conLlngency coefflclenL, Cramer's v and Lhe lamda coefflclenL.

1he Ch|-square stat|st|c (x2) deLermlnes wheLher Lhere exlsLs sysLemaLlc assoclaLlon beLween Lhe varlables (h0
sLaLes LhaL Lhere ls no assoclaLlon). 1he LesL ls conducLed by compuLlng Lhe cell frequencles LhaL would be
expecLed lf no assoclaLlon were presenL beLween Lhe varlables, glven Lhe exlsLlng row and columns LoLals.
1hese expecLed cell frequencles (fe) are compared Lo Lhe acLual observed frequencles (fo) Lhe greaLer Lhe
dlscrepancles beLween Lhe Lwo, Lhe larger Lhe value of Lhe LesL sLaLlsLlc. (fe= nrnc/n) x2 ls calculaLed as:
x2 = (fo-fe)2/fe
1o deLermlne wheLher a sysLemaLlc assoclaLlon exlsLs, Lhe probablllLy of obLalnlng a value of chl-square as large
as or larger Lhan Lhe one calculaLed from Lhe cross-LabulaLlon ls esLlmaLed. An lmporLanL characLerlsLlc of Lhe
chl-square sLaLlsLlc ls Lhe nr of degrees of freedom (df) assoclaLed wlLh lL. ln general Lhe df ls equal Lo Lhe nr of
observaLlons - Lhe nr of consLralnLs needed Lo calculaLe a sLaLlsLlcal Lerm. (or df= r-1 x c-1). P0 wlll only be
re[ecLed when Lhe calculaLed value of Lhe LesL sLaLlsLlc ls greaLher Lhan Lhe crlLlcal value of Lhe chl-square
dlsLrlbuLlon wlLh Lhe approprlaLe df.
1he chl-square sLaLlsLlc can also be used ln a goodness-of-flL LesL Lo deLermlne wheLher cerLaln models flL Lhe
observed daLa. 1hese LesL are conducLed by calculaLlng Lhe Lhe slgnlflcance of sample devlaLlons from assumed
LheoreLlcal (expecLed) dlsLrlbuLlons, and can be performed on C1 as well as on frequencles (one-way
LabulaLlons). 1he x2 sLaLlsLlc should only be esLlmaLed on counLs of daLa (noL percenLages). 1he observaLlons
need Lo be drawn lndependenLly and Lhe x2 analaysls should noL be conducLed when Lhe expecLed frequencles
ln any of Lhe cells are less Lhan 3. lf Lhe nr of observaLlons ln any cell ls <10 or lf lL ls a 2x2 Lable, a correcLlon
facLor should be used. ln case of a 2x2 Lable, Lhe chl-square ls relaLed Lo Lhe phl coefflclenL (x2/n and Lhen
square rooL), whlch measures Lhe sLrengLh of Lhe assoclaLlon. A beLLer measure for sLrengLh ls Lhe conLlngency
coefflclenL (x2/x2+n and Lhen square rooL) whlch ls beLween 0-1. lor >2x2 Lables, use Cramer's v or Lambda.
nypothes|s test|ng re|ated to d|fferences a classlflcaLlon (llmlLed Lo more Lhan Lwo samples):
arameLrlc = Lhe varlables of lnLeresL are measured on aL leasL an lnLerval scale (lnLerval or raLlo),
nonparameLrlc = Lhe varlables are measured on a nomlnal or ordlnal scale.

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Lhe nr of samples ls deLermlned based on how Lhe daLa are LreaLed for Lhe purpose of analysls, noL based on
how Lhe daLa were collecLed. 5omples ote loJepeoJeot wbeo tbey ote Jtowo tooJomly ftom Jlffeteot
popolotloos (mole/femole). uoto ote polteJ wbeo tbe Joto fot tbe two somples telote to tbe some qtoop of
tespooJeots.
AkAML1kIC: CNL SAMLL (1 or Z LesL)
arameLrlc LesLs ! 1-LesL: 8ecall LhaL Lhe Su of Lhe sample mean ls esLlmaLed as s/vn. 1=x-u/s-sd wlLh n-1 df.
arameLrlc LesLs ! Z-LesL: when Lhe Su ls known raLher Lhan esLlmaLed from Lhe sample. We calculaLe sd by
dlvldlng lL wlLh vn. Z=x-u/sd. We look aL Lhe slgnlflcance level (1.643 for 0.03) whlch needs Lo be less Lhan Lhe
calculaLed Z value Lo re[ecL h0.

AkAML1kIC: 1WC INDLLNDLN1 SAMLLS (lndependenL Samples 1 1esL and Lhen flrsL l -LesL for mean-
u1=u2 or u1lsnLu2) (Z LesL for proporLlons: z= p1-p2/sp1-sp2)

AkAML1kIC: AIkLD SAMLLS (alred samples 1-LesL ud)
NCNAkAML1kIC: CNL SAMLL (k-S)
NCNAkAML1kIC: 1WC INDLLNDLN1 SAMLLS (Mann WhlLney, wllcoxon)
NCNAkAML1kIC: AIkLD SAMLLS (Wllcoxon palred samples slgned-ranks LesL or slgn LesL)
Irequency d|str|but|on A maLhemaLlcal dlsLrlbuLlon whose ob[ecLlve ls Lo obLaln a counL of Lhe nr of responses assoclaLed wlLh
dlfferenL values of one varlable and Lo express Lhese counLs ln percenLage Lerms. lL helps deLermlne Lhe exLenL
of lLem nonresponse and lndlcaLes Lhe exLenL of llleglLlmaLe responses (errors). CuLllers can be deLecLed and lL
lndlcaLes Lhe shapre of Lhe dlsLrlbuLlon.
Measures of |ocat|on A sLaLlsLlc LhaL descrlbes a locaLlon wlLhln a daLa seL. Measures of cenLral Lendency descrlbe Lhe cenLer of Lhe
dlsLrlbuLlon
Mean 1he average, LhaL value obLalned by summlng all elemenLs ln a seL and dlvldlng by Lhe nr of elemenLs. used Lo
esLlmaLe Lhe mean when Lhe daLa have been collecLed uslng an lnLerval or raLlo scale. lf Lhere are no ouLllers,
Lhe mean ls a robusL measure
Mode A measure of cenLral locaLlon glven as Lhe value LhaL occurs Lhe mosL ln a sample dlsLrlbuLlon. A good measure
when Lhe varlable ls caLegorlcal or has been grouped lnLo caLegorles.
Med|an A measure of cenLral Lendency glven as Lhe value above whlch half of Lhe values fall and below wlLh half of Lhe
values fall. WlLh even nr's- Lhe mldpolnL beLween Lhe Lwo mlddle ones. 1he medlan ls Lhe 30
Lh
percenLlle. An
approprlaLe measure for ordlnal daLa.
Measures of var|ab|||ty A sLaLlsLlc LhaL lndlcaLes Lhe dlsLrbuLlon's dlsperslon
kange 1he dlfference beLween Lhe largesL and smallesL values of a dlsLrlbuLlon. ulrecLly affecLed by ouLllers.
Interquart||e range 1he range of a dlsLrlbuLlon encompasslng Lhe mlddle 30 percenL of Lhe observaLlons. 1he dlfference beLween
Lhe 23
Lh
and 73
Lh
percenLlle.
Var|ance 1he mean squared devlaLlon of all Lhe values from Lhe mean. Can never be negaLlve. When Lhe daLa polnLs are
clusLered around Lhe mean, Lhe varlance ls small. When Lhe daLa polnLs are scaLLered, Lhe varlance ls large.
