Genetical Change in Ancient Egypt Author(s): A. Caroline Berry, R. J. Berry and Peter J.

Ucko Source: Man, New Series, Vol. 2, No. 4 (Dec., 1967), pp. 551-568 Published by: Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2799339 . Accessed: 04/08/2013 12:29
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GENETICAL

CHANGE A.

IN ANCIENT

EGYPT

CAROLINE BERRY

University College London

R. J.BERRY
School RoyalFree Hospital ofMedicine, London PETERJ. UCKO London University College

and colonisations contacts Egypt has been subjectto numerous infiltrations, butto whatextent incomers contributed to thegene itslong history, throughout in thepasthas beendirected is not clear.Most speculation pool of thepopulation and local to theorigin rather thanthedegreeof racialmixingof bothforeigners havebeen inhabitants at different ofEgyptian Suchinterpretations periods history. For example,Kees (I96I: 36) wrote: based primarily on artistic representations. thereliefs androckpaintings, 'Judging by thesmallsculptures from Hierakonpolis, still thevictorious thepeople who were in authority, including Egyptian kings, skulls from formed racewithshort whichthe to themysterious belonged delicately of artistic Amratians developed'(seealsoPetrieI90I: 252-4). Suchinterpretations thatbothconbut theysuffer fromthedifficulty representations may be correct, clusions mustinevitably and the assessment of theirsignificance be speculative & Ucko I964: 524-8; Ucko I96$: 222-3). Thisis attested (seeMorse, Brothwell all sorts in thepast(summarised of by thetendency by Chantre I904) to postulate a singular of peoplerepresenting racialamalgams in Egypt:mixtures improbable varietyof groups(viz. Libyan,Caucasian,Arab, Pelasgian,Negro, Bushman, Red Indianand Australian Mongol, Hamitic, Hamito-Semitic-even aboriginal) nature were allegedto have migrated intotheNile valley.The fantastic of these evenhe recognised was exposedby Elliot Smith(I9II), although an speculations Armenoid admixture withEarlyDynastic populations. The work undertaken in about I900 on skeletalremainsalso purported to numerous fusions betweenseveral raceswithcontinued sub-sections recognise of themthroughout ofEgypt(e.g. MacIveri9oo; Thomson & MacIver thehistory time includedhopelesscontradictions of three,six, one and two races. Such stillpersist contradictions despitethe work of Morant(i925) who recognised lowerEgyptian a single merely upperanda single type:forexample, Falkenburger (I947) divided skeletalmaterialinto Cromagnon,Negro and Mediterranean types. in thelightof all thematerial This confusion maybe surprising availablefrom in the context of Egyptian be understood Egyptbut can to some extent history with'foreigners' contacts from (see below) withitsfrequent and intensive neighthemajorelement to confusion countries. bouring Undoubtedly, however, leading markers in osteological material hasbeenthelackofusablegenetical forevaluating
I905;

that theliterature Petrie Keith at that I906). Indeed, (I90$: 92) complained

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5S2

A. CAROLINE

BERRY, R. J. BERRY AND PETER J. UCKO

population movements and mnixing (see Berry, Evans & Sennitt I967; Berry & Smith Ms.). Thisarticle is an attempt to measure in ancient change Egyptbyusing non-metrical skull variants to characterise different samplesgenetically, rather than by the two 'classical' sourcesof information-artistic and representations metrical evaluations of skeletal material. External human onEgypt influences To give the necessary background to the interpretation of studies on hiuman remains, it is necessary at the outsetto outlineand discuss the more important contacts of Egyptwiththe outsideworld,fortheextent and effects of some of these are not generally known.
Date c. 4500 ?
B.C.

TABLE i. Chronology ofEgypt. Period Predynastic Predynastic Predynastic

Culture Badarian (Tasian) Amratian (Early Naqada: Naqada I) Gerzean (LateNaqada: Naqada II)

C. 1786-i570 2nd Intermediate Period: Dynasties the XIII-XVII, including Period Hyksos c. xo85-332 Late Period: Dynasties thePersian XXI-XXXI, including and SaitePeriods
Ptolemaic Egypt Roman and ByzantinePeriods
C. 1570-Io85

C. 2134-I786

c. 268o-2258 c. 2258-2052

c. 3200-2680

Old Kingdom: Dynasties IV-VI Ist Intermediate Period:Dynasties VII-X

Middle Kingdom: DynastiesXI-XII

Archaic: DynastiesI-III

New Kingdom or Empire: DynastiesXVIII-XX

c. 332-30 C. 30 B.C.-64I A.D.

