Rarefied Gas Dynamics

Ann. Rev. Fluid Mech. 1989.
21: 387-17
Copyright /989 by Annual Reviews Inc. All rights reserved
RAREFIED GAS DYNAMICS
E. P. Muntz
Department of Aerospace Engineering, University of Southern California,
University Park, Los Angeles, Cal ifornia 90089- 1 1 91
INTRODUCTION
Rarefied gas dynamics is a diverse field, encompassing, for example, high
altitude hypersonic fow felds, the reflective and reactive characteristics of
gases interacting with solid and l iquid surfaces, energy-transfer phenomena
in molecular collisions, aerosol dynamics, cluster formation and topology,
fows induced by evaporation and condensation, upper-atmospheric dy
namics, and the attainment of milli-Kelvin temperatures by fow cooling
techniques. Other subj ects in the fi eld include vacuum-pump perfor
mance, spacecraf contamination, a variety of interactions due to thruster
plumes, spacecraf charging, and gas and isotope separations. Underlying
all of these subjects is the central theme of the feld of rarefed gas dynamics:
the study of gas flow phenomena in which the discrete molecular nature
of the gas cannot be safely ignored. The field has a rich heritage of analysis
applied to the study of fows where concepts and techniques related to
nonequil ibrium statistical mechanics are important. An equally respected
tradition is the development and application of instrumentation techniques
that can be used to study the details of molecular motion in gas fows, as
well as to study flow-generated populations of internal energy states and
the characteristics of gases after surface encounters.
Rarefed gas dynamics is founded on the pioneering work in the kinetic
theory of gases begun in the l atter half of the nineteenth century, which
has continued to the present. What today we call rarefied gas dynamics
was discussed as early as 1 934 by Zahm (1 934), but research began in
earnest shortly after World War II (Tsien 1 946). Because of growing
interest in space and fight at extreme altitude, attention was drawn to a
flow regime that had not been seriously considered as a concern of either
aerodynamics or gas dynamics. In this fow regime, the molecular mean
free path in the gas, ., becomes significant compared with either a charac-
387
0066-41 89/89/01 1 5-0387$02.00
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Quick links to online content
Further
ANNUAL
REVIEWS
388 MTZ
teristic distance for important flow-property changes to take place or the
size of the flow feld, or more simply the size of the object creating the
fow field. From about 1 950 to the late 1 960s there was active research,
supported by several governments; these eforts were principally in
the United States and the USSR, but major contributions were also
made in France, Japan, Canada, Australia, Italy, the Federal Republic
of Germany, The Netherlands, India, Poland, Yugoslavia, the United
Kingdom, and elsewhere. During this period a biannual series of Inter
national Symposia on Rarefed Gas Dynamics was initiated under the
auspices of an informal advisory committee. The proceedings of these
meetings have been published, beginning in 1 960; they form a unique
record of the feld (see Table I).
As it turned out, rarefied gas dynamics initially was somewhat ahead of
its time. When all was said and done there were no early, critical aerospace
engineering problems associated wi th the regime. In the 1 950s and 1 960s
reentries were ballistic, and thus vehicles quickly transited the uncertainty
of the rarefed transitional fow regime at altitudes around 80-1 00 km.
Besides, important things like heat transfer and aerodynamic forces were
small in the rarefied regime compared with their efects at lower altitudes.
In this time period, continuous or quasi-continuous fight in the 80-1 50
km al titude range was not a major concern. At higher alti tudes satel lites
did not have sufcient mechanical or electronic life for the low-level efects
of the ambient atmosphere to be of great significance. As a result, from
the late 1 960s to the early 1 980s governmental interest in the fi eld, par
ticularly in the United States, was at a low level . However, work continued
in many countries, most notably in the USSR, Australia, Japan, and
Europe. The International Symposia on Rarefied Gas Dynamics also
continued because of i ntrinsic academic interest and because the feld
impacts many areas outside of space and high-altitude flight. Despite
difculties, signifcant scienti fic progress was made during this period.
We now come to what is the principal subject of this review: the likely
consequences of a modern resurgence of governmental interest in rarefied
gas dynamics and the direction work in this field can be expected to take
in the coming decade. While there may be i ntense academic stimulation in
a feld, a fact of modern research life is that governments are usually
required to energize major research endeavors. In the early and mid 1 980s
several events have conspired to once again trigger governmental interest
in work related to rarefed gas dynamics.
During the fights of Space Shuttle's STS-3 and STS- 4 a low-light-level
television camera on the orbi ters recorded a gaseous glow above the
windward tail surfaces of the vehicle (Banks et al. 1 983, Mende et al. 1 983).
In the same period it was noticed that thermal insulation blankets returned
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RAREFIED GAS DYAMICS 389
Table 1 List of the published proceedings of the International Symposia on Rarefied Gas
Dynamics
RGD 1. Rarefed Gas Dynamics. 1960. Proceedings oJthe 1st International Symposium,
ed. F. M. Devienne. Paris: Pergamon
RGD 2. Rarefed Gas Dynamics. 1 961. Proceedings oj the 2nd International Symposium,
ed. L. Talbot. New York: Academic
RGD 3. Rarefed Gas Dynamics. 1963. Proceedings oJthe 3rd Interational Symposium,
Vols. 1 ,2, ed. J. A. Laurmann. New York: Academic
RGD 4. Rarefed Gas Dynamics. 1965. Proceedings oj the 4th International Symposium,
Vols. 1,2, ed. 1. H. deLeeuw. New York: Academic
RGD 5. Rarefed Gas Dynamics. 1967. Proceedin.qs oJ the 5th International Symposium,
Vols. 1, 2, ed. C. L. Bmndin. London: Academic
Vols. 1 ,2, ed. L. Trilling, H. Y. Wachman. New York: Academic
RGD 7. Rarefed Gas Dynamics. 1 971. Proceedings oJthe 7th International Symposium,
Vols. 1,2, cd. D. Dini, C. Ccrcignani, S. Nocilla. Pisa: Editrice Tecnico Scientifica
RGD 8. Rarefed Gas Dynamics. 1974. Proceedings oJ the 8th Interational Symposium,
Vols. 1 ,2, ed. K. Karamcheti. New York: Academic
Vols. 1,2, ed. M. Becker, M. Fiebig. Porz-Wahn, Germ: DFVLR-Press
RGD 10. Rarefed Gas Dynamics. 1977. Proceedings oJthe 10th Interational Symposium,
Parts I and 2 of Vol. 51 of Progress in Astronautics and Aeronautics, ed. L. Potter.