CalculaLed as xl-x2/n-1.
Standard dev|at|on 1he square rooL of Lhe varlance. lL ls calculaLed as Lhe square rooL of xl-x2/n-1
Coeff|c|ent of var|at|on
(CV)
A useful expresslon ln sampllng Lheory for Lhe sLandard devlaLlon as a percenLage of Lhe mean. lL ls Lhe raLlo of
Lhe Su Lo Lhe mean, expressed as a percenLage, and lL ls a unlLless measure of relaLlve varlablllLy. Lxpressed as
Cv = s/x (Su/sample mean). Cnly meanlngful for a raLlo scale.
1he procedure for hypothes|s test|ng, for the spec|a| case when the 1 stat|st|c |s used:
1. lormulaLe P0 and P1
2. SelecL Lhe approprlaLe formula for Lhe 1-sLaLlsLlc
3. SelecL a slgnlflcance level (alpha), mosL ofLen 0.03.
4. 1ake one/Lwo samples and compuLe Lhe mean and Su for each sample.
3. CalculaLe Lhe 1-sLaLlsLlc assumlng P0 ls Lrue.
6. CalculaLe Lhe df and esLlmaLe Lhe probablllLy of geLLlng a more exLreme value of Lhe sLaLlsLlc.
7. lf Lhe probablllLy compuLed ln sLep6 ls smaller Lhan Lhe slgnlflcance level of sLep3, re[ecL P0. lf Lhe probablllLy ls
larger, do noL re[ecL P0. (alLernaLlvely, lf Lhe absoluLe value of Lhe calculaLed L-sLaLlsLlc ln sLep3 ls larger Lhan Lhe
absoluLe crlLlcal value deLermlned ln sLep6, re[ecL h0. lf Lhe abs. calc value ls smaller, Lhan Lhe abs crlLlc value, do noL
re[ecL h0.) fallure Lo re[ecL h0 does noL mean LhaL h0 ls Lrue. lL only means LhaL Lhe Lrue sLaLe ls noL slgnlflcanLly
dlfferenL from LhaL assumed by h0.
8. Lxpress Lhe concluslon reached by Lhe 1-LesL ln Lerms of Lhe markeLlng research problem.
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Skweness A characLerlsLlc of a dlsLrlbuLlon LhaL assesses lLs symmeLry abouL Lhe mean. ulsLrlbuLlons can be symmeLrlc or
skewed. Skewness ls Lhe Lendency of Lhe devlaLlons from Lhe mean Lo be larger ln one dlrecLlon Lhan ln Lhe
oLher. lL can be LhoughL of as Lhe Lendency for one Lall of Lhe dlsLrlbuLlon Lo be heavler Lhan Lhe oLher.
kurtos|s A measure of Lhe relaLlve peakedness or flaLness of Lhe curve deflned by Lhe frequency dlsLrlbuLlon. 1he
kurLosls of a normal dlsLrlbuLlon ls 0. lf Lhe kurLosls ls poslLlve, Lhen Lhe dlsLrlbuLlon ls more peaked Lhan a
normal dlsLrlbuLlon. A negaLlve value means LhaL Lhe dlsLrlbuLlon ls flaLLer Lhan a normal dlsLrlbuLlon.
Nu|| hypothes|s A sLaLemenL ln whlch no dlfference or effecL ls expecLed. lf Lhe null hypoLhesls ls noL re[ecLed, no changes wlll
be made. ALWA?S 1PL P?C1PLSlS 1PA1 lS 1LS1Lu. 1he P0 refers Lo a speclfled value of Lhe populaLlon
parameLer, noL a sample sLaLlsLlc.
A|ternat|ve hypothes|s A sLaLemenL LhaL some dlfference or effecL ls expecLed. AccepLlng Lhe alLernaLlve hypoLhesls wlll lead Lo
changes ln oplnlons or acLlons.
Cne-ta||ed test A LesL of Lhe null-hypoLhesls where Lhe alLernaLlve hypoLhesls ls expressed dlrecLlonally. More ofLen used Lhan
Lwo-Lall. 1here ls a preferred dlrecLlon for concluslon. 1hls one ls more powerful.
1wo-ta||ed test A LesL of Lhe null-hypoLhesls where Lhe alLernaLlve hypoLhesls ls noL expressed dlrecLlonally
1est stat|st|c A measure of how close Lhe sample has Lo come Lo Lhe null hypoLhesls. lL ofLen follows a well-known
dlsLrlbuLlon, such as Lhe normal, L, or chl-square dlsLrlbuLlon
1ype 1 error Also known as alpha error, lL occurs when Lhe sample resulLs lead Lo Lhe re[ecLlon of a null hypoLhesls LhaL ls ln
facL Lrue.
Leve| of s|gn|f|cance 1he probablllLy of maklng a Lype ! error
1ype 2 error Also known as beLa error, lL occurs when Lhe sample resulLs lead Lo Lhe nonre[ecLlon of a null hypoLhesls LhaL ls
ln facL false
ower of a test 1he probablllLy of maklng a Lype 2 error- of re[ecLlng Lhe null hypoLhesls when lL ls ln facL false and should be
re[ecLed
va|ue 1hls ls Lhe probablllLy of observlng a value of Lhe LesL sLaLlsLlc as exLreme as, or more exLreme Lhan, Lhe value
acLually observed, assumlng LhaL Lhe null hypoLhesls ls Lrue.
Cross-tabu|at|on A sLaLlsLlcal Lechnlque LhaL descrlbes Lwo or more varlables slmulLaneously and resulLs ln Lables LhaL reflecL Lhe
[olnL dlsLrlbuLlon of Lwo or more varlables LhaL have a llmlLed nr of caLegorles or dlsLlncL values
Cont|ngency tab|e A cross-LabulaLlon Lable. lL conLalns a cell for every comblnaLlon of caLegorles of Lhe Lwo varlables. 1he daLa
are consldered Lo be quallLaLlve or caLegorlcal daLa, because each varlable ls assumed Lo have only a nomlnal
scale. C1 wlLh Lwo varlables ! blvarlaLe cross-LabulaLlon. ercenLages could be compuLed rowwlse as well as
columnwlse. 1he general rule ls Lo compuLe Lhe percenLages ln Lhe dlrecLlon of Lhe lndependenL varlable,
across Lhe dependenL varlable. (lu ls sex, uv ls lnLerneL usage) AnoLher general rule voor cross-LabulaLlon:
Lhere should be aL leasL flve expecLed observaLlons ln each cell for Lhe sLaLlsLlcs compuLed Lo be rellable. C1 ls
an lnefflclenL way of examlnlng relaLlonshlps when Lhere are several varlables. C1 examlnes assoclaLlon
beLween varlables, noL causaLlon.
Ch|-square stat|st|c 1he sLaLlsLlc used Lo LesL Lhe sLaLlsLlcal slgnlflcance of Lhe observed assoclaLlon ln a cross-LabulaLlon. lL asslsLs
us ln deLermlnlng wheLher a sysLemaLlc assoclaLlon exlsLs beLween Lhe Lwo varlables.