For the predynastic period(before c. 3,200 B.C.) (see table i) textual proofof foreign incursions is, of course, lacking, but thechangein material culture which defines thebeginning oftheGerzean hasoften culture beeninterpreted byEgyptoas reflecting logists thearrival of a new people intoEgypt.This assumedchange in population is commonly correlated withlinguistic analysis of ancient Egyptian whichfinds thatthelanguagecomprises both 'Hamitic' and 'Semitic' elements. The 'Semitic' elements are presumed to have arrivedwith the bearersof the Gerzean culture (e.g. Baumgartel orinfiltration bypeoplefrom I965: 21). Invasion outside Egyptis alsogenerally to explain assumed theapparently sudden emergence of literacy, and urbanisation at the time of the founding kingship of the first literate dynasty (c. 3,200 B.C.). This assumption is based on the appearance of a of 'foreign'elements variety in the material culture of Egypt at thistime(e.g. cylinder seals of Mesopotainian type,motifs resembling thoseof Jemdet Nasr Mesopotamia, panelledbrickarchitecture, etc.) whichapparently had no antecedents in prehistoric Egypt.At thesametimethere is evidence from theanalysis of pottery types of contact withPalestine. This was probably a two-waytrading relationship whichcontinued throughout theFirst Dynasty and whichby theend of thearchaic period(c. 2,700 B.C.) culminated in a permanent Egyptian trading relationship with the port of Byblos on the Levantinecoast. During the first

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GENETICAL

CHANGE IN ANCIENT

EGYPT

553

of Egyptalso there close contact dynasties was,judgingfromstonevesseltypes, between Egyptand Crete. of themodem Throughout thehistory ofEgypt,texts refer to theinhabitants of theSudanby different sometimes themby habitat, republic names, describing who spokelanguages distinct making it clearthatthey wereconsidered foreigners To the westlived severaldifferent of fromAncient Egyptian. groups people to as names and whom not whom theEgyptians gave particular they onlydescribed fromthemselves in artistic but also distinguished foreigners representations. 'visitors'both fromtheseareas in itshistory At manyperiods Egyptreceived in theearlyFourth For example,already and fromfurther afield. Dynasty 7,000 werecarried off toEgyptandpresumably Thereis also Nubians placedin servitude. laterin theOld KingdomthatNubianswere employed in evidence inscriptional Intermediate Period therewere probably the Egyptianarmy.During the first thenorth. In theTwelfth intothedeltafrom incursions Dynasty Egyptmayhave in Egypt Palestine and Syria,and 'northern' controlled peoplesbegan arriving to settleor to trade.So greatbecame the influence of thesepeople that either in c. I,720 B.C. they on thefragmentation oftheadministration, were eventually, as pharaohs and gain power over northern able to proclaimthemselves Egypt. this Thereis little evidence that 'Hyksos' periodwas due to anylargescaleinvasion ofEgypt. of Egyptby theThebanDynasty Followingthereconquest (New Kingdom), extent from an empire whichat itsgreatest stretched theEuphEgyptestablished weredeliberately rates to thefourth cataract. Great numbers ofcaptives carried off, as rewards someto be usedin labourforces and someto be distributed toEgyptian officers and soldiers. On the highest at thistimeconpoliticalplane,pharaohs tracted withforeign diplomatic marriages from princesses various parts oftheNear of thecourtand its detheracialcomposition East,but thesewill have affected rather thanof thebulkof thepeople. pendendes Mercenaries weremainly theearly during partoftheNew Kingdom from upper Nubia. Lateron people calledthe Sherden were muchemployed, and rewarded fortheir services withplotsof land whichtheyand theirdescendants (likeother veterans)cultivated(iCernyi965). These Sherdenwere the fore-runners of numerous Mediterranean peopleswho descended upon theeastern littoral during the thirteenth B.C. At firstmany of theseincursions century were probably 'These roamings oftheMeshwesh andtheLibu in upper peaceful. Egyptwerebut a ramification ofLibyantribes ofa largescalepenetration in thenorth, in thedelta, andbelowMemphis Thispenetration at Heracleopolis. was probably on thewhole and resulted of thewestern in theoccupation deltawhereLibyans, peaceful under their founded a number eachwithan important of principalities chiefs, townas its centre'(c:ernyI965: is). In c. 950 B.C., however, one Libyanfamily setitself up ofEgyptandforthenext200 years as rulers Egyptwas governed byrival'Libyan' c. 730 B.C. Egyptfellundertheruleof theEgyptianised Fronm dynasties. stateof Napata on theupperNile. This rulewas endedby theAssyrian conqueror Ashin 663 B.C. Thereis no evidence undereither of theseforeign urbanipal regimes of foreigners intoEgyptexceptfora few southern of any largescale incursion officials in the mainly Thebaid. fella fewyearsafter ofEgyptand a nativedynasty herconquest Assyria ruled