New York: AIAA
RGD 1 1. Rarefed Gas Dynamics. 1979. Proceedings oj the 11 th Interational Symposium,
Vols. 1 ,2, ed. R. Campargue. Paris: Commissariat a l'Energie Atomique
RGD 12. Rarefed Gas Dynamics. 1 981. Proceedings oJ the 12th Interational Symposium,
Parts 1 and 2 of Vol. 74 of Progress in Astronautics and Aeronautics, ed. S. Fisher.
New York: AIAA
Vols. 1,2, ed. O. M. Belotserkovskii, M. N. Kogan, C. S. Kutateladze, A. K. Rebrov.
New York: Plenum
RGD 14. Rarefed Gas Dynamics. 1 984. Proceedings oJ the 14th International Symposium,
Vols. 1,2, ed. H. Oguchi. Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press
RGD 1 5. Rarefed Gas Dynamics. 1986. Proceedings oj the 15th International Symposium,
Vols. 1,2, ed. V. Bof, C. Cercignani. Stuttgart: B. G. Teubner
RGD 1 6. Rarefed Gas Dynamics. 1989. Proceedings oj the 16th Interational Symposium,
Progress in Astronautics and Aeronautics, ed. E. P. Muntz, D. Weaver, D. Campbell.
Washington: AIAA. In press
from orbit on the STS orbiters had been severely eroded (Whitaker 1 983,
Peters et al. 1 983). In the early 1 980s i t also became evident that modern
satellite computer systems frequently required re-booting due to upsets as
a result of discharges traced to diferential charging on satellite surfaces.
The upsets were most frequent as the vehicles passed through the midnight
to dawn quadrant of their orbits (Garrett 1 980, Fennell et al. 1 983) .
Al l of these phenomena indicated that in addition to the efects of the
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390 MNTZ
magnetosphere's radiation belts, there are interactions between local
space environments and satellite systems of practical, measurable sig
nifcance. As extended satellite lifetimes are realized, the contamination of
optical components and thermal control surfaces becomes increasingly
important. Major sources of contamination are the fow felds of control
and station-keeping thrusters. Optical contamination as a result of the
ambient high-speed atmosphere interacting with exhaust gases has also
been recogni zed as a potentially serious space-system problem. These
occurrences represent phenomena that have been studied within the feld
of rarefied gas dynamics. Generally, increasingly frequent visits to space,
as well as the intention of several countries to man permanent low-Earth
orbit space stations and to establish permanent lunar or other bases, l eads
one to expect numerous rarefied-gas-dynamic problems associated with
activities such as the mining and processing of native resources in space.
Even the old idea of space scoops (Berner & Camac 1 961 ) has recently
been rejuvenated in both its original form (Ramohalli et al. 1 987) and a
variant (Muntz & Orme 1 987) .
Several nations have announced their intent to pursue the goal of trans
atmospheric fight with hypersonic winged vehicles. A representative fight
corridor for such vehicles is shown in Figure 1 . While these airplanes tend
to fy at rather low altitudes during acceleration in order to operate air
breathing engines, they also necessarily have quite sharp l eading edges.
ItO
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NASP RE-ENTRY
NASP
CRUISE
AOTV-AFE '
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NASP
SPACE
LAUNCH
_ 10% STANDOFF
M~ t!m
o Z 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
SPEED (km/sec.)
Figure 1 Flight corridor for NASP and aerobraking vehicles, with the ratio of the maximum
slope shock thickness to shock standof distance superimposed for leading-edge radii RN
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RAREFIED GAS DYNAMICS 391
Chapman et al. (1987) have poi nted out that at the sharp l eading edges of
the vehicle, where heat-transfer problems are severe, a signi fcant portion
of the trans atmospheric flight corridor will produce shock-wave thick
nesses that are at least 1 0% of the shock standof distance. To illustrate
this poi nt, lines i ndicating where the shbck-wave thickness has reached
1 0% of the standof distance for 1 cm and 1 0 cm leadi ng-edge radii are
superimposed on the fight corridor in Figure 1 . For aero assisted orbital
transfer trajectories [Aeroassi st Flight Experiment (A FE)], the shock thick
ness is of the same order as the shock standof distance even at a typical
minimum altitude of 75 km (Bird 1 986). Thick shock waves are important
because signi fcant radiation and chemistry can take place within the
shock wave (Bird 1985, 1986, 1987, Moss 1987) . Thus an old rarefied
gas-dynamics problem-shock-wave structure-appears with the addi
tional complications of chemistry and radiation within the shock struc
ture. Transatmospheric and aeroassisted vehicles also bring up, through
attempts to extend continuum approaches to higher altitudes, velocity-slip
and temperature-jump boundary conditions associated with the kinetic or
Knudsen layer at the i nterface between the gas and the vehicle's surface.
The hypersonic context of many of these efects has been surveyed by
Cheng (1 988).
At any particular time, researchers i n rarefied gas dynamics seem to be
i nvolved i n one or more areas that are of great i nterest to other scientifc
fields. During the 1 970s, gas-dynamic isotope separation techniques and
the development of flow cooling to aid in the spectroscopic study of
complicated molecules were two examples of such i nvolvement. For the
mid-1 980s and i nto the 1 990s, the unique properties of clusters created by
gas-dynamic sources provide possibilities for stimulating i nteractions with
i nvestigators studyi ng surface depositions of cluster complexes, cluster
structures, and cluster chemistry. Related to this is the study of the dynamics
of aerosol clouds, where the particles have very small diameters and may
be conti nually condensing and evaporating, as well as chemically active.
The presence of such clouds both in nature and in i ndustrial applications
has attracted the rarefed-gas-dynamics research community to address
these problems.
