Nillei Paisey 1

Floience Nillei-Paisey

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1S Septembei 2u1S


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Weimei anu vining (1999) have establisheu a policy mouel in which ieseaich
iesults anu iationality play pivotal ioles. Theii "iational mouel of policy" iequiies
policy analysts to be able to pieuict the effects of a paiticulai solution to a pioblem
befoie implementing policy. Weimei anu vining have uelineateu iequisite geneial
pioceuuies as aius in pieuicting how policy might play out in the ieal woilu. These
measuies incluue: "iuentifying anu oiganizing ielevant uata, theoiies, anu facts" anu
"conuucting a "cost-benefit analysis (CBN)."
Each of these geneial iueas necessitates iational consiueiation of all uata anu
monetaiy costs. The fiist step involves examining the statistical significance of
available, peitinent ieseaich uata. With iegaiu to statistical significance, the authois
(Remlei anu Ryzin) caution against holuing statistical significance iigiuly at the
p=.uS level. While p= <. uS is, iueally, the level of statistical significance iequiieu to
ieject the null hypothesis, it shoulu be vieweu caiefully in light of the sample size,
othei pioposeu iueaspolicy, anu a policy's potential oi piactical benefit. If the
benefit is of gieat value anu theie is no eviuence pointing to a stiongei alteinative,
the policy may well be woith implementing uespite lowei levels of statistical
significance. Such is the ciiteiion of piactical significance.
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Again, in an iueal woilu, one woulu not only have statistical significance of <.uS
along with eviuence of unbiaseu piactice significance, one woulu have "eviuence of
causation" oi causal eviuence. If a paiticulai policy oi piogiam is implementeu, the
piobably of a specific effect oi outcome will be veiy high. Bowevei, in ieality,
establishing oi showing a fiim causal ielationship is veiy uifficult anu often iequiies
extensive stuuies ovei a piolongeu peiiou of time. 0sually, policy neeus
implementation befoie sufficient time anu eviuence as elapseu.
In auuition to statistical anu piactical significance along with an inuication of that
a causal ielationship between the inteivention piogiam oi policy exists, a
policymakei neeus to look at the numbei of stuuies that have been conuucteu on the
pioblem oi issue. Replication is one of the hallmaiks of quality ieseaich - it guaius
against sampling bias anu unethical manipulation of uata. Bowevei, ieplicating a
stuuy togethei with examining uiffeient kinus of stuuies fuinishes an even stiongei
basis foi uecision. The "collective" stuuies that have associateu outcomes woulu
biing the pictuie anu effects of a policy into cleaiei focus.
This "iational mouel of policy" uoes not suggest that, all things being equal, the
effects oi outcome of a policy oi piogiam can be pieuicteu with ceitainty. Remlei
anu Ryzin cite two common instances of unceitainty. Fiist, how suie can one be that
the tieatment oi piogiam maue the uiffeience pieuicteu - coulu theie have been
anothei, uniuentifieu vaiiable at play. What is the confiuence inteival. Seconu, even
if eviuence points stiongly to a causal ielationship, to what uegiee, is a policy oi
piogiam iesponsible foi the uesiieu oi pieuicteu effect. Yes, the inuepenuent
vaiiable may be causally ielateu. Bowevei, coulu theie be anothei conuition oi
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factoi that is also causally ielateu. 0ften placebos aie useu as contiols to inciease
ceitainty in the causal ielationships.
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Time anu timeliness iefeis to the iesponse time ielateu to an uigent oi flagiant
pioblem anu the peiiou of time iequiieu to conuuct a thoiough stuuy of the pioblem
anu effects of possible policy oi piogiammatic solutions. I think a cleai example of
this issue is in the "No Chilu Left Behinu Act." 0stensibly, the bill was intenueu to
iaise accountability foi euucational piogiess anu pioviue cleai measuies that
supposeuly linkeu teachei peifoimance to stuuent achievement.
In effect, it was a slapuash, ieactive action to peiceiveu uecieasing levels of
achievement among stuuents in the 0niteu States compaieu to the inteinational
community. Nany, many vaiiables factoieu into stuuent achievement in the 0niteu
States, incluuing substantial changes in uemogiaphics, changes in the family
nucleus, paienting piactices, class sizes, anu the peiceiveu value of euucation, in
itself, anu as an inuicatoi of economic piospeiity in the 0.S.
In auuition, the imposition of annual stanuaiuizeu tests on school time along with
the concomitant piessuie foi both teacheis anu stuuents to peifoim hau unfoieseen
consequences. Rathei than instilling value foi ueepeneu thought anu cieativity,
these annual tests, conflicteu with such skills anu values. Teacheis anu the
cuiiiculum aimeu to teach those measuieable skill sets piesenteu on the test.