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554

A. CAROLINE

BERRY,

R. J. BERRY

AND

PETER

J. UCKO

in Egyptuntiltheconquestby theAchaemenid in S2S B.C. Only the Cambyses highest in the land were expatriate officials Persians, forAchaemenid policyinvolvedruling thenative through bureaucracy. DuringtheSaiteperiodthefirst Greek trading colonywas setup in theEgyptian hisdeathlargenumbers delta.Alexander conquered Egyptin 332B.C. and after of Greeksoldiers weresettled in thedeltaand theFayum.By thereign of Ptolemy II Philadelphus the bulk of the administration had passedinto Greekhands,cities withGreekcitizenship and special had beenfounded and theFayumhad privileges becomelargely a Greekprovince. Thereis no doubtthatEgyptians and Greeks livedsideby sideand intermarried. The Roman conquestof Egyptmade little difference to thissituation; Greeks theRoman presence continued to runthecountry, beingmarked onlyby legionariesand certain highofficials. DespiteEgypt'slong history of contacts withforeign it is peoples,therefore, clearthatthere is in factlittle racialadmixture to suggest continued evidence betweentheindigenous and foreign Egyptian population peoplesto theextent that significant to thebasicEgyptian changes genepool occurred throughout Egyptian history. Kees'sstatement (I96I: 34) that Egyptwas 'a landwith... an ethnically must on theinfluence of' Semitic' northerners disparate population' depend largely in thedeltain thesecondmillennium of Nubianinfluence southof B.C., thedegree and on the extent of Greekpenetration Edfu throughout Egyptian into history, lowerEgyptand theFayumin thethird and secondcenturies B.C.
Procedure

The only directand objectiveevidenceabout population mixingis fromthe are especially studyof human remains.Such investigations for the important deductions predynastic periodbecausetheyare theonlymeansof checking about which are exclusively based on archaeological of material populations analysis of craniometric culture.Althoughthe geneticalinterpretation differences is statistical difficult (e.g. De Beer I965) even withmoderm analyses (e.g. Crichton has often beenplacedon slight evidence I966), great weight archaeological where datahas suggested thearrival of a new 'race' during of craniometric analysis pre& Ucko I965: I53, I55). in Arkell or protodynastic times dynastic (see discussion muchof theavailable to re-investigate worthwhile material Henceitseemed using variants as genetical indicators. non-metrical variants have been used by anthropologists non-metrical formany Although control years(reviewed by Brothwell I963; I965), it is onlysincetheir genetical in themousewas determined and hisco-workers by Griuneberg (Griineberg I963) their usefulness in comparisons ofnon-living that couldbe appreciated. populations to manisnotwithout The extrapolation ofmousegenetics butbothhuman danger, on non-metrical variation family and populationstudies (reviewed by Berryin thecontention that thevariants areinherited in a similar press) support wayin both mice and men. Furthermore Howe & Parsons(I967) have shownthe environmental wheninformation on incidence factors to be oflittle of a large importance Thereis no doubtthat number ofvariants is combined. non-metrical variants have over morphological for many anthromeasurements considerable advantages

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GENETICAL

CHANGE

IN ANCIENT

EGYPT

555

pologicalpurposes. In practical terms of variation is quick and easy; age scoring (at any ratein mature individuals) and sex do not affect non-metrical variation; lack of correlations betweencharacters makesthe computation of multivariate statistics much simplerthan is the case for metrical characters; and thereare groundsfor believingthat estimates of divergence betweensamplesbased on in non-metrical reflect differences variantincidencemore accurately genetical differences thanstatistics frommetrical calculated data(Berry& SmithMs). All the skullswe used were classified variants for thirty non-metrical (for anatomical descriptions, seeBerry& Berry I967) by one of us (A.C.B.). Juveniles in sixteendifferent were excluded.The frequencies of each variant population samples were tabulated. is to takeeach variant Thereare two ways of interpreting suchdata.The first hasbeenthenormal This itsincidence in different separately and trace populations. procedure withpastworkers (e.g. Hess I945; Brothwell I96I). However a more digestible methodof assimilating the crude data is to calculatea multivariate There are several distance statistic based on all the variants. ways of doing this: Laughlin & Jorgensen (I956) andBrothwell (I958) haveuseda version ofPenrose's 'size and shape' statistic, but we prefer a methoddevisedby C. A. B. Smithand first used to measure changein inbredstrains of mice by Grewal(I962). In this eachpairof popuis calculated method a single 'measureof divergence' between lations. The validity of estimating genetical distance in this way hasbeendiscussed by Berry(I964), Berry, Evans & Sennitt (I967), Howe & Parsons(I967), and Berry & Smith(Ms). The measureof divergence between two populations (I, 2) of size n1and n2is taken as (01i02)2-(iIn.+ i/n2) forany variant, where0 is theangular transformation of thepercentage incidence in radians, (p), measured suchthatO= sin-' (i - 2p). This has the advantage over themore usualangular transformation thatthevariance of 0 in a sampleof sizen (0= sin' VIp in degrees) is nearly i/nindependently of thevalueof n,instead of 820-7n.The meanmeasure of divergence is a quantitative forall thirty characters in two populations expression of the separation of the populations. The virtualabsence of correlation for between of divergence variants makespermissible theaveraging of measures individual variants without havingto perform thecomplexadjustments necessary in computing similar statistics from skeletal measurements, whichtendto be much morehighly correlated (Rao I948). A standard principal component analysis hasalsobeencarried outon therawdata. Samples classified We usedthree in selecting criteria our material: I. Accessibility: all the material we used was preserved eitherin the SubDepartment of Anthropology, British Museum(NaturalHistory) (hereafter to asB), ortheDuckworth ofArchaeology referred Laboratory oftheFaculty and Anthropology of theUniversity of Cambridge (referred to as C). As far as we know all themajorcollections in Great ofEgyptian skeletal material Britain are at one or otherof theseplaceswiththeexception of two small series from Aswanand El Amrah in theanatomy departments of Edinburgh and Aberdeen universities, respectively.