In common with the rest of fuid mechanics, rarefied gas dynamics
applies to a variety of technological devices in disparate scientifc areas
while at the same time having its own i ntrinsic attraction. In this article I
review the status and some likely future directions for research in rarefed
gas dynamics, keeping i n mind the weighting factors i ntroduced by govern
mental i nvolvement. The particular subj ects have been selected for two
reasons: first, to represent the status or sci entifc position of the feld i n
what are considered t o be important areas, and second, t o raise possibilities
for interesting and useful future research.
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392 MTZ
AVAILABLE LITERATURE
Rarefied gas dynamics' literature, as well as its basis in the kinetic theory
of gases, is well organized. The chronological l isting of books, mono
graphs, and reviews presented here in Table 2 are for the convenience of
readers who would like to obtain either background or in-depth knowl
edge of the field. A quick catch-up can be obtained from the reviews of
Table 2 Background reading list (in chronological order) for rarefi ed gas dynamics
Knudsen, M. 1934. The Kinetic Theory o/Gases. London: Methuen & Co.
Loeb, L. B. 1 934. Kinetic Theory 0/ Gases. New York/Toronto/London: McGraw-Hill
Kennard, E. H. 1 938. Kinetic Theory o/Gases. New York: McGraw-Hill
Jeans, J. 1 940. An Introduction to the Kinetic Theory o/Gases. London: Cambridge
Univ. Press
Dushman, S. 1944. Scientic Foundations of Vacuum Technique. New York: Wiley
Chapman, S., Cowling T. G. 1 952. The Mathematical Theory 0/ Non-Uniform Gases.
Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press
Jeans, J. 1954. The Dynamical Theory o/Gases. New York: Dover. 2nd ed.
Hirschfelder, J. 0., Curtis, C. F., Bird, R. B. 1954. Molecular Theory o/Gases and
Liquids. New York: Wiley
Patterson, G. N. 1956. Molecular Flow o/Gases. New York: Wiley
Grad, H. 1958. Principles of the kinetic theory of gases. In Encyclopedia 0/ Physics,
ed. G. Flugge, XII: 205-93. Bcrlin/G6ttingen/Heidclberg: Springer-Verlag
Present, R. D. 1958. Kinetic Theory o/Gases. New York: McGraw-Hill
Schaaf, S. A., Chambre, P. L. 1 958. Flow of rarefed gases. In High Speed Aerodynamics
and Jet PropulSion, ed. H. W. Emmons, Vol. 3, Sect. H. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ.
Press
Schaaf, S. A. 1958. Mechanics of rarefed gases. In Encyclopedia of Physics,
ed. S. Flugge. VllI/2: 591-624. Berlin/G6ttingen/Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag
Vincenti, W. G., Kruger, C. H. 1 965. Introduction to Physical Gas Dynamics. New York:
Wiley
Shidlovskii, V. P. 1965. Introduction to the Dynamics 0/ Rarefed Gas. Moscow: Nauka
(Trans\., 1967, ed. J. A. Laurmann. New York: Elsevier)
Cercignani_ C. 1 969. Mathematical Methods.in Kinetic Theory. New York: Plenum
Kogan, M. N. 1969. Rarefed Gas Dynamics. Moscow: Nauka (Transl., 1969,
ed. L. Trilling. New York: Plenum)
Sherman, F. S. 1969. The transition from continuum to molecular fow. Ann. Rev. Fluid
M echo 1: 317-40
Patterson, G. N. 1 97 1 . Introduction to the Kinetic Theory o/Gas Flows. Toronto:
Univ. Toronto Press
Kogan, M. N. 1 973. Molecular gas dynamics. Ann. Rev. Fluid Mech. 5: 383-04
Cercignani, C. 1 975. Theory 0/ Application o/the Boltzmann Equation. New York:
Elsevier
Bird, G. A. 1 976. Molecular Gas Dynamics. Oxford: Clarendon
Bird, G. A. 1978. Monte Carlo simulation of gas fows. Ann. Rev. Fluid Mech. 1 0:
ll-31
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Sherman (1969), Kogan (1973) , and Bird (1978). The books by Bird (1976),
Cercignani (1975, 1988), and Vincenti & Kruger (1965) are also recom
mended. Si nce 1960, a detailed and comprehensive record of activity in
the field is available from the published proceedings of the International
Symposia on Rarefied Gas Dynamics (RGD 1-16 in Table 1). These
proceedings are of high quality and represent refereed and invi ted articles
that form a unique, concentrated reference source. As a reasonable rule
of thumb, most work in the feld since 1960 has appeared in some form in
these proceedings. One unfortunate aspect is that there is no cumulative
subject index for the RGD Proceedings. This problem has been recognized,
and the International Advisory Commi ttee will attempt to provide such a
data base sometime after the upcoming RGD symposium (RGD 16, July
1988, Pasadena, California).
There exists no comprehensive recent review of the experimental tech
niques of rarefed gas dynamics. Schaaf (1958) lists in his references (nos.
209-262) work on a number of experimental rarefed-gas-dynamics tech
niques. Sherman & Talbot (1960) present the status of comparisons
between theory and measurement at that time. Sherman (1963) discusses
early experimental techniques. The electron-beam fuorescence technique,
which has provided many types of measurements in rarefied gas fows, is
reviewed by Muntz (1969, 198Ia,b) and by Biitefsch & Vennemann (1974).
To date, there has been no extensive application of laser techniques to the
study of rarefed flows, al though this subject is to be reviewed by Lewis in
the proceedings of the upcoming RGD 16 (Lewis 1989). Hagena (1984)
has reviewed cluster formation in expansions, and Fenn (1985) has dis
cussed the future (and the route to get there) for molecular beams. Thomas
(1985) and Hurlbut (1985) have examined surface accommodation
coefcient measurements. Measurements of nonequilibrium processes in
free-jet expansion flows have been reviewed by Rebrov (1977, 1985) .
THEORETICAL RAREFIED GAS DYNAMICS
There are many surveys of theoretical techniques in rarefed gas dynamics.
A review of Cercignani (1975,1988), Kogan (1967,1973) , Sherman (1969),
Shidlovskii (1965), Grad (1958), and Schaaf (1958) provide a com
prehensive coverage. Works dealing specifcally with discrete veloci ty
models and Monte Carlo approaches arc brought up in more detail later.