Ch|-square d|str|but|on A skewed dlsLrlbuLlon whose shape depends solely on Lhe number of degrees of freedom. As Lhe number of
degrees of freedom lncreases, Lhe chl-square dlsLrlbuLlon becomes more symmeLrlcal.
h| coeff|c|ent A measure of Lhe sLrengLh of assoclaLlon ln Lhe speclal case of a Lable wlLh Lwo rows and Lwo collums (2x2
Lable) (conLlngency Lable)
Cont|ngency coeff|c|ent
(C)
A measure of Lhe sLrengLh of assoclaLlon ln a Lable of any slze. 8eLween 0 and 1, where 0 means no assoclaLlon
(Lhe varlables are lndependenL).
Cramer's V A measure of Lhe sLrengLh of assoclaLlon used ln Lables larger Lhan 2x2. Adds Lhe ul ((r-1)(c-1) now lL wlll
range from 0 Lo 1. A large value lndlcaLes a hlgh degree of assoclaLlon (buL noL how).
Assymetr|c Lambda Assumes varlables are measured on nomlnal scale. A measure of Lhe percenLage lmprovemenL ln predlcLlng
Lhe value of Lhe dependenL varlable, glven Lhe value of Lhe lndependenL varlable ln conLlngency Lable analysls.
Lambda varles beLween 0 and 1. 0 means no lmprovemenL ln predlcLlon.
Symmetr|c Lambda Assumes varlables are measured on nomlnal scale. 1he symmeLrlc lambda does noL make an assumpLlon abouL
whlch varlable ls dependenL. lL measures Lhe overall lmprovemenL when predlcLlon ls done ln boLh dlrecLlons.
lL's Lhe average beLween Lhe Lwo asymmeLrlc values. uoes noL makes any assumpLlon of whlch ls dependenL. lL
measures Lhe overall lmprovemenL when predlcLlon ls done ln boLh dlrecLlons.
1au b 1esL sLaLlsLlc LhaL measures Lhe assoclaLlon beLween Lwo ordlnal-level varlables. lL makes an ad[usLmenL for
Lles and ls mosL approprlaLe when Lhe Lable of varlables ls square (equal rows and columns).
1au c 1esL sLaLlsLlc LhaL measures Lhe assoclaLlon beLween Lwo-ordlnal level varlables. lL makes an ad[usLmenL for
Lles and ls mosL approprlaLe when Lhe Lable of varlables ls noL square buL a recLangle.
Gamma 1esL-sLaLlsLlc LhaL measures Lhe assoclaLlon beLween Lwo ordlnal-level varlables. lL does noL make an
ad[usLmenL for Lles.
arametr|c test PypoLhesls-LesLlng LhaL assume LhaL Lhe varlables of lnLeresL are measured on aL leasL an lnLerval scale.
(lnLerval or raLlo)
Nonparametr|c test PypoLhesls-LesLlng procedures LhaL assume LhaL Lhe varlables are measured on a nomlnal or ordlnal scale
1 test MosL popular parameLrlc LesL. A unlvarlaLe hypoLhesls LesL uslng Lhe L dlsLrlbuLlon, whlch ls used when Lhe Su
MarlL url[fhouL - 2013 %+
ls unknown and Lhe sample slze ls small. Could be conducLed on Lhe mean of one sample or Lwo samples of
observaLlon.
1 stat|st|c A sLaLlsLlc LhaL assumes LhaL Lhe varlable has a symmeLrlc bell-shaped dlsLrlbuLlon (normally), Lhe mean ls
known (or assumed Lo be known) and Lhe populaLlon varlance ls esLlmaLed from Lhe sample.
1 d|str|but|on A symmeLrlc bell-shaped dlsLrlbuLlon LhaL ls useful for small sample (<30) LesLlng. When Lhe mean ls known
and Lhe populaLlon varlance ls esLlmaLed from Lhe sample. ulfference wlLh normal dlsLrlbuLlon: more area ln
Lhe Lalls and less ln Lhe cenLer, because o2 ls unknown and esLlmaLed by s2. Clven Lhe uncerLalnLy of s2, Lhe
observed values of L are more varlable Lhan Lhose of z. as Lhe nr of df lncreases, Lhe L dlsLrlbuLlon approaches
Lhe normal dlsLrlbuLlon. lor samples of >120, Lhe 1 dlsLr and normal dlsLr are lndlsLlngulshable.
2 test A unlvarlaLe hypoLhesls LesL uslng Lhe sLandard normal dlsLrlbuLlon
Independent samp|es 1wo samples LhaL are noL experlmenLally relaLed. 1he measuremenL of one sample has no effecL on Lhe values
of Lhe second sample
I test A sLaLlsLlcal LesL of Lhe equallLy of Lhe varlances of Lwo populaLlons
I stat|st|c 1he f sLaLlsLlc ls compuLed as Lhe raLlo of Lwo sample varlances
I d|str|but|on A frequency dlsLrlbuLlon LhaL depends upon Lwo seLs of degrees of freedom- Lhe df ln Lhe numeraLor and Lhe
df ln Lhe denomlnaLor.
a|red samp|es ln hypoLhesls LesLlng, Lhe observaLlons are palred so LhaL Lhe Lwo seLs of observaLlons relaLe Lo Lhe same
respondenLs
a|red samp|es 1-test A LesL for dlfferences ln Lhe means of palred samples
ko|mogorov-Sm|rnov (k-
S) one-samp|e test
A one-sample nonparameLrlc goodness-of-flL LesL LhaL compares Lhe cumulaLlve dlsLrlbuLlon funcLlon for a
varlable wlLh a speclfled dlsLrlbuLlon
kuns test A LesL of randomness for a dlchoLomous varlable
8|nom|a| test A goodness-of-flL sLaLlsLlcal LesL for dlchoLomous varlables. lL LesL Lhe goodness of flL of Lhe observed nr of
observaLlons ln each caLegory Lo Lhe nr expecLed under a speclfled blnomlal dlsLrlbuLlon
Mann-Wh|tney U-test A sLaLlsLlcal LesL for a varlable measured on an ordlnal scale, comparlng Lhe dlfference ln Lhe locaLlon of Lwo
populaLlons based on observaLlons from Lwo lndependenL samples.
1wo-samp|e med|an test nonparameLrlc LesL sLaLlsLlc LhaL deLermlnes wheLher Lwo groups are drawn from populaLlons wlLh Lhe same
medlan. 1hls LesL ls noL as powerful as Lhe Mann-WhlLney u LesL.
ko|mogorov-Sm|rnov
two-samp|e test
nonparameLrlc LesL sLaLlsLlc LhaL deLermlnes wheLher Lwo dlsLrlbuLlons are Lhe same. lL Lakes lnLo accounL any
dlfferences ln Lhe Lwo dlsLrlbuLlons, lncludlng medlan, dlsperslon and skewness.
W||coxon matched-pa|rs
s|gned-ranks test
A nonparameLrlc LesL LhaL analyzes Lhe dlfferences beLween Lhe palred observaLlons, Laklng lnLo accounL Lhe
magnlLude of Lhe dlfferences
S|gn test A nonparameLrlc LesL for examlnlng dlfferences ln Lhe locaLlon of Lwo populaLlons, based on palred
observaLlons, LhaL compares only Lhe slgns of Lhe dlfferences beLween palrs of varlables wlLhouL Laklng lnLo
accounL Lhe ranks.












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Chapter 16 'Ana|ys|s of Var|ance and Covar|ance'
'Aoolysls of votlooce ls o sttolqbtfotwotJ woy to look ot Jlffeteoces omooq mote tboo two qtoops of tespooses
meosoteJ oo lotetvol ot totlo scoles
CP13 was beLween Lwo means/medlans, now lLs
abouL more Lhan 2 means/medlans (by
AnCvA/AnCCvA), assoclaLed wlLh Lhe effecL of Lhe
conLrolled lndependenL valables, afLer Laklng lnLo
accounL Lhe lnfluence of Lhe unconLrolled
dependenL varlables. .