Nillei Paisey 4
Euucatois uiu not focus on stuuent talents, pioclivities, anu inteinal inteiests, noi
weie such qualities oi attiibutes appieciateu.
Leaining anu cognitive styles that often play into test peifoimance weie also not
consiueieu. Nuch ieseaich on leaining styles, test peifoimance, anu ciitical thinking
was available, but was not useu as a basis foi the euucational policy. As such, an
expeuient piogiam of stanuaiuizeu testing ensueu anu, aftei a uecaue, the flaws aie
so tianspaient anu giievous that many ueuicateu euucatois have left teaching anu
stuuents aie stiuggling to leain to think foi themselves, ciitically. They ielentlessly
want to know what one expects them to uo anu how they will be giaueu oi assesseu.
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Cultuial anu moial values ielate stiongly to ieseaich inteiests. These values iefei
to attituues typifieu in a paiticulai cultuie oi sub-cultuie anu act on what issues,
behaviois, oi policies aie ueemeu sufficiently impoitant oi acceptable foi ieseaich.
Foi example, many stuuies have been conuucteu on global waiming, its natuie, anu,
if it exists, what has causeu it, its effects, anu what can be uone to amelioiate the
effects. Bowevei, theie aie cultuial gioups that woulu not suppoit any ieseaich on
global waiming because they believe it uoes not exist. Theie can be no causal
ielationship between any human activities anu global waiming because, in some
people's view, it is a non-issue. As such, such people woulu not suppoit ieseaich
ielating to global waiming.
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Bistiust of ieseaicheis involves an anti-intellectual sentiment anu, often, a
peisonal inteiest in maintaining the status quo. In this case, ieseaich that
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contiauicts the status quo bieaks with long-helu woiluviews, oi channels ieseaich
uollais away fiom one vesteu, establisheu aiea anu into an innovative, but
unpioven, aiea woulu be uifficult funu, finu suppoit foi anu conuuct. The fiist
thought that comes to minu is Copeinicus's astionomical theoiy. While some
contempoiaiy ieseaicheis vieweu Copeinicus's heliocentiic theoiy favoiably,
cultuial anu moial values - ieligion - along with anti-intellectualism anu skepticism
towaiu ieseaich anu science impeueu acceptance of his theoiy anu ieseaich.
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Politics anu inteiest gioups shape what the pioblems become newswoithy anu,
as a iesult, what kinus of pioblems, issues, anu ieseaich funuing oiganizations back
oi suppoit. If a high-speeu tiain fiom Niami FL, to 0ilanuo FL, seives the political
anu economic inteiests of the majoiity stakeholueis in both Niami anu 0ilanuo, the
ieseaich foi the pioject will finu funuing. In meuicine, why aie ieseaich inteiests
anu facilities foi some uiseases funueu heavily, while ieseaich in othei - equally
uisabling uiseases - uisiegaiueu. Nuch has to uo with the politics of the uisease anu
the stiength of the vesteu inteiest gioups. Bow long was AIBS ieseaich oi
Alzheimei's ignoieu befoie they finally gaineieu political suppoit anu inteiest.
What events occuiieu to biing attention anu concein to them.

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Thiee piominent oiganizations that conuuct policy-ielevant ieseaich aie the
National Institutes of Bealth (NIB), the National Science Founuation (NSF), anu the
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Institute of Euucation Seivices (IES). The NIB focuses on ieseaich ielateu meuical
science, meuical conuitions, health, anu health caie. It is maue up of twenty-seven
institutes anu centeis, each focusing on a uiffeient meuical fielu oi facility, incluuing
the National Libiaiy of Neuicine (NLN). The NIB woulu offei giants to meuical
ieseaicheis in uiveise specializations as well as those inteiesteu in piomoting anu
auvocating health, health liteiacy, anu consumei health infoimation. While the
institute pioviues iesouices foi the most esoteiic meuical ieseaich, it woulu also be
involveu in many health-ielateu policy uecisions, paiticulaily public health anu
auministiation. Any new vaccines oi policy to contiol infectious illnesses coulu be
establisheu at the NIB - peihaps in collaboiation with the Centeis foi Bisease
Contiol (CBC).
The National Science Founuation (NSF) is the pie-eminent funuing souice foi
basic oi puie ieseaich caiiieu out by Ameiican univeisity ieseaicheis. It is also a
piincipal funuing agency foi the applieu sciences such as computei science, the
social sciences, anu applieu sciences - psychology, technology, infoimation science,
sociology, anthiopology, zoology, geology, anu engineeiing among othei uisciplines.