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5S6 2.

A. CAROLINE

BERRY,

R. J. BERRY

AND

PETER

J. UCKO

Reliabledatedcontext: it is unfortunate thatmuchof theexisting literature is basedon inadequately datedmaterial (forexample, see Massoulard's (I949) despairing efforts to separate datedfromundated predynastic material). 3. Availability of at least thirty craniain reasonable condition in each series (although one of our series only contained twenty-eight specimens).

identifiable fromexisting records.Furthermore we had to limitour studyto material available in GreatBritain. We classified sixteen samplesfromfourteen localities(fig.i), a totalof 775 skulls:

(e.g.Jackson I937:

Sinceit was necessary to study actualspecimens, we werenot able to makeuse of a numberof series forwhicharchaeological and metrical data were available
I44-53),

butfor which theskulls were lost, re-buried ornon-

I. Forty-eight Badarian specimens from thesiteof Badari(C). Theseform part of thematerial measured by Stoessiger (I927) and Derry(Morant1935) and can be presumed to be well datedto theBadarian period.It is notimpossible that a few specimens wereoflaterpredynastic datefrom thesiteofDeir Tasa, butwherever it hasprovedpossible to checkparticular graves in whichcrania werefound, they have been indubitably Badarian. 2, 3, 4. Materialfromlaterpredynastic periodsis availablefromthe sitesof Naqada, Abydos,Diospolis Parva,Hierakonpolis and El Amrah,but littleof it can be reliably dated.For the present studyit was decidedto avoid combining predynastic material all sites from different sites. As a consequence, material from exceptNaqada and Hierakonpolis was too smallto be used. Several hundred skulls wereexcavated byPetrie atNaqada (C), andhe apparently first divided thematerial intothree groups: SD 30-40, SD 4I-69, SD 70-80. Howeverthis left manyexamples whichcouldnotbe dated(Fawcett I9OI-2: 422; PetrieI906: 42), so tllat in theliterature thewholeseries has often beencombined as homogeneousand representing the 'Naqada race' (e.g. Fawcett I9OI-2; CrichtonI966). This procedure is illegitimate and has been attacked by several authors (e.g.Thomson & Maclver present study I9o5: I3I, Morant i925). In the have onlythosespecimens whichcould be identified withsequencedatedgraves been included. Although there is dispute about thevalue of sequencedating(see Arkell & Ucko i965), thisseemsthe only way to date thisparticular material. Sequencedateshave been adoptedas theywere published in Petrie(I920: plates 5I-2). We have separated the material into: 2. an earlypredynastic groupof 28 of specimens (SD 30-39); 3. a general predynastic groupof32 specimens (definitely predynastic date, but which could not be more accurately assignedparticular sequencedates);4. a latepredynastic groupof 30 specimens (SD 43-69). dated to SD 40-2 have beenomitted Specimens to avoid anyoverlapbetween thefirst two groups.Theremustremain of dating somedoubtas to theaccuracy of tenskulls from graves withnumbers below goo,becausetheymayhave originatedfrom Ballasand not Naqada. skulls(froma totalof c. i5o at C) fromHierakonpolis which must S. Fifty be of latepredynastic is information presumably no moreaccurate date,although available (Quibell& Green I902: 22; Garstang I907: 136-7; KempI963: 26).

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GENETICAL

CHANGE

IN ANCIENT

EGYPT

557

M1EDITERR/NEAN

Je

Gizeho
' F

Sedment
'n,*

o olTarkhan OFSIN~ql

? >\1
X~Boadri
ANoqad Thebes\

PENINSULla

Abydos)

Qurneh

Hierakonpolis) L IBYA N DESERT

\
0
t

fst Catsxroct Aswon L O WER NUBIA4

/ tXv

o
o

>
s

UPPER NUBIA

7l
Kierma

100 mile's

200

/
%Jbe/

Moyca

FIGURE 1. Map ofEgyptshowing sites from whichskulls havebeenclassified.