AnCvA and AnCCvA are used for experlmenLs,
survey or observaLlonal daLa.
Cne-way ANCVA: ldenLlfy x&y, decompose Lhe LoLal
varlaLlon , measured by Lhe sum of squares
correcLed for Lhe mean (55y= 55betweeo - 55wltblo)
SSbeLween: SSx: Lhe var ln ? relaLed Lo Lhe var ln Lhe
means of Lhe caLegorles of x.
SSwlLhln: SSerror: Lhe var ln ? relaLed Lo Lhe var ln
each caLegory of x. lL ls noL accounLed for by x.
uolng Lhls ls loglcal because lL ls noL known LhaL all x
have Lhe same mean, and Lherefore we cannoL
calculaLe Lhe varlance of all observaLlons LogeLher. We Lherefore calculaLe varlances lndlvldually, and comblne
Lhem lnLo an average varlance.

We use 82 (n2) Lo lndlcaLe Lhe sLrengLh of Lhe effecLs of x & ?. when Lhls ls 0, x has no effecL on y. lL wlll be 1
when Lhere ls no varlablllLy wlLhln each caLegory, buL some beLween Lhe caLegorles. 1o conducL a one-way
analysls, use an l-LesL. When P0 lsnL re[ecLed, lL means LhaL Lhe lv does noL have a slgnlflcanL effecL on Lhe uv.
n-way ANCVA: lL enables Lhe researcher Lo examlne lnLeracLlons beLween Lhe facLors. 1he calculaLlon ls Lhe
same, When Lhere ls an overall slgnlflcance, Lhe nexL sLep ls Lo examlne Lhe slgnlflcance of Lhe lnLeracLlon
effecL. (shows slgnlflcance beLween Lwo/more lv's). when Lhls LesL ls slgnlflcan, so Lhe effecL of x1 depends on
Lhe effecL of x2, Lhe nexL sLep ls Lo LesL Lhe slgnlflcance of Lhe maln effecL (for each lndlvldual facLor). All are
conducLed wlLh an l-LesL.
Ana|ys|s of CCVAkIANCL (ANCCVA): when Laklng lnLo accounL Lhe lnfluence of unconLrolled lv's. lL lncludes aL
leasL one caLegorlcal lv (nonmeLrlc, ordlnal or nomlnal) - Lhe facLor, and a covarlaLe (meLrlc lndependenL
varlable: lnLerval, raLlo). 1he mosL common use ls Lo remove exLraneous varlaLlon from Lhe uv because Lhe
effecLs of Lhe facLors are of ma[or concern. 1he varlaLlon ln Lhe uv due Lo Lhe covarlaLes ls removed by an
ad[usLmenL of Lhe uv's mean value wlLhln each LreaLmenL condlLlon. 1he coefflclenLs of Lhe covarlaLes provlde
lnslghLs lnLo Lhe effecLs Lhey have on Lhe uv. AnCCvA ls mosL useful when Lhe covarlaLe ls llnearly relaLed Lo
Lhe uv and noL relaLed Lo Lhe facLors. Agaln, use Lhe l-sLaL. lf Lhe effecL of Lhe covarlaLe ls slgnlflcanL, Lhe slgn
of Lhe raw coefflclenL can be used Lo lnLerpreL Lhe dlrecLlon of Lhe effecL on Lhe uv.
ISSULS IN IN1LkkL1A1ICN dlfferenL lnLeracLlons can arlse. osslble ouLcomes are: no lnLeracLlon or
lnLeracLlon. An lnLeracLlon effecL occurs when Lhe effecL of an lv on a uv ls dlfferenL for dlfferenL caLegorles or
levels of anoLher lv. 1he lnLeracLlon ls ordlnal or dlsordlnal. (ordlnal means LhaL Lhe rank order of Lhe effecLs
relaLed Lo one facLor does noL change across Lhe levels of Lhe 2
nd
facLor. ulsordlnal lnvolves a change ln Lhe
rank order of Lhe effecLs of one facLor across Lhe levels of anoLher.) ulsordlnal lnLeracLlon ls sLronger Lhan
ordlnal lnLeracLlon because of Lhe rank order.




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ANCVA A sLaLlsLlcal Lechnlque for examlnlng Lhe dlfferences among means for Lwo/more populaLlons. P0 sLaLes LhaL
Lhe Lwo means are equal. 1he slmplesL form ls a meLrlc dependenL varlable (lnLerval/raLlo) and one/more
lndependenL caLegorlcal/nonmeLrlc varlables - called facLors (and are nomlnal or ordlnal daLa).
Iactors CaLegorlcal lndependenL varlables. 1he lv's musL be all caLegorlcal (nonmeLrlc) (=nomlnal or ordlnal) Lo use
AnCvA
1reatment ln AnCvA, a parLlcular comblnaLlon of facLor levels or caLegorles
Cne-way ana|ys|s of
var|ance
An AnCvA Lechnlque ln whlch Lhere ls only one facLor, one caLegorlcal varlable.
n-way ana|ys|s of
var|ance
An AnCvA model where Lwo/more facLors are lnvolved
Ana|ys|s of covar|ance
(ANCCVA)
An advanced analysls of varlance procedure ln whlch Lhe effecLs of one or more meLrlc-scaled exLraneous
varlables are removed from Lhe dependenL varlable before conducLlng AnCvA. 1he seL of lndependenL
varlables conslsL of boLh caLegorlcal and meLrlc varlables (lnLerval,raLlo,nomlnal or ordlnal). 1he nonmeLrlc
varlables are sLlll called facLors, whlle Lhe meLrlc varlables are called covarlaLes.