In this section I briefy look at theoretical techniques in order to provide
a basis for later discussions.
The fundamental equation of the kinetic theory of gas fows, if only
two-body collisions are important, is the Boltzmann equation:
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394 MNTZ
al _ a] _
J
(JI)
at axj Kn
(j= I,2,2). (\)
Following Kogan's jI967, l973) notation, Xj and 0 are nondimensional
coordinates and speeds, respectively, of a molecule in thej-directi on based
on a characteristic length L and a characteristic speed [2(|/m)7]''. The
local static temperature is T, | is Boltzmann's constant, and M is the
molecular mass. The nonlinear collision integral
J
is compli cated; it
describes the net efect of popul ating and depopul ating collisions on the
distribution function. The distribution function 1 is the nondimensional
molecul ar number density (based on a reference number density n)in a
six-dimensional phase space formed from three velocity and three space
coordinates. The Knudsen number Kn is the ratio of a molecular mean free
path to the characteristic fow dimension. By multiplying the Boltzmann
equation in turn by molecular mass, momentum, and energy and inte
grating over all possible molecular velocities in each case, fve conservation
equations can be found for the transport of mass, momentum, and cncrgy.
As the average distance a molecule travels between collisions (its mean
free path) becomes large compared with a characteristic fow dimension,
the Knudsen number approaches infinity and the role of gas-phase col
lisions becomes unimportant. This limit is the free-molecule fow regime,
where only gas-surface collisions between t he gas and an obstacle or
conduit determine the fow-feld properties
.
In this regime the fow feld
can be determined even for compli cated geometries by using computational
techniques, which are limited only by the accuracy to which the surface
refection characteristics are known.
For Kn 0, gas-phase collisions become important and the fow
approaches the continuum regime of conventional gas dynamics. In the
limit of small Kn, the Boltzmann equation can be solved by expanding the
distributi on functi on as a series in Kn:
)=)O)+KnJ(I)+Kn2)<2)+
. . .
. (2)
Substituting for }in Equation (I) and equating terms of equal order results
in a set of integral equations (the Hilbert-Chapman-Enskog approach;
Kogan 1973). Once the form of the di stribution functi on is assumed, all
of the hydrodynamic quantities including the stress terms and heat-fux
vector can be written in terms of the distribution function, which can thus
be specifed in terms of fow quantities and their derivatives (cr Kogan
1 973) .
The frst term on t he right-hand side of Equation (2) is the Maxwell or
equilibrium distribution function, which is cl osely approximated if the fow
is i sentropic, and is given by
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and u represent the nondimensional speeds of a molecule and of the
fl ow, respectively. The first term in Equation (2) corresponds to the Euler
equations. The second term corresponds to the Navier-Stokes equations,
and the third to the Burnett equations. Later we wil l have occasion to
use the form of Equation (2) that i s consi stent with the Navier-Stokes
equations, namely
(4)
In Equation (4) the molecular speeds C, and C, are "peculiar" speeds,
or speeds relative to the local flow speed, where C," 0-Sj' Sj = u)
[2 (k/m)T] '', and T is the local static temperature. The speed ratio Sj i s
the j-component of local flow velocity Uj' made nondimensional using the
most probabl e molecular peculiar speed [2(k/m)Tf/2.
The distribution function of Equation (4) i s a local Maxwellian (i. e.
i sentropic flow) if the macroscopic gradient terms AO In T/oxj and AoS)oxk
approach zero. Note that these terms are really the fractional change in
temperature or change in speed ratio per molecular mean free path A. As
i s described by Holtz et al . (!97I),limits on the size of these terms before
the general form of Equation (4) becomes invalid can be estimated from
compari son to experimental measurements of the distribution function.
For flows with large Kn, the term Kn-
I
can be used as a small parameter
to expand the distribution function and substitute into Equation (l ); a
solution is subsequently obtained by equating terms of the same order
from the l eft- and right-hand sides. This i s the nearly free-molecule
flow limit, where the distribution function is disturbed slightly from its
collisionless value (see summary in Sherman l969).
Much of the initial impetus for studies in rarefed gas dynamics was to
be able to describe fows for arbitrary Kn, with particular emphasis on the
transition regime between the continuum and free-molecule limits. There
have been a variety of approaches developed to achieve this purpose. In
addition to solutions based on expansions of the distribution function i n
terms of a small parameter (the Knudsen number for small Kn, or Kn-
I
for large Kn near the free-molecule limit) or variants of this general
approach (see Kogan 1967, Cercignani 1975), Equation (1) can be solved
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396 MTZ
by l inearizing the collision integral for flows where the average speed and
temperature exhibit l ittle variation. This linearization has been extensively
exploited by Cercignani (1975) to obtain solutions in the transitional-fow
regime.
Another method for simplifying the collision integral can be found
in models or intuitive forms. One popular model is the BGK equation
(Bhatnagar et al. 1954), which is given by
a
J
- a
J

J
(O)
J
+ M1( - )/Kn.
ut uXj
(5)
Here v is a dimensionless molecular-collision frequency that does not
depend on molecular velocity but may depend.on static temperature. This
model equation can be solved for many situations where a solution of the
Boltzmann equation is not practical. An example is the shock-wave solu
tion of the BGK equation obtained by Liepmann et al. (1962) that was
used to study thc characteristics of strong shock wavcs.
Another approach that has been used in specialized situations is the
combination of two or more Maxwell distributions. Perhaps the most
famous of these is the Mott-Smith assumption that the distribution func
tion in a shock wave is the weighted combination of the upstream and
downstream Maxwell distributions (Mott-Smith 1951, Muckenfuss 1962).
This rather simple assumption actuall y works very well for the prediction
of shock-wave thickness over a wide range of shock Mach numbers
(Alsmeyer 1 976).
COMPUTATIONAL RAREFIED GAS DYNAMICS
The dominant predictive tool in rarefied gas dynamics for the past decade
at least has been the direct simulation Monte Carlo (DSMC) technique.