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558

A. CAROLINE

BERRY,

R. J. BERRY

AND

PETER

J. UCKO

6. A sampleof 62 skullsof DynastyI date fromthe royaltombsat Abydos (B and C), all fromgraveswhichborderedaround the pharaohs' largetombs, beingmostlikelythoseof craftsmen and workers. 7. Fifty -skulls (C) fromTarkhan, said to be of Dynasty I-II, but aboutwhich no further are known(PetrieI9I4: 43-4). details 8. Fifty skulls (C) fromSedment, said to be of Dynasty IX, but about which is known nothing further (Petrie & Brunton I924; Woo I930-I). skulls 9. Fifty-four (C) from Qumeh,saidto be ofDynasty XI, butagainabout whichnothing is known. further io. Seventy-eight skulls (C) fromQau: thematerial was initially dividedinto that whichcouldbe accepted as falling Brunton's within relative sequence VI-VIII (44 specimens), and that falling within hissequence IX-X (34 specimens) (Brunton I927: 5-8), but thetwo groups did not differ and so werecombined. i i. Fifty skulls in the'E' series (from overa thousand at C: Davin & Pearson 1924) fromthe site of Gizeh, dated to Dynasties XXVI-XXX. Althoughthis ofMemphis included of manyforeigners, all thosethatcould cemetery thegraves be checked provedto haveEgyptian namesand it can reasonably be assumed that Fifty-two skulls (B) fromthe siteof Hawara whichalthough largely imto dateaccurately cannot possible havebeenearlier thanfirst A.D. and not century laterthanfourth A.D. In all cases whereit was possible century to correlate human remains withgravedetails they provedto be 'Greek' (i.e. peopleofwidelydiffering racialorigins who had acquiredGreekcitizenship). 13, 14. We made use of two samples fromtheupperNile valleyin Nubia: 5o skulls (C) from Kermadatedto theTwelfth to Thirteenth Dynasties (CollettI93 3), where thepopulationhas often been assumed to be quite distinct fromthatof thesiteofJebel Egypt(seebelow),and 32 skulls (C) from Moya above Khartoum Rao & Trevori9SS). (Mukherjee, we includedtwo non-Nilepopulation I5, i6. Finally from samples:S4 skulls Lachish inPalestine (B) ofabout 700 B.C. (Risdon I939), and56 Ashanti skulls (B) aboutwhichno accurate details of provenance are known.
I2.

is a goodSaite this sample (Petrie I907:

29).

Results The frequencies of individual variants are set out in table2. In some casesthe thanthetotals forthepopulation, because frequencies arebasedon lowernumbers of the need to use damagedspecimens. Measuresof divergence with together intable3. Certain estimates ofthestandard errors ofthose statistics aregiven samples did not differ fromeach otherand were combined formostof thecomparisons. in the frequencies of individual Table 3 also shows the numbers of differences variants to a conventional testof significance) at both 'significant' (according the 5 per cent.and i per cent.probability levelsforall population comparisons made. Finallywe carriedout a principalcomponentanalysisto testwhetherthe of differences of divergence theresult measures wereusually between populations in thefrequencies variants ofonlya fewvariants, or whether a number ofdifferent werenormally areshownin table4. involved. The results ofthisanalysis

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GENETICAL
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CHANGE IN ANCIENT
So 6 m oo + en o

EGYPT
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56o

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CAROLINE

BERRY,

R.

J.

BERRY

AND

PETER

J.

UCKO

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GENETICAL

CHANGE IN ANCIENT

EGYPT

56I

TABLE 4. Principal component analysis of non-metricalvariant frequencies(Egyptian and

Components ordered according to magnitude of latent root (and hence notequivalent to thenumbering in table 2)*
I 2 3

Nubianpopulations only). root Latent of correlation matrix

5.72

varSo-called percentage for by iance accounted each component

I9.74

4'74
3.98 3'32 2@59 21I4
I.25

16-34
I3.72 II.46

4 5 6 7 8
9 IO II
I2 I3

IP74
I*14

7.39 5X98
4.3I 3*94 31I3

8-95

0o9I

077 0

2.67
1.25
IlIO

0?36
0-32

14-30

Thisis a is thebestdiscriminant foreachpopulation comparison. *i.e. The first component of thevariant frequency. weighted combination

Discussion differences totalgenetical There are no meansat the momentof measuring in termsof numbersof gene substitutions (McLaren & betweenpopulations WalkerI966). Withthetechniques at our disposal, all we can do is express phenoit is difficult to assesswhat is a units.Furthermore typicdifferences in arbitrary has been betweentwo samples. The convention 'significant' genetical difference a as indicating to regard a measure of divergence adoptedin thepresent context error. if it is more thandouble its standard meaningful difference ('significant') are indicated by an thantwicetheir standard error Divergences whichare greater of in table3; a doubleasterisk a value of overthree formeasure asterisk indicates in thisway dividedby itsstandard error. Resultshave beenpresented divergence method to make clearthe basic problemof deciding the non-metrical whether All is usefulfor genetical of theseparticular human populations. conmparisons are involvingKeirma, Lachishand the Ashanti exceptone of the comparisons all standard error (and from other by a valuetwicetheir distinguished populations themajority of comparisons and other populabetween Lachishand theAshanti tionsby valuesgreater are exactly thanthree As these times their standard error). thepopulations whichwe would expect, on cultural evidence, and archaeological to differ of anyperiod,it seemsreasonable biologically mostfromtheEgyptians to accept that themethod skeletal material. results forthis human givesmeaningful Moreoverabout threepopulations only would be expectedto be 'significantly different' in table 3. differences' by chance,whereasthereare 52 'significant Further ofthis non-metrical analysis canbe seenin thefact support forthevalidity thattheEarlyand Generalpredynastic fromeach did not differ Naqada samples fromtwo different and siteswas homogeneous, other, thattheArchaicmaterial that theMiddleKingdomsamples from different sites-as well as thetwo samples from originally dividedfromthesiteof Qau (see above)-were indistinguishable each other. These three homogeneousgroups were used for most of the