Covar|ate A meLrlc lndependenL varlable used ln AnCCvA
Decompos|t|on of the
tota| var|at|on
ln one-way AnCvA, seperaLlon of Lhe varlaLlon observed ln Lhe dependenL varlaLlon due Lo Lhe lndependenL
varlables plus Lhe varlaLlon due Lo error
Interact|on When assesslng Lhe relaLlonshlp beLween Lwo varlables, an lnLeracLlon occurs lf Lhe effecL of x1 depends on
Lhe level of x2 and vlce versa
Mu|t|p|e n2 1he sLrengLh of Lhe [olnL effcL of Lwo(or more) facLors, or Lhe overall effecL
S|gn|f|cance of the
overa|| effect
A LesL LhaL some dlfferences exlsL beLween some of Lhe LreaLmenL groups
S|gn|f|cance of the
|nteract|on effect
A LesL of slgnlflcance of Lhe lnLeracLlon beLween Lwo/more lndependenL varlables
S|gn|f|cance of the ma|n
effect
A LesL of Lhe slgnlflcance of Lhe maln effecL for each lndlvldual facLor
Crd|na| |nteract|on An lnLeracLlon where Lo rank order of Lhe effecLs aLLrlbuLable Lo one facLor does noL change across Lhe levels
of Lhe second facLor
D|sord|na| |nteract|on 1he change ln Lhe rank order of Lhe effecLs of one facLor across Lhe levels of anoLher
Cmega squared (w2) A measure lndlcaLlng Lhe proporLlon of Lhe varlaLlon ln Lhe dependenL varlable explalned by a parLlcular
lndependenL varlable or facLor
Contrasts ln AnCvA, a meLhod of examlnlng dlfference among Lwo/more means of Lhe LreaLmenL groups
A pr|or| contrasts ConLrasLs LhaL are deLermlned before conducLlng Lhe analysls, based on Lhe researcher's LheoreLlcal
framework
A poster|or| contrasts ConLrasLs made afLer Lhe analysls. 1hese are generally mulLlple comparlson LesLs
Mu|t|p|e compar|son test A posLerlorl conLrasL LhaL enables Lhe researcher Lo consLrucL generallzed confldence lnLervals LhaL can be used
Lo make palrwlse comparlsons of all LreaLmenL areas
kepeated measures
ana|ys|s of var|ance
An AnCvA Lechnlque used when respondenLs are exposed Lo more Lhan one LreaLmenL condlLlon and
repeaLed measuremenLs are obLalned
Nonmetr|c ana|ys|s of
var|ance
An AnCvA Lechnlque for examlnlng Lhe dlfference ln Lhe cenLral Lendencles of more Lhan Lwo groups when Lhe
dependenL varlable ls measured on an ordlnal scale
k-samp|e med|an test nonparameLrlc LesL LhaL ls used Lo examlne dlfferences among groups when Lhe dependenL varlable ls
measured on an ordlnal scale
kruska|-wa|||s one-way
ana|ys|s of var|ance
A nonmeLrlc AnCvA LesL LhaL uses Lhe rank value of each case, noL merely lLs locaLlon relaLlve Lo Lhe medlan
Mu|t|var|ate ana|ys|s of
var|ance (MANCVA)
An AnCvA Lechnlque uslng Lwo or more meLrlc dependenL varlables







MarlL url[fhouL - 2013 %$
Chapter 17 'Corre|at|on and regress|on'
'cottelotloo ls o slmple bot powetfol woy to look ot tbe lloeot telotloosblp betweeo two mettlc votlobles.
Moltlple teqtessloo exteoJs tbls coocept, eooblloq tbe teseotcbet to exomloe tbe telotloosblp betweeo ooe
votloble ooJ sevetol otbets.'
kegress|on ana|ys|s ls used for explalnlng varlables ln markeL share, sales, brand preference and oLher
markeLlng resulLs ln Lerms of markeLlng managemenL varlables such as prlce, adverLlslng, dlsLrlbuLlon and
producL quallLy. 1he foundaLlon for regresslon are correlaLlon and parLlal correlaLlon coefflclenL.
When you wanL Lo examlne Lhe assoclaLlon beLween Lwo varlables afLer conLrolllng for one/more varlables,
part|a| corre|at|on should be esLlmaLed. (example: sale & adverLlslng expendlLures whlle prlce ls conLrolled).
When you wanL Lo measure Lhe relaLlonshlp beLween x and ? whlle conLrolllng Z, Lherefore we should predlcL
Lhe values of x based on a knowledge of Z by uslng Lhe producL momenL correlaLlon beLween x and Z (8xz).
arLlal correlaLlons have an order assoclaLed wlLh Lhem. 1he order lndlcaLes how many varlables are belng
ad[usLed or conLrolled. 1he slmple correlaLlon efflclenL (r) has a 0-order, as lL does noL conLrol for any
addlLlonal varlables.
kegress|on ana|ys|s can be used for analyzlng assoclaLlve relaLlonshlps beLween a meLrlc uv and one/more
lv's. lL can be used ln Lhe followlng ways:
1. WheLher a relaLlonshlp exlsLs beLween x and y,
2. WhaL Lhe sLrengLh of Lhe relaLlonshlp ls,
3. ueLermlne Lhe sLrucLure of Lhe relaLlonshlp,
4. redlcL Lhe value of Lhe dependenL varlable,
3. ConLrol for oLher lndependenL varlables.
noLe LhaL Lhe lv may explaln Lhe varlaLlon ln Lhe uv: Lhls does noL necessarlly mean causaLlon!
Steps for b|var|ate regress|on ana|ys|s :
"! $%&' '() *+,'')- ./,0-,1
Pow should Lhe llne be flLLed Lo besL descrlbe Lhe daLa?
use Lhe leasL squares meLhod
2! 3&-14%,') '() 0)5)-,% 1&.)%
6! 7*'/1,') '() 8,-,1)')-*
9! 7*'/1,') '() *',5.,-./:). -)0-)**/&5 +&);;/+/)5' -2
<! ')*' ;&- */05/;/+,5+) =.)')-1/5) '() *'-)50'( ,5. */05/;/+,5+)>
?! @()+A '() 8-)./+'/&5 ,++4-,+B
C! 7D,1/5) '() -)*/.4,%*
E! @-&**FG,%/.,') '() 1&.)%

roblems LhaL resulL from mu|t|co|||near|ty (when lnLercorrelaLlons among Lhe predlcLors are very hlgh):
1.1he parLlal regresslon coefflclenLs may noL be esLlmaLed preclsely. 1he sLandard errors are llkely Lo be hlgh.
2. 1he magnlLudes as well as Lhe slgns of Lhe parLlal regresslon coefflclenLs may change from sample Lo sample.
3. lL becomes dlfflculL Lo assess Lhe relaLlve lmporLance of Lhe lndependenL varlables ln explanlng Lhe varlaLlon
ln Lhe dependenL varlable.
4. redlcLor varlables may be lncorrecLly lncluded or removed ln sLepwlse regresslon.
rocedures of varylng complexlLy have been suggesLed Lo cope wlLh mulLlcolllnearlLy. A slmple procedure
conslsLs of uslng only one of Lhe varlables ln a hlghly correlaLed seL of varlables. AlLernaLlvely, Lhe seL of lv's
can be Lransformed lnLo a new seL of predlcLors LhaL are muLually lndependenL by uslng Lechnlques such as
prlnclpal componenLs analysls. When mulLlcolllnearlLy ls presenL, speclal care ls requlred ln assesslng Lhe
relaLlve lmporLance of lndependenL varlables. lL ls valuable Lo deLermlne Lhe relaLlve lmporLance of Lhe
predlcLors. (how lmporLanL are Lhe lv's ln accounLlng for Lhe varlaLlon ln Lhe crlLerlon or uv?) unforLunaLely,
because Lhe predlcLors are correlaLed, Lhere ls no amblglous measure of relaLlve lmporLance of Lhe predlcLors
ln regresslon analysls. Several approaches are commonly used Lo assess Lhe relaLlve lmporLance of predlcLor
varlables: sLaLlsLlcal slgnlflcance, 82, measures based on sLandardlzed coefflclenLs or sLepwlse regresslon.
8egresslon wlLh dummy varlables provldes a framework for undersLandlng AnCvA and AnCCvA. AlLhough
mulLlple regresslon wlLh dummy varlables provldes a general procedure for AnCvA and AnCCvA, we show
only Lhe equlvalance of regresslon wlLh dummy varlables Lo one-way AnCvA. ln dummy varlables, Lhe
predlcLed ?haL for each caLegory ls Lhe mean of ? for each caLegory.