This approach, which was introduced in 1963 and 1 964 by Graeme Bird
(Bird 1963, 1965), has been developed, nurtured, and brought to an
impressive level of ptoductive capability by Bird and others in the inter
vening years. The work reported by Moss ( 1 986) using the DSMC method
to predict species concentrations and radiation in very energetic flow fi elds
indicates thc power of the technique. The basic technique is described by
Bird in his book (Bird 1976); its use in chemicall y reacting fows has been
presented by Koura ( 1 973) and Bird (1976, 1979). Recently, the technique
has been extended to radiating fows (Bird 1 987). A short review of the
DSM C technique, as well as the Hicks-Y en-N ordsieck method (N ordsieck
& Hicks 1967, Yen 1971 ) and the molecular-dynamics method, has been
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given by Bird (1978, 1 989; see also Yen 1984). The Hicks-Yen-Nordsieck
(HYN) approach is a Monte Carlo method, but in this case the collision
integral is solved by a Monte CarIo sampl ing technique; the remainder of
the Boltzmann equation is solved using standard finite-diference methods.
Appropriate implementations of the DSMC technique have been shown
by Bird ( 1 976) and by Nanbu in a series of papers (Nanbu 1986) to be in
principle an exact solution of the Boltzmann equation, although as Bird
( 1 989) argues, it is not entirely clear that such a connection is necessary.
In the DSMC method a l arge number of simul ated molecules are fol
lowed simultaneously (Bird 1 976, 1989). Coll isions are handled on a prob
abilistic basis using the molecules found in a small geometric cell after
each computational time step. The computation i s started from some initial
condition and followed step by step in time; steady fow is the condition
that is reached at large times. The computational cell network is in physical
space, and the time steps can be directly related to physical times. A most
important feature of thc technique is that it can be applied so that the
computation time is proportional to the first power of the number of
simul ated molecules.
The DSMC technique is a pure form of computational fl uid dynamics.
In principle it can contain all of the physics needed for any problem
without the necessity of non equil ibrium thermodynamic assumptions that
are required in nonequil ibrium continuum-flow calculations. In practice
the technique is computationally intensive compared with its continuum
counterparts. However, calcul ations that overl ap continuum calculations
(with added slip efects) for STS orbiter fow fields have been accomplished
(Moss 1986). The success of the technique depends on computational
performance, so it is easy to anticipate further advances in its use. A
number of research centers are now looking at efciently matching DSMC
and continuum techniques in a computational hybrid approach (Cheng &
Wong 1 988). As indicated by Bird (1985), hypersonic fow fields can show
widely diferent degrees of rarefaction at diferent locations, which makes
a hybrid approach attractive for such fow fields. On the same subject, it
was noted by Yen ( 1 984) that the HYN approach ofers the possibility of
not having to match diferent numerical techniques for solving mixed
continuum and rarefied-flow problems.
Since in many situations where extreme nonequil ibrium efects exist,
such as in shock transition zones around sharp hypersonic leading edges,
the DSMC technique is the only realistic method for obtaining solutions,
its validity is important. In some sense its validation may well serve as a
prototype for many other computational fl uid-dynamic techniques. The
usual situation, and the one that appl ies here, is that for fow fields in
which one really wants to use the computational technique, it i s very
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398 MTZ
difcult to check it directly. The status of DSMC experimental validation
is reviewed in a following section.
The success of the DSMC technique, as well as a continued desire to
extend calculations to lower Knudsen numbers, has revived interest in
discrete-velocity gas models. In these models, gases are allowed to have
molecular velocities with only a l imited set of possible values. It is sur
prising how successful the very simplest velocity model of a gas, frequently
presented in introductory chapters of kinetic-theory texts, can be in pre
dicting approximate transport properties and the equation of state. This
simplest model permits molecular motion only parallel and antiparallel to
the coordinate axes of a Cartesian system. Following the suggestions of
Krook (1955) and Gross (1960), Broadwell (1964a, b) has extended versions
of the simple model to solve Couette and Rayleigh flows and shock-wave
structure. Broadwell's use of a very few discrete velocities permitted him
to solve analytically both the infinite-Mach-number shock-wave transition
problem and translational Couette flow for low Mach number and arbi
trary Knudsen number. Hamel & Wachman (1965) have used what they
call the "discrete ordinate" technique for a study of Couette fow.
For discrete models, V Boltzmann equations can be written for V discrete
velocities:
(7)
The rate of change of the number of molecules N(v) with velocity (v) on
the left-hand side of Equation (7) is just equal to the diference between
gain (G) and loss (L) terms on the right-hand side. There is clearly a set
ofv diferential equations that can be written where the "collision integral "
(CL) will be very simple if V is a small number (Broadwell 1 964b) .
The surprising qualitative and even quantitative accuracy of the discrete
velocity models is related to the question expressed recently by Hasslacher
(1987): "How detailed must micromechanics be to generate the qualitative
behavior predicted by the Navier-Stokes equations?" A related question
is, is there a use for discrete models to help accelerate DSMC-type cal
culations? If there is, a hybrid DSMC-discrete-velocity approach would
permit calculations to smaller Knudsen numbers, which is a worthwhile
objective.
The discrete-velocity model of Broadwell retains the notion of con
tinuous space and time. Other models go beyond the discrete-velocity
assumption to discrete physical space and time. As reviewed by Hasslacher
(1987), the particles exist at nodes in a lattice; in each time step a particle
will move in one of the possible discrete directions a distance of exactly
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one node. Simple conservation collisi on rules are implemented at each
node to determine the di screte particle velocities for the next step. In all
cases the particle speeds are constant. Thus at the beginning of a time step
only the particle velocities in the nearest neighbor nodes need be known
in order to completely determine the results of the time step. Simple,
massively parallel computations are possible. With appropriate choices of
lattice configuration and collisi on rules, cellular spaces, or cellular au
tomata as these models are called, have been observed to evolve at least
approximately the dynamics of nonlinear physical systems. The connection
between the lattice gas and real gases (as represented by the Navier-Stokes
equati ons) can be formed using analogs of the kineti c-theory techniques
developed for obtaining transport coefcients from the Boltzmann equa
tion (Frisch et al. 1986). Results of lattice-gas calculations have provided
remarkable, apparently qual itatively reasonable continuum fow feld
visualizati on (Hasslacher 1987). The quantitative accuracy of lattice-gas
simulati on of continuum-gas-dynamics phenomena remains to be estab
lished, but the applicati on or adaptation of these new directions to mas
sively parallel rarefied-flow computations are of great interest. The single
speed lattice gas has no way to have a gas temperature independent of gas
velocity. To remedy this, a multispeed lattice gas is required and has been
proposed by d'Humieres & Lallemand (1 986). Calculations based on this
model will be reported at RGD 16 (Nadiga et al. 1989). It is clear that the
computational efciency of at least the simplest collision-rule automaton
can be extremely attractive. The inclusi on of more complicated rules to
accommodate real gas efects (rotati on, vibration, chemistry, etc.) i s
another matter; however, there i s no questi on that the automata ofer
intriguing possibilities and certainly will be the subject of much future
research.