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as all madegood archaeological comparisons, and cultural sense. The samplefrom Hierakonpolis fromtheEarlyand General Naqada samples (5) was keptseparate (z and 3) foralthough it did not differ 'significantly' fromthem, neither did it differ from theLate Naqada sample(4) whichwas distinct from theother Naqada samples. ThisLate Naqada sample(4) is significantly different from all other populations with whichit has been compared, exceptthe otherlate predynastic one from Hierakonpolis. The General Naqada sample falls between theEarlyand Lateones, as would be expected.Virtually all the divergence of the Late fromtheEarly Naqada sampleis accounted forin terms of decrease in thefrequency of a single (no. 2I) from45 percent.to o percent.(table2). Therecan be no doubt variant is a realdifference thatthis andnota scoring as theNaqada skulls error, wereclassiat randombefore fied beingsorted intotheir three groups. A 'significant' populabasedon onlya single in this tiondivergence variant occurs one casein our study; theprincipal a number component analysis (table4) makesit clearthaton average of variants contribute decreasingly to the population divergences, the bestitem in all its discriminating by about20 per cent.The Late Naqada sampleis distinct theHierakonpolis comparisons, one lessso, butin addition theybothhave a low frequency of variant 2I. The lowestincidence of thisparticular variant in other populations was in the Ashanti population of Ghana (although theLate Naqada sampleis overallless like the Ashantipopulationthanthe Early Naqada one). Howeverthischangein one variant at theend of predynastic times seemsto have in thisrespect been onlya temporary are similar one, and later Egyptian samples to theearlier predynastic populations. If it is to be acceptedthatthisnon-metrical methodis useful in analysing the in skeletal several Egyptian material, individual comparisons requireexplanation the light of Egyptological fact that knowledge.However, the most striking in the froma study of table3 is theremarkable emerges degreeof homogeneity thesameconpopulation ofEgyptovera periodof about 5,ooo years, effectively as from material clusion metrical did notinclude analysis (seebelow). Our samples fromeither the deltaproperor theEdfu-Aswan area whichare themostlikely to have contained settlers. Moreoverwe do not know thedegreeof adforeign mixture at any period of which took place betweenEgyptians and foreigners shownby our thegenetical Egyptian history (see above). Nevertheless constancy results is not as surprising as it mightat first seem,if one takesinto accountthe its history. extentof the historically into Egypt throughout attested incursions in our resultsThis does not meanthatthere or changes are no heterogeneities which might clearlythereare-but at no time are theremajor discontinuities different implyreplacement of the population on a largescale by a genetically people. Comparisons with craniometric work of ancient Osteometry Egyptian populations began over a hundred yearsago is virtually (e.g. Morton I844) but much of the earlierliterature meaningless in genetical becauseof thelack of standardisation of techniques and theadvances and statistical understanding since that time (for reviews,see Batrawi I946;

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ofRisdon(I939, is that accepted position Massoulard 1949: ch. io). The generally following Morant I925 and Smith & JonesI908). He groupedlow values of statistic based on metrical (a multivariate of raciallikeness' Pearson's'coefficient populations Egyptian and neighbouring pairsof twenty-two data)between (males thatthe only)(two morewereaddedby Batrawi& MorantI947), and concluded withinthan populationsfell into two classes,with much greatersimilarities to havebeen series include all thoseconsidered between Thesetwenty-four classes. manner. treated in a reliable that'in earlypreThe two classesare the main basisof Morant'sconclusion timesthere racesof man livingin Egypt; one in the were two distinct dynastic in theFayum.Theymaybe calledtheUpper itis supposed, Thebaidandtheother, as two and Lower Egyptian to one another races.They were as closelyrelated foundto be, and therecan be no doubtthatthey adjacent people are generally date.The Lower tree atno veryearly from thesamebranch ofthehuman diverged to PtoleEarlyDynastic unchanged from Egyptian typeseemsto have remained was modified very maictimes smallpartof thepopulation a relatively exceptthat race. The Upper with some unknownforeign slightly, possiblyby admixture timesin whichwe fromtheveryearliest Egyptian typewas slowlytransformed of Upper have acquaintance withit, and by late Dynastictimesthe population the represent type. . . Thesetwo types pureLower Egyptian Egyptwas ofalmost to extremes of the pure nativeEgyptianpopulationfromEarly Predynastic as those betweenthemare of the same nature Ptolemaic timesand therelations whichtwo allied,adjacent raceswould bearto one another and contemporaneous of craniafromUpperEgypt series of theDynastic in general. The vastmajority times'(I925: 4, 5). betweentheUpper and Lower Egyptian are intermediate Our morelimited data do not fallneatlyinto two such groups.Furthermore population calculated forthe same (or similar) forthe twenty distance statistics negative there is a strong workers and ourselves, comparisons by thecraniometric becauseon thetwo other result, correlation of - o048 ? O*I7. This is a surprising data statistics basedon metrical between distance occasions on whicha correlation (Berry, non-metrical datahasbeenattempted and distance calculated from statistics correlaMs), therehas been a positive Evans & Sennitt I967; Berry& Smith differences tion of the orderof 30-40 per cent.If it is acceptedthatgenetical measured, by theuse of and to someextent between can be detected, populations of the the data or the material thismustmean thateither multivariate statistics, of racial are faulty. However,the coefficient or ourselves craniometric workers on purely hasbeencriticised calculated bythecraniometricians) likeness (thestatistic on concluded (FisherI936; Seltzer I937), and Barnard statistical grounds (I934-5) popuoftheEgyptian toolforthecomparison these itwasaninefficient grounds that ofsamples usedby theearly criticisms, and the inadequacies lations. Despitethese of our results to discuss theinterpretation we feelit useful metrical investigators, in the context and whichare acceptedby Egyptologists of the results generally from within an accurate derived albeitframework. chronological metrical studies, I humanremains is theBadarian. The earliest culture to haveyielded predynastic (fromthe siteof Badari) were Stoessiger (I927: I44) claimedthattheBadarians inbeing somewhat more distinct from dolichocephalic later predynastic populations narrower of and prognathous in the parietal regionand shorter and somewhat
3-M.