MarlL url[fhouL - 2013 %%
roduct moment
corre|at|on (r)
A sLaLlsLlc summarlzlng Lhe sLrengLh of assoclaLlon beLween Lwo meLrlc (lnLerval/raLlo) varlables. 1he mosL
used one. lLs an lndex used Lo deLermlne wheLher a llnear, or sLralghL-llne, relaLlonshlp exlsLs beLween x and ?.
lL lndlcaLes Lhe degree ln whlch Lhe varlaLlon of x ls relaLed Lo Lhe varlaLlon ln ?. Also called Lhe earson
correlaLlon coefflclenL, slmple correlaLlon, blvarlaLe correlaLlon or Lhe correlaLlon coefflclenL. 8 varles beLween
0-1 and ls a speclal case of covarlance, obLalned when daLa are sLandardlzed. 8 ls an absoluLe number.

82 expresses 8 ln Lerms of decomposlLlon of Lhe LoLal varlaLlon - lL measures Lhe proporLlon of varlaLlon ln one
varlable LhaL ls explalned by Lhe oLher. lL doesn'L maLLer whlch varlable ls dependenL and whlch ls
lndependenL, Lhe correlaLlon of x and ? ls Lhe same as ? and x. arLlal correlaLlons have an order
assoclaLed wlLh Lhem. 1he order lndlcaLes how many varlables are belng ad[usLed or conLrolled. 1he
slmple correlaLlon efflclenL (r) has a 0-order, as lL does noL conLrol for any addlLlonal varlables.
Covar|ance A sysLemaLlc relaLlonshlp beLween Lwo varlables ln whlch a change ln one lmplles a correspondlng change ln
Lhe oLher (CCvxy)
art|a| corre|at|on
coeff|c|ent
A measure of Lhe assoclaLlon beLween Lwo varlables afLer conLrolllng or ad[usLlng for Lhe effecLs of one or
more addlLlonal varlables. 1he parLlal correlaLlon coefflclenL ls generally vlewed as more lmporLanL Lhan Lhe
parL correlaLlon coefflclenL because lL can be used Lo deLermlne spurlous and suppressor effecLs.
art corre|at|on
coeff|c|ent
A measure of Lhe correlaLlon beLween ? and x when Lhe llnear effecLs of Lhe oLher lndependenL varlables have
been removed from x buL noL from ?
Nonmetr|c corre|at|on A correlaLlon measure for Lwo nonmeLrlc (nomlnal/ordlnal) varlables LhaL relles on ranklngs Lo compuLe Lhe
correlaLlon. So Lhe daLa should be lnLerval or raLlo scaled, and lf noL, we use Lhe nonmeLrlc correlaLlon.
kegress|on ana|ys|s A sLaLlsLlcal procedure for analyzlng assoclaLlve relaLlonshlps beLween a meLrlc uv and one/more lv's
8|var|ate regress|on A procedure for derlvlng a maLhemaLlcal relaLlonshlp ln Lhe form of an equaLlon, beLween a slngle meLrlc uv
and a slngle meLrlc lv. lL ls Lhe same as slmple correlaLlon, only Lhe lv and uv musL be ldenLlfled. We use 82.
Least-squares procedure A Lechnlque for flLLlng a sLralghL llne Lo a scaLLerdlagram by mlnlmzlng Lhe square of Lhe verLlcal dlsLances of all
Lhe polnLs from Lhe llne and Lhe procedure ls called ordlnanry leasL squares regresslon (CLS) Lhe besL flLLlng
llne ls called Lhe regresslon llne. 1he verLlcal dlsLance from Lhe polnL Lo Lhe llne ls Lhe error. 1he dlsLances of all
polnLs from Lhe llne are squared and Lhen added LogeLher Lo arrlve Lhe sum of squared errors, a measure of
Lhe LoLal error. ln flLLlng Lhe llne, Lhe leasL squares procedure mlnlmlzes Lhe sum of squared errors. 1he scaLLer
dlagram lndlcaLes wheLher Lhe blvarlaLe regresslon model ls approprlaLe. (?= b0+b1x)
Mu|t|p|e regress|on A sLaLlsLlcal Lechnlque LhaL slmulLaneously develops a maLhemaLlcal relaLlonshlp beLween 2/more
lndependenL varlables and an lnLerval-scaled dependenL varlable. lL ls blvarlaLe regresslon wlLh more lv's. we
use Lhe ad[usLed r2, whlch adds Lhe number of lv's and Lhe sample slze.
Mu|t|p|e regress|on
mode|
An equaLlon used Lo explaln Lhe resulLs of mulLlple regresslon analysls.
res|dua| 1he dlfference beLween Lhe observed value of ?l and Lhe value predlcLed by Lhe regresslon equaLlon (?haLl).
1he assumpLlon of a normally dlsLrlbuLed error Lerm can be examlned by consLrucLlng a hlsLogram of Lhe
sLandardlzed reslduals. lL ls also useful Lo examlne Lhe normal probablllLy ploL of sLandardlzed reslduals.
loLLlng Lhe reslduals agalnsL Lhe lv's provldes evldence of Lhe approprlaLeness of uslng a llnear model.
Stepw|se regress|on A regresslon procedure ln whlch Lhe predlcLor varlables enLer or leave Lhe regresslon equaLlon one aL a Llme.
An lmporLanL varlable may be never lncluded, or less lmporLanL varlables may enLer Lhe equaLlon. lL does noL
resulL ln opLlmal regresslon eqlLaLlons. lL can be useful when Lhe sample slze ls large ln relaLlon Lo Lhe nr of
predlcLors.
Mu|t|co|||near|ty A sLaLe of very hlgh lnLercorrelaLlons among lndependenL varlables.
Cross-va||dat|on A LesL of valldlLy LhaL examlnes wheLher a model holds on comparable daLa noL used ln Lhe orlglnal esLlmaLlon.
necessary before assesslng Lhe relaLlve lmporLance of Lhe predlcLors or drawlng any oLher lnferences. 1he
avalalble daLa are spllL ln esLlmaLlon sample (30-90 of LoLal sample) and Lhe valldaLlon sample. 1he regresslon
model ls esLlmaLed uslng Lhe esLlmaLlon sample only, and Lhen compared Lo Lhe enLlre sample.
Doub|e-cross va||dat|on A speclal form of valldaLlon ln whlch Lhe sample ls spllL lnLo halves (lnsLead of 30-90 for esLlmaLlon sample).
Cne half serves as Lhe esLlmaLlon sample and Lhe oLher as a valldaLlon sample. 1he roles of Lhe esLlmaLlon and
valldaLlon halves are Lhen reversed and Lhe cross-valldaLlon process ls repeaLed






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Chapter 21 'Mu|t|d|mens|ona| sca||ng and con[o|nt ana|ys|s'
'8elaLlonshlps are easler Lo see lf you draw a plcLure or creaLe a charL LhaL lllusLraLes Lhe relaLlonshlps. Con[olnL
analysls helps us proflle whlch aLLrlbuLes conLrlbuLe mosL heavlly Lo a person's cholce among a varleLy of
offerlngs made up of dlfferenL comblnaLlons of Lhese aLLrlbuLes'
MuS and con[olnL analysls are Lechnlques for analyzlng consumer percepLlons and preferences.
MuS ls used Lo ldenLlfy:
1-1he nr and naLure of dlmenslons consumers use Lo percelve dlfferenL brands ln Lhe markeLplace,
2-1he poslLlonlng of currenL brands on Lhese dlmenslons,
3-1he poslLlonlng of consumers' ldeal brand on Lhese dlmenslons.
lnformaLlon provlded by MuS has been used for lmage measuremenL, markeL segmenLaLlon, new producL
developmenL, assesslng adverLlslng effecLlveness, prlclng analysls, channel declslons and aLLlLude scale
consLrucLlng.