Its mission is "to suppoit all fielus of funuamental science anu engineeiing, except
foi meuical sciences" (NSF 2u1S). The NSF woulu funu zoological ieseaicheis who
inteiesteu in iuentifying anu piotecteu enuangeieu species. They have iecently
funueu ieseaicheis woiking collaboiatively at thiee institutions neaily two million
ovei the next foui yeais. The ieseaich aims to collect uata on monitoiing animal
behavioi anu will be useu foi policy in piotecting enuangeieu species.
Nillei Paisey 7
The Institute of Euucation Sciences (IES) funus leauing-euge euucation
ieseaicheis on what euucational piactices aie effective foi stuuents fiom pie-school
thiough post-seconuaiy schooling (2u1S). Theii bioau mission aims to iaise
questions ielevant to euucational piactice anu gathei uata on schools as "leaining
oiganizations." 0ne possible ieseaich scenaiio might involve a ieseaich euucatoi,
euucational psychologist, oi both. They might look at the objectives of a leaining
centei anu compaie these objectives with the neeus, inteiests, anu aptituue of
stuuents. As a policy-making oiganization, the IES coulu set subject-specific
benchmaiks on which to assess inuiviuual stuuent auvancement.
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These foui piimaiy piinciples, infoimeu consent, voluntaiy paiticipation, no
haim to subjects, anu beneficence iepiesent the coineistone of ethical ieseaich.
Infoimeu consent anu voluntaiy paiticipation involves iuentifying oneself as a
ieseaichei, uiscussing one's ieseaich with a potential subject, anu obtaining theii
peimission without coeicion oi misinfoimation.
"No haim to subjects" means that, at no time shoulu a subject feel uistiesseu oi
thieateneu - befoie, uuiing, oi aftei the expeiiment. Nany inhumane expeiiments
piecipitateu this piinciple. The Tuskegee Expeiiments that examineu the effects of
syphilis (even aftei the cuiative, penicillin, was available) aie a paiticulaily giim
example of potential inhumanity in ieseaich. In auuition, while no one iepoiteuly
uieu, the Nilgiam Expeiiments looking at how fai a peison woulu comply with
Nillei Paisey 8
authoiity anu powei causeu psychological uistiess in many subjects. Anothei way in
which this piinciple applies has to uo with confiuentiality. If aichival oi seconuaiy
infoimation about a peison's family oi one's inuiviuual peisonal histoiy is useu in
ieseaich, theie must be voluntaiy, infoimeu consent anu that histoiy shoulu be
confiuential - even aftei publication, piimaiy uocuments shoulu not be available foi
access as long as any membei of the family coulu be haimeu by the infoimation.
Beneficence maintains that a human ieseaich subject shoulu benefit fiom the
ieseaich in which they paiticipate. uiven infoimeu consent, voluntaiy paiticipation
anu no haim to subjects, this piinciple ielates to knowleuge piouuction oi
constiuction. If a subject contiibutes to the bouy of knowleuge in science oi
humanity, uiiectly oi inuiiectly, this knowleuge can benefit the subject. Such is the
piinciple of beneficence.
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An Institutional Review Boaiu (IRB) oi ethics committee oveisees that human
ieseaich ethics - infoimeu consent, voluntaiy paiticipation, no haim to subjects,
anu beneficence - aie caiiieu out. These ieview boaius aie paiticulaily active in
biomeuical anu behavioial ieseaich. The histoiy of the IRB staits with the inhumane
ieseaich conuucteu by Nazi ieseaicheis uuiing WWII. 0ne iesult of the Nuiembuig
Wai Tiials was the cieation of ethical ieseaich piinciples, classifieu in 194S by the
Nuiembuig Coue. Following the Nuiembuig Coue, extenueu ieseaich with human
subjects continueu anu a moie specific coue was establisheu with the Belsinki Coue
in 1964.
Nillei Paisey 9
In the 0niteu States, beginning in 19SS, the National Institutes of Bealth (NIB),
iequiieu all ieseaicheis woiking with human subjects to obtain peimission foi theii
ieseaich fiom a "piotection of human subjects" ieview boaiu. In 1966, the 0.S.
Public Bealth Seivice set foith the fiist specific set of ethical iegulations foi the
ieview boaiu. These iules continueu ievision until 1974 anu iesulteu in
Institutional Review Boaius (IRB) iequiieu foi any ieseaich funueu by the feueial
goveinment. Bowevei, uuiing the peiiou when the 0niteu States goveinment was
establishing IRBs, the abject expeiiments conuucteu with the Tuskegee Stuuy came
to light. These stuuies gave iise to the National Commission foi the Piotection of
Buman Subjects of Biomeuical anu Behavioial Reseaich.
Finally, in 1979, a full iepoit on the Tuskegee Stuuy was publisheu with
iecommenuations foi iegulations on human ieseaich. This iepoit was the Belmont
Repoit anu continues to be the founuation foi the cuiient coue of feueial
iegulations aimeu to piotect human expeiimental subjects.