EXPERIMENTAL RAREFIED GAS DYNAMICS
The history of experiments in the feld of rarefed gas dynamics involves two
rather diferent mainstreams that have, however, interacted in mutually
beneficial ways. Special efort has been expended on developing techniques
for producing and measuring rarefi ed flow fields. Determination of the
detail s of the molecular motion and the populations of internal energy
states has been a particular emphasis and has led to the development
of several new techniques. In parallel, much efort has gone into the
development of supersonic free-jet molecular-beam sources. This work was
originally done for surface-interacti on studies but has now been extensively
used in chemi cal kinetics and a wide range of related investigations. The
development of sources in the peri od up to about 1975 leaned heavily
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400 MUTZ
on flow-field instrumentation techniques that could observe energy-state
populations and molecular motion in various gas species. I n return, t he
simple free-jet flows were an ideal test-bed for fow-field instrumentation
techniques. The two parallel experimental developments are a remarkable
success story. Spectacular progress has been made in molecular beams and
fow cooling for both chemical kinetics and surface studies. Detailed flow
feld measurements were made a number of years ago and have been used
very recently for comparison with DSMC calculations.
Instrumentation Techniques for Flow Fields
The requirements for understanding rarefed fows stimul ated t he devel
opment of special instrumentation techniques, which were developed to
sense the rotational, vibrational, and t ransl ational energy-state population
distributions at points in rarefed fow felds.
The frst flow-field instrument to indicate t he directional details of the
molecular motion in a gas flow was the free-molecule pressure probe
developed by G. N. Patterson and his students (Patterson 1 956, Enkenhus
et al. 1960). This device is a cylindrical probe with a small orifce in its side
wall. It is used in flows where the mean free path is much greater than the
probe diameter. By placing the probe's axis in arbitrary directions and
rotating the probe about its longitudinal axis, t he pl ane of t he probe's
orifce can in principle be oriented in any direction. Pressure measurements
as a function of orifce orientation provide information about t he molec
ular motion as a function of direction. There have been many variants of
this probe, including one in which the probe was used to feed a mass
spectrometer for t he study of mixture fows (Koppenwallner 1986). The
l ong time response of very small probes attached to finite gauge volumes
and the difculty of probe manufacture have l imited the use of free
molecule pressure probes to flows that are at lower density than is con
venient for many laboratory fow studies.
A second-generation fow-field probe is t he electron-beam fluorescence
technique. A collimated beam of, say, 20-kV electrons is projected through
a rarefied flow. The electrons stimulate fluorescence from the fow gases,
which can then be used to measure under various particul ar circumstances
the transl ational, rotational, and vibrational popul ation distributions of
the gases in the fow. First introduced by Schumacher & Gadamer (1 958)
for density measurements, the techni que was later developed for trans
l ational, rotational, and vibrational population distributions by Muntz
and many other investigators (Muntz 1969, 1981a,b). Spatial resolution is
obtained by observing the fuorescence at posit ions along t he beam's
trajectory and maintaining a beam diameter of around 1 mm or so. A wide
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variety of studies have been reported using electron-beam fluorescence
measurements (Muntz 1 969, 1981a,b, Butefsch & Vennemann 1 974).
Almost all of the measurements that have recently been developed for
optically accessible molecules using laser-induced fluorescence had been
made 20 years ago using electron-beam fuorescence. Laser-induced fuo
rescence can operate at higher densities using saturation optical pulses and
is more sensitive on a per-molecule basis. However, seeding the fow with
optically accessible atoms or molecules i s frequently necessary. In rarefied
gas fow it is not convenient to use seed molecules for use with laser
induced fuorescence, since they may not follow the flow that is being
traced owing to mass diferences; additional l y, their internal energy-state
population distributions will not refect the flow molecules in a well
understood way. An alternative would be to study pure fows of, say,
iodine or sodium vapor at relatively high pressures. This method presents
its own set of problems.
Flow-field measurements over the next decade will likely continue in the
tradition of electron-beam fuorescence, but with a diference. As discussed
by Muntz et al. (I9&7)there are real advantages to be obtained by com
bining electron-beam- or X-ray-induced excitation with laser-induced
fuorescence. The electron or X-ray beam acts to seed optically accessible
species along its trajectory. A crossing laser beam can then probe these
species. If great care is taken to follow the excitation kinetics, it is believed
that a flow-measurement techni que can be developed that will exhibit the
best features of both electron-beam and laser-induced fluorescence. If
optically accessible molecules are being studied, laser-induced fuorescence
ofers a number of advantages. It will certainly be applied on i ts own in
future rarefed-gas-dynamics studies.