Conduct|ng mu|t|d|mens|ona| sca||ng lormulaLe Lhe problem ! obLaln lnpuL daLa ! selecL an MuS procedure
(meLrlc/nonmeLrlc) (aL Lhe lndlvldual respondenL level or aggregaLe level)! declde on Lhe nr of dlmenslons !
label Lhe dlmenslons and lnLerpreL Lhe conflguraLlon ! assess rellablllLy and valldlLy.
MDS |nput data ! ercepLlons ! ulrecL (slmllarlLy [udgemenLs) (brand vs. brand) (LlkerL)
! uerlved (aLLrlbuLe raLlngs) (LlkerL or semanLlc dlff or
hypoLheLlcal ldeal brand ldenLlflcaLlon)
! references Cn respondenLs' preferences. ln Lhe spaLlal map, dlsLance lmplles
dlfference ln preferences.

1he ob[ect|ve of MDS ls Lo obLaln a spaLlal map LhaL besL flLs Lhe lnpuL daLa ln Lhe smallesL number of
dlmenslons. Powever, spaLlal maps are compuLed ln such a waL LhaL Lhe flL lmproves as Lhe nr of dlmenslons
lncreases. 1herefore, a compromls has Lo be made: Lhe flL of an MuS soluLlon ls commonly assessed by Lhe
sLress measure. SLress ls a lack-of-flL measure. 1he followlng guldellnes are suggesLed for deLermlnlng Lhe nr of
dlmenslons:
1-A prlolr knowledge, 2-lnLerpreLablllLy of Lhe spaLlal map (lL ls dlfflculL Lo lnLerpreL >3 dlmenslons), 3-elbow
crlLerlon , 4-ease of use (2dlmenslonal maps are mosL easy), 3-sLaLlsLlcal approaches.
Assess|ng re||ab|||ty and va||d|aty of Lhe MuS soluLlons
1-Lhe 82 square (lndex of flL) should be examlned. lL lndlcaLes how well Lhe MuS model flLs Lhe lnpuL daLa.
values of 0.60 or beLLer are consldered accepLable.
2-SLress values are also lndlcaLlve of Lhe quallLy of MuS soluLlons. SLress measures Lhe badness of flL
(LegenovergesLeld van 82). 20 sLress means poor flL, 10 ls falr.
3-lf an aggregaLe level analysls has been done, Lhe orlglnal daLa should be spllL lnLo Lwo/more parLs. MuS
analysls should be conducLed separaLely on each parL and Lhe resulLs compared.
4-SLlmull can be selecLlvely ellmlnaLed from Lhe lnpuL daLa and Lhe soluLlons deLermlned for Lhe remalnlng
sLlmull.
3-A random error could be added Lo Lhe lnpuL daLa. 1he resulLlng daLa are sub[ecLed Lo MuS analysls and Lhe
soluLlons compared.
6-1he lnpuL daLa could be collecLed aL Lwo dlfferenL polnLs ln Llme and Lhe LesL-reLesL rellablllLy deLermlned.
L|m|tat|ons of MDS MuS assumes LhaL Lhe dlsLance (slmllarlLy) beLween Lwo sLlmull ls some funcLlon of Lhelr
parLlal slmllarlLles on each of several percepLual dlmenslons. noL much research has been done Lo prove Lhls.
AnoLher llmlLaLlon ls LhaL dlmenslon lnLerpreLaLlon relaLlng physlchal changes ln brands Lo changes ln Lhe
percepLual map ls dlfflculL aL besL. 1hese llmlLaLlons also apply Lo Lhe scallng of preference daLa
(lnLernal/exLernal).
Correspondence ana|ys|s ls an MuS Lechnlque for scallng quallLaLlve daLa. 1he lnpuL daLa are ln Lhe form of a
conLlngency Lable lndlcaLlng a quallLaLlve assoclaLlon beLween Lhe rows and columns. Corespondance analysls
scales Lhe rows and columns ln correspondlng unlLs, so LhaL each can be dlsplayed graphlcally ln Lhe same low-
dlmenslonal space. 1hese spaLlal maps provlde lnslghLs lnLo:
1) slmllarlLles and dlfferences wlLhln Lhe rows wlLh respecL Lo a glven column caLegory,
2) slmllarlLles and dlfferences wlLhln Lhe column caLegorles wlLh respecL Lo a glven row caLegory,
3) relaLlonshlps among Lhe rows and colums.
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An advanLage of correspondence analysls ls LhaL lL reduces Lhe daLa-collecLlon demands lmposed on Lhe
respondenLs, because only blnary or caLegorlcal daLa are obLalned. 1he lnpuL daLa are Lhe number of 'yes'
responses for each brand/aLLrlbuLe. 1he dlsadvanLage ls LhaL beLween-seL (beLween column and row) dlsLances
cannoL be meanlngfully lnLerpreLed. 1hls Lype of analysls ls exploraLory daLa analysls Lechnlque LhaL ls noL
sulLable for hypoLhesls LesLlng. nexL Lo correspondance analysls, Lwo oLher Lechnlques can be used for
obLalnlng percepLual maps: dlscrlmlnanL and facLor analysls.
Con[o|nt ana|ys|s aLLempLs Lo deLermlne Lhe relaLlve lmporLance consumers aLLachL Lo sallenL aLLrlbuLes and
Lhe uLlllLles Lhey aLLach Lo Lhe levels of aLLrlbuLes. 1hls lnfo ls derlved from consumers' evaluaLlons of brands,
or brand proflles composed of Lhese aLLrlbuLes and Lhelr levels. 1he respondenLs are presenLed wlLh sLlmull
LhaL conslsLs of comblnaLlons of aLLrlbuLe levels. 1hey are asked Lo evaluaLe Lhese sLlmull ln Lerms of
deslrablllLy. Con[olnL procedures aLLempL Lo asslgn values Lo Lhe levels of each aLLrlbuLe, so LhaL resulLlng
values or uLlllLles aLLached Lo Lhe sLlmull maLch, as closely as posslble, Lhe lnpuL evaluaLlons provlded by Lhe
respondenLs. 1he underlylng assumpLlon ls LhaL any seL of sLlmull, such as producLs/brands.sLores, ls evaluaLed
as a bundle of aLLrlbuLes. lL relles on respondenL's sub[ecLlve evaluaLlons. ulfference wlLh MuS: ln con[olnL
analysls, Lhe sLlmull are comblnaLlons of aLLrlbuLe levels deLermlned by Lhe researcher, whlle ln MuS, Lhe
sLlmull are producLs or brands. 1he goal ln mds ls Lo develop a spaLlal map deplcLlng Lhe sLlmull ln a
mulLldlmenslonal percepLual or preference space. Con[olnL analysls seeks Lo develop Lhe parL-worLh or uLlllLy
funcLlons descrlblng Lhe uLlllLy consumers aLLaLch Lo Lhe levels of each aLLrlbuLe. 1he Lwo Lechnlques are
complemenLary.
Con[olnL analysls ls used for deLermlnlng Lhe relaLlve lmporLance of aLLrlbuLes ln Lhe consumer cholce process,
esLlmaLlng markeL share or brands LhaL dlffer ln aLLrlbuLe levels, deLermlnlng Lhe composlLlon of Lhe mosL
preferred brand, and segmenLlng Lhe markeL based on slmllarlLy of preferences for aLLrlbuLe levels.