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face thanlaterpredynastic peoples.However a laterstudy(MorantI937: 63-6) of Badariand Mostagedda emphasised thattheremains of thisdatefrom thesites weredefinitely ofthesamepopulation, anditwas shownthat they werenotunlike from later examples theother predynastic populations. The 'Badariantype'differed and a lower nasal index,but this by havinga greater degreeof prognathism difference indicated no more thanthattheywere not members the of precisely same population.Morant claimed also that the Badarianswere more closely to theearly theBadarian thanto the related predynastic population that succeeded were quitedistinct from late predynastic one and also showedthattheBadarians Roman Egyptians.2 in so faras the Our results agree with thoseof Stoessiger fromthe later predynastic Badarian populationappearssignificantly different fromNaqada and Hierakonpolis. It is not possible fromour data to populations as to how closely are. makeanyassessment or distantly related thevarious samples fromall otherpopulations with From our results the Badariansappeardistinct whichthey had beencompared at Hawara,as already (including Graeco-Egyptians claimedby Morant)exceptforthoseof theOld Kingdom, and thosefrom Gizeh and Lachish.It is verydifficult to envisage whereby the Badarians any situation related to either of these late populations would be genetically and yetnotto the and we must conclude that the non-metrical Middle Kingdom populations, between does not in thiscase distinguish whatmusthave been disparate analysis populations. (and also forthe It has commonly been claimedwithregard to theBadarians prehistoric population of Khartoum (DerryI949: 32-3) whichsome authorities relatedto the Badarian)thatthey (e.g. ArkellI956: I23-6) consider culturally whichlaterdisappear exhibit several from theNile valleypopulaNegro features IndeedMorant(1925: 8) expressed thehomogeneity ofthehistoric Egyptian tions. in terms of their freedom from to 'Negro blood .., it is notpossible populations theslightest effect ofanysuch(Negro) admixture thatcan havetaken detect place times'.Most authors are at painsto disclaim after any Negro earlyPredynastic after in theEgyptian the predynastic element periodexceptforthe populations is of SudaneseKerma(e.g. Falkenburger there I947: I44). Although population and craniometric data do distinguish sub-Saharan no doubtthatmetrical populathebasicweakness someother of all claimsto distinguish tionsfrom populations, on the basisof metrical is the absenceof any or decryNegro elements analyses to isolate particular features whichcan be derigorous population comparisons It is typical of this as negroid. situation thatF. P. (I928: 68), scribed unsatisfactory on theoriginal himself couldsummarise Stoessiger report, although basing entirely in terms which deniedany seriousNegro element: the Badarianskullmaterial thanthe Naqada skullsbut any resemblance more prognathous to 'It is rather as to bara nearconnexion, areso distant andifthere wereanyrelation, Negrotypes it musthave been a long way back in evolutionary ... Badarians werea history both radiating withtheIndians, fromsome Asiaticcentre'. Our fellow-branch does not enableus to say anything non-metrical about so-calledNegro analysis thattheKermasampleis muchmoredistinct butit is noticeable features fromall theBadarian)in our data thanin the craniometric otherpopulations (including of anykindto support evidence Thereis thuslittle theclassification of evidence. the Badariansas eitherNegro or Hamitic (see Arkell & Ucko I965: I55), a