Gas-Dynamic Molecular Beams and Free Jets
The suggestion by Kantrowitz & Grey (1 95 1 ) that i ntense molecular beams
be formed using supersonic or hypersonic fows, from which a high-fuence
beam i s skimmed, has resulted in a large body of research in the area
of free-jet expansions and molecular beams. A convenient source for
hypersonic gas was found to be the free jet (Ashkenas & Sherman \965,
French 1 966). Research on both the characteristics of freejet flows and
on the formation of intense molecular beams has been prolific. Freezing
of the translational random motion in the direction of the expanding fow
(the parallel "temperature") was identifed by Anderson & Fenn (1965)
using molecular-beam sampling techniques and time-of-fight analysis of
the parallel molecular velocity distribution in the molecular beams pro
duced by the sampling process. The freezing was subsequently predi cted
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402
MNTZ
by Hamel & Willis (1966) and Edwards & Cheng (1966). The transition
region from equil ibrium to frozen translational temperature in jet expan
sions was observed initial l y by Muntz (1967) and later more com
prehensively by Cattolica et al. (1974). The internal-state relaxation in jets
was initiall y studied by Marrone (1967) and Miller & Andres (1967). There
have been a large number of subsequent publications on this subject, and
these are perhaps best summarized by Rebrov (1977, 1985) and by Fenn
( 1 985).
Because of their convenience, free jets are the method of choice for
generating gas-dynamic molecular beams. Flow-feld measurement tech
niques, such as the electron-beam fuorescence probe and the molecular
beams obtained by skimming free-jet fows, have been used to study jet
fow properties (Anderson & Fenn 1965). After considerable research by
many investigators, the art of fow sampling has been refned to such an
extent that very l ittle interference is introduced by the sampling process
(cf. Bossel 1 971 ). Because of this capabil ity, extremely low temperatures
can be measured in the molecular beams sampled from the jet fows.
Free-jet expansions have been used extensivel y as refrigerators. Fenn
(1985), in a wonderful review of his long afair with jets, discusses several
uses of jet cooling. By taking advantage oflarge increases in coll ision cross
sections at very low temperatures, groups led by Campargue (Campargue
& Lebehot 1974, Campargue et al. 1981) and by Toennies (Miller et
al. 1974) have managed to avoid translational freezing and to generate
extremely low temperature (milli-Kelvin) molecular beams. The low tem
peratures permit surface-refection studie
s
that can sense single-phonon
interactions of, say, helium with a surface (Brusdeylins et al. 1981). These
extremel y monoenergetic beams have also been used in inelastic gas
scattering experiments (Faubel et al. 1980).
Cooling with the jet gas used as a bath makes it possible to depopulate
the majority of the rotational and vibrational levels of complicated mol
ecules. Indeed, owing to their low density in the bath, the molecules can
be cooled well below their normal condensation temperatures. This efect
has spawned a remarkable quantity of recent papers on laser-induced
fuorescence molecular spectroscopy, as described by Fenn (1985).
The ubiquitous free-jet expansion into a high vacuum has been used
extensively for generating controlled agglomerations of molecules in the
condensed phase. The ability to generate molecular groups ranging from
dimers to aerosol-size particles allows tehnologcally important phenomena
to be studied (Fenn 1985). Cluster formation in jets has been reviewed by
Hagena (1984) and by Rebrov (1985) as part of a review of nonequilibrium
processes. The subject is wide ranging and interesting but cannot be dis
cussed here in detail owing to space l imitations. The many scientifc studies
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made possible by a convenient source of clusters indicate that this subject
will continue to attract attention in the future.
ASSESSING COMPUTATIONAL RAREFIED GAS
DYNAMICS
Because of its central importance in predicting rarefed fows, the validation
of the DSMC technique by experiments is discussed in this section. The
status of the validation is important for simple gases, for chemicall y react
ing gases, and for gases with internal degrees of freedom. The DSMC
technique, or some variant, can in principle account for all of the correct
physics during a collision. However, to do so implies an extreme com
putational overhead. The question raised earlier about how much micro
knowledge has to be included to arrive at a macroscopical l y satisfactory
result needs to be answered; however, note that there is no one answer,
since the level at which macroscopic satisfaction is achieved will depend
on the application. Comparing DSMC results with experiments can
achieve this goal. As an illustration of the possibilities, two fl ow felds are
examined here in order to present the status of comparisons between
DSMC results, other predictions, and measurements. Additionally, it is im
portant to validate the DSMC method because of the typical computa
tional-fuid-dynamics role it has assumed as a surrogate for experiment.
Before looking at specific fow felds it is useful to remember that molec
ular interactions are generally modeled by point centers of repulsion in
computational rarefed gas dynamics. In this model the intermolecular
force during a collision is assumed to be inversely proportional to a power
1] of the distance between the molecules. Based on the Chapman-Enskog
theory described earlier, the coefcient of viscosity can be related to the
intermolecular force law by { = K\Tw, where w = (1]+3)/2(1]-1 ) and K\
is a constant given by kinetic theory and the characteristics of the molecule.
The mean free path of a molecule can be calculated from its coefcient of
viscosity and is thus directly related to w or 1]. In the DSMC technique a
collision cross section is required. As discussed by Bird ( 1 976), an efective
hard-sphere momentum-transfer cross section that varies with the relative
kinetic energy of the collision partners can be written in terms of w or 1].
Calculations made for diferent theories or models can be compared by
using the same intermolecular force law to provide either viscosity
coefcients or collision cross sections as necessary.
Normal Shock Waves
There is now a considerable body of data on the density profles of normal
shock waves in monatomic gases for a wide range of shock Mach numbers.
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404 MTZ
Most of the available data are reviewed by Alsmeyer (1976), who also
presents important new data with very little relative scatter. Other data
for very low shock Mach numbers have been presented by Garen et al.
( 1 977). These two studies were done in shock tubes; one used observations
of the attenuation of an electron beam to measure the density profiles, the
other a laser interferometric technique. Argon and xenon were the gases
used in the studies. We first consider Figure 2, where various quantities
are defned that relate to a shock-wave density profle. It is generally
convenient to use the nondimensional density f as a position variable in
the shock and to nondimensi onalize distances by the free-stream mean
free path. Using only Alsmeyer's ( 1 976) data for maximum-slope shock
thickness, which really lies in the middle of a rather wide scatter band from
many other investigations based on a variety of techniques, the comparison
shown in Figure 3 (due to Fiscko & Chapman 1 988) between experiment
and prediction with = 10 (c= 0.72) is consistent with the temperature
sensitivity of measured argon viscosities at temperatures above 300 K
(appropriate for shock-tube experiments). The trend for the DSMC tech
nique to predict a thinner shock at low Mach numbers was also noted
by Alsmeyer ( 1 976). He ascribed this tenden
c
y to t he rather significant
attractive well of argon (which of course is not modeled by a simple
inverse-power repulsi on) playing a more important role in the l ow-Mach
number shocks. Sturtevant & Steinhilper ( 1 974) performed DSMC cal
culations incorporating various attractive-well depths but at higher Mach
numbers, finding smaller thicknesses in terms of the upstream mean free
path for decreased attractive-well depths.