AppllcaLlons of con[olnL analysls have been made ln consumer goods, lndusLrlal goods, flnanclal, and oLher
servlces. Slx or seven aLLrlbuLes are normal for con[olnL analysls. Cnce Lhe sallenL aLLrlbuLes have been
ldenLlfled, Lhelr approprlaLe leels should be selecLed. 1he nr of aLLrlbuLe levels deLermlnes Lhe nr of parameLers
LhaL wlll be esLlmaLed and also lnfluences Lhe nr of sLlmull LhaL wlll be evaluaLed by Lhe respondenLs. lL ls
deslrable Lo resLrlcL Lhe nr of aLLrlbuLe levels.
Conduct|ng con[o|nt ana|ys|s lormulaLe Lhe problem ! consLrucL Lhe sLlmull ! declde on Lhe form of lnpuL
daLa ! selecL a con[olnL analysls procedure ! lnLerpreL Lhe resulLs ! assess rellablllLy and valldlLy.



MDS - mu|t|d|mens|ona|
sca||ng
A class of procedures for represenLlng percepLlons and preferences of respondenLs spaLlally by means of a
vlsual dlsplay
S|m||ar|ty [udgements 8aLlngs on all posslble palrs of brands or oLher sLlmull ln Lerms of Lhelr slmllarlLy, uslng a LlkerL-scale Lype.
reference rank|ngs 8ank orderlngs of Lhe brands or oLher sLlmull from Lhe mosL preffered Lo Lhe leasL preferred.
Stress A lack-of-flL measure, hlgher values of sLress lndlcaLe poorer flLs
k-square A squared correlaLlon lndex LhaL lndlcaLes Lhe proporLlon of varlance of Lhe opLlmally scaled daLa LhaL can be
accounLed for by Lhe MuS procedure. 1hls ls a goodness-of-flL measure.
Spat|a| map ercelved relaLlonshlps among brand/oLher sLlmull are represenLed as geomeLrlc relaLlonshlps among polnLs ln
a mulLldlmenslonal space called a spaLlal map
Unfo|d|ng 1he represenLaLlon of boLh brands and respondenLs as polnLs ln Lhe same space , by uslng lnLernal or exLernal
analysls, ls reffered ls unfoldlng
Der|ved approaches ln MuS, aLLrlbuLe-based approaches Lo collecLlng percepLlon daLa requlrlng Lhe respondenLs Lo raLe Lhe sLlmull
on Lhe ldenLlfled aLLrlbuLes uslng semanLlc dlfferenLlal or LlkerL scales .
Nonmetr|c MDS A Lype of MuS LhaL assumemes Lhe daLa lnpuL are ordlnal (Lhey resulL ln meLrlc ouLpuL - Lhe dlsLances ln Lhe
resulLlng spaLlal map may be assumed Lo be lnLerval scaled) Lhese procedures flnd a spaLlal map whose rank
ordrs of esLlmaLed dlsLances beLween brands besL preserve or reproduce Lhe lnpuL rank orders.
Metr|c MDS 1hese meLhods assume LhaL daLa lnpuL as well as ouLpuL are meLrlc (lnLernval/raLlo) a sLronger relaLlonshlp
beLween lnpuL and ouLpuL daLa ls malnLalned, and Lhe meLrlc quallLlLes of Lhe lnpuL daLa are preserved. 1he
meLrlc and nonmeLrlc procedures produce slmllar resulLs!
L|bow cr|ter|on A ploL of sLress versus dlmenslonallLy used ln MuS. 1he polnL aL whlch an elbow or a sharp bend occurs
lndlcaLes an approprlaLe dlmenslonallLy Lhe polnL aL whlch an elbow or sharp bend occurs lndlcaLes an
approprlaLe nr of dlmenslons. lncreaslng Lhe nr of dlmenslons beyond Lhls polnL ls usually noL worLh Lhe
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lmprovemenL ln flL.
Interna| ana|ys|s of
preferences
A meLhod of conflgurlng a spaLlal map such LhaL Lhe spaLlal map represenLs boLh brands or sLlmull and
respondenLs polnLs or vecLors and ls derlved solely from Lhe preference daLa
Interna| ana|ys|s of
preferences
A meLhod of conflgurlng a spaLlal map such LhaL Lhe spaLlal map represenLs boLh brands or sLlmull and
respondenLs polnLs or vecLors and ls derlved solely from Lhe preference daLa . boLh brands and respondenLs
can be represenLed ln Lhe same spaLlal map.
Lxterna| ana|ys|s of
preferences
A meLhod of conflgurlng a spaLlal map such LhaL Lhe ldeal polnLs or vecLors based on preference daLa are flLLed
ln a spaLlal map derlved from percepLlon daLa . ln order Lo perform exLernal analysls, boLh preference and
percepLlon daLa musL be obLalned. LxLernal analysls ls preffered, because ln lnLernal analysls, Lhe dlfferences ln
percepLlons are cofounded wlLh dlfferences ln preferences. lL ls posslble LhaL Lhe naLure and relaLlve
lmporLance of dlmenslons may vary beLween Lhe percepLual space and Lhe preference space.
Correspondence ana|ys|s An MuS Lechnlque for scallng quallLaLlve daLa LhaL scales Lhe rows and columns of Lhe lnpuL conLlngency Lable
ln correspondlng unlLs so LhaL each can be dlsplayed ln Lhe same low-dlmenslonal space.
Con[o|nt ana|ys|s A Lechnlque LhaL aLLempLs Lo deLermlne Lhe relaLlve lmporLance consumers aLLach Lo sallenL aLLrlbuLes and Lhe
uLlllLles Lhey aLLach Lo Lhe levels of aLLrlbuLes.
art-worth funct|ons Also called uLlllLy funcLlons. uescrlbe Lhe uLlllLy consumers aLLach Lo Lhe levels of each aLLrlbuLe.
ke|at|ve |mportance
we|gths
Are esLlmaLed and lndlcaLe whlch aLLrlbuLs are lmporLanL ln lnfluenclng consumer cholce
Attr|bute |eve|s uenoLe Lhe values assumed by Lhe aLLrlbuLes
Iu|| prof||es Cf brands are consLrucLed ln Lerms of all Lhe aLLrlbuLes by uslng Lhe aLLrlbuLe levels speclfled by Lhe deslgn
a|rw|se tab|es 1he respondenLs evaluaLe Lwo aLLrlbuLes aL a Llme unLll all Lhe requlred palrs of aLLrlbuLes have been evaluaLed
Cyc||ca| des|gns ueslgns employed Lo reduce Lhe nr of palred comparlsons
Iract|ona| factor|a|
des|gns
ueslgns employed Lo reduce Lhe number of sLlmulus proflles Lo be evaluaLed ln Lhe full proflle approach
Crthogona| arrays A speclal class of fracLlonal deslgns LhaL enable Lhe efflclenL esLlmaLlon of all maln effecLs
Interna| va||d|ty 1hls lnvolves correlaLlons of Lhe predlcLed evaluaLlons for Lhe holdouL or valldaLlon sLlmull wlLh Lhose obLalned
from Lhe respondenLs
Con[o|nt ana|ys|s mode| 1he maLhemaLlcal model expresslng Lhe fundamenLal relaLlonshops beLween aLLrlbuLes and uLlllLy ln con[olnL
analysls
nybr|d con[o|nt ana|ys|s A form of con[olnL analysls LhaL can slmpllfy Lhe daLacollecLlon Lask and esLlmaLe selecLed lnLeracLlons as well
as all maln effecLs