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classification confusion: 'The southern group, whichcan onlylead to considerable whichis clearlyof Hamiticorigin,consists of people with smallphysiqueof negroid typewhicharehoweverdifferent from realNegroes' (VandierI952: I2). The classical distinction between theUpper and LowerEgyptian types has also ledto some misunderstanding andfor Derry (I939: 5I; I947: 249-5I) andothers thepredynastic in a secondary source population was thesouthern race(summarised by Gardiner (I96I: 392) as dolichocephalic, shortish and with Negro features) the northern whereasthe populationof the Old Kingdomand laterrepresents as we haveseen,Morant's race(talland withlargeskulls (Gardiner In fact, I96I)). distinction is a geographical a temporal one. original one, and onlysecondarily to Decoratedbetween the The changein pottery typefrom WhiteCross-lined and thelatepredynastic hasbeeninterpreted early period(Amratian to Gerzean) by intoEgyptofa new groupof some(e.g. Baumgartel i965: 2i) as due to thearrival evidenceto supportthis conclusionand people. There is no anthropometric as one of us has arguedrecently furthermore, (Arkell & Ucko i965: I53, I55), suchan invasion offoreigners. is no good archaeological there evidence to support fora 'significant' Whether our findings on thebasisof one non-metrical variant should be acceptedas difference betweenEarly and Late Naqada populations forthetheory to start theGerzean important support ofinvasion periodis opento thatthe debate. Even ifit is maintained on thebasisof our non-metrical findings it mustbe Early and Late Naqada populations were reallygenetically different, this difference was less noted that in late predynastic timesat Hierakonpolis thepopulaaccentuated and that by archaic times, at leastat Tarkhan andAbydos, tionagainresembled bothoveralland in terms theearlier predynastic population ofthevariant in LateNaqada. Nevertheless it is this whichwas different frequency distinction a southern between (Upper) and northern (Lower) racewhichhas led of theFirst to postulate a dynastic at thebeginning manyEgyptologists invasion ThusEmery(I96I: 39-40) writes Dynasty. that'towardstheclose of thefourth a civilised or master millenniUM B.C. we find peopleapparently forming aristocracy raceruling overthewhole ofEgypt... a peoplewhose skulls are of greater size and cranial and a larger by Derry(i956: 8o) withgreater capacity brain], [equated whosebodieswerelarger thanthoseof thenatives, thedifference beingso marked that these theearlier isimpossible. . .' that stock anysuggestion peoplederived from that theheight ofthepredynastic skull Derry (I947: 249-5 I) maintained exceeded its widthwhile forhistoric fromEgypt the opposite populations was trueand theactualheight of theskull one. Should that was greater thanin thepredynastic thisdifference be real,it mayreflect no morethanthealready notedgeographical difference. Our datashowno difference between theearlypredynastic population of Naqada and either the archaicpopulationof Tarkhanor the 'workmen' of archaic Abydos.It is also interesting to notethatwe foundno difference between thelatepre-dynastic ofHierakonpolis population andthearchaic populations. This givessomeaddedsupport to those(e.g. Arkell& Ucko i965: iss) who question thenecessity ofinvoking an invasion intoEgyptin orderto explain theemergence of theFirst ofEgypt. Dynasty Craniometric work on material fromthe dynastic periodsof ancient Egyptis comparatively little. We have seenthatcraniometricians claimthatmosthistoric little populations differed from theArchaic (northern) populations. Our data(from

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this from Archaic,Middle Kingdom and Saite sites) confirm Hierakonpolis, each from are distinct populations Saite and but theMiddle Kingdom finding, other. was negroid (seeabove), theKermapopulation that assumed itis often Although and this population between no significant difference Barnard (1934-5; 367) found that is it possible (where at Dendereh Dynasties thatfromthe Sixthto Twelfth populationat thistime). Our mercenlary theremay have been a large foreign Furtherexamined. all other populations from distinct be showsKermato analysis significant a that period the with Ptolemaic only is it that claimed moreBarnard populaforthePtolemaic noticeable, becomes population changein theEgyptian at the earlier from the population both different significantly is Dendereh tionfrom difference no shows Our analysis population. Kerma the from same site and betweenthe Egyptianpopulationof Gizeh and the laterGreekpopulationof result. explainthis Hawara.We cannot databasedon skeletal andnon-metrical metrical both of analyses the sum up, To withan assumption whichis atvariance samples between showa similarity remains development. historical anyperiodofEgypt's during racialintermingling of great This can mean: enoughto revealanyintermningling; usedarenotsensitive thetechniques i. that to the existing relative were few in number thattheincomers 2. morelikely, to any of future generations thegene-pool and did notinfluence population, marked degree; population. theEgyptian from genetically did not differ 3. thattheincomers and Cambridge, Laboratory, oftheDuckworth to thelateDr J. C. Trevor We aregrateful in collections to theskull foraccess Museum History) (Natural Dr K. P. OakleyoftheBritish Mr D. R. are due to our colleagues Our thanks care.Mr A. J. Lee drewthefigure. their for C. A. B. Smith H. Griineberg, F.R.S., and Professor Dr D. Dixon, Professor Brothwell, to Dr J. P. Garlickand and especially of our manuscript, and criticisms theircomments discussion. formuchvaluable Mr H. S. Smith theBadarian, from as distinct a Tasianculture to defime I Itisinteresting intrying tonotethat withwiderheadsand marked as strongly types Tasianskulls (I937: 27) described Bruntoni grave a particular evendated ones.Brunton or Amratian theBadarian jaws than muchsquarer evidence orcraniometric islittle it.Thatthere with archaeological associated ofskull bythetype Arkell & clear(see Baumgartel i955: 2I-II; is now fairly Tasian culture fora separate datato a few craniometric complex whatareextremely reduce typically sources 2 Secondary andEl-Mustagedda fromEl-Badari skeletons human the e.g.'The studyof sentences, generalised a fine somehaving wasofmixed origin, early age thepopulation at that already that hasshown to thoseof thepeople of related were closely builtskull.Theirskulls anidsome a heavily I965: I3). Naqada I and IF' (Baumgartel
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