It is interesting to note that Alsmeyer's data are ft quite well by the
Mott-Smith model as developed by Muckenfuss ( 1 962). The fit is best at
the l ower Mach numbers. A similar satisfactory ft was found recently by
Velikodnyi et al. ( 1 985), who applied Struminskii' s ( 1 980) method of
_ n2
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u
C
0
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G

2
FLOW
-
Q=
A2
SHOCK WAVE
NUMBER DENSITY
PROFILE
[
.. .....
[
Figure 2 Characteristic parameters that can be derived from a shock-wave density profle.
The maximum-slope shock thickness is." and AI is the upstream mean free path.
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0.4
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A- DSMC
Z
... ...
/ CURV TH0U:
=-
-
=
;- - -
LSVEYER`S 0AT,
AR0DN , T =300
VDTT~ SVl TH,
w " 0. 72
o p
5H00K VA0H WJVCR
Figure 3 Comparison of experiment and
predictions for argon normal shock waves
(after Chapman et al. 1987).
systems of identical particles to the shock-structure problem. The Burnett
equations, which were once thought to have no solution above M 1.9,
were integrated in 1 976 to M " 4 by Simon & Foch ( 1 977) using modern
numerical techniques for the case of a normal shock with w = 1 . Very
recently, Fiscko & Chapman ( 1 988) have integrated the Burnett equations
(less one small but numerically troublesome term) to M:: 35. The shock
thickness predictions by Fiscko & Chapman are in quite good agreement
with DSMC calculations for the case of O = 1 .
A convenient single-parameter measure of the shape of a shock profle
is the quotient Q defned in Figure 2 (Schmidt 1 969). The plot in Figure 4
shows Q as a function of shock Mach number as calculated by Simon &
Foch ( 1 977) with U 1 for the Navier-Stokes and Burnett equations.
Superimposed are the results of Oaren et al. (1977). The data seem to
support the Burnett results above M 2.0 (however, remember that O 1
!.Z
1.1O UAHLN 8l OI
DATA. xENON
1- QQK
HN- -
w 1

//
/ ' s
1.D
//
,
`
, I
,
1-
/
'
ALMbYLH
I "
DATA. ARGON
I Y - K
J '
1
r
:
Z R
SHOCK MACH NUMBER
Figure 4 Comparisons of the quotient Q
(see Figure 2) for Navier-Stokes and Bur
nett solutions to normal shock waves with
two sets of experiments.
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406 MUNTZ
in the predictions). Between M = 1. 0 and 2. 0 the data do not really favor
either version. I am not aware of Q-values having been presented for low
Mach-number DSMC calculations, although accurate values could surely
be obtained with present techniques and computers (cf. Bird 1989).
So far we have looked only at density, which i s a very simple moment
of the molecul ar-velocity distributi on function in a shock wave. It is of
interest to see what level of complexity in the description of collisions i s
required for the DSMC or other techniques to be able to predict the
distribution function in a shock wave. Measurements are available from
electron-beam fuorescence studies done a number of years ago in helium
at M " 1.59 and M = 20 (Muntz & Harnett 1969; E. P. Muntz, unpub
lished work, 1968) and in argon at M = 7 (Holtz & Muntz 1984). For l ow
Mach-number shock waves, a convenient single-parameter assessment of
the shape of the mol ecular-velocity di stribution function i s its full width
at half-maximum, i . e. its half-width (Holtz et a1. 1971). Data for the half
widths of the di stribution for mol ecular motion in the direction of the fl ow
(parall el) and perpendicular to it (perpendicular) are shown in Figure 5 as
a function of non dimensional density rise f in the M 1. 59 helium shock.
For compari son, plots are also shown of the Navier-Stokes half-widths
[using Equati on (4) for the distribution function], Mott-Smith half-widths,
and DSMC half-widths, all with w = 0. 647. Note that in this case, the
DSMC and HYN techniques do a good j ob of matching the data, whereas
the Chapman-Enskog distribution is quite poor. The Mott-Smith dis-
1. 2
1.1
_ 1.0
: 0.9
~
e 0.8
.
0.7
.
0.6
g 0.5
' L.9
z
0.3
z
0.2
a 0.1
[
W= I
'
W_ W
.
.
.
.
W : half width
l Upstream
t:
;p
2 -Downstreom _ /
. '
I
..
..
;r

/
.
:
/
'
'
'
f ,/. Lxpcrmcn!
/
,::/
Muntz H Harnett
/ /
, j distribution
;r
'
'
>^ ] /r d|S!r|bu!|on
I
.
.
)/..

. . . . ......... ...
Mott m|! //

'
.
'
... -
.
, . Moll ~m|! j
I
,:/ -- Chopmon - Enskog
--- -.. HYN, w : 0.5

..

HYN , w : 1. 0
DSMC II , w :O.647
- - - - - - - - DSMC . w :0.647
-0.1
[ 0.1 0.2 0. 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.6 0.9 1.0

RLDUCLD NUMBER DENSI TY,
Figure 5 Half-widths of distribution functions for an M * 1. 59 normal shock wave.
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tribution is nearly as successful as the DSMC results. Further results of a
similar nature, including comparisons to M 7 argon data, will be pre
sented soon (Erwin & Pham Van Diep 1 989). As an example, the Mott
Smith parallel distribution function for an M 20 helium shock is com
pared with experimental results (E. P. Muntz, unpublished work, 1 968) at
f 0. 62 in Figure 6. Note that while the Mott-Smith shock thickness is
in reasonable agreement with experiment (Alsmeyer 1 976), the distribution
function is not, exhibiting a large population of scattered molecules un
accounted for in the Mott-Smith model. The distributions in Figure 6 have
each been normalized by their maximum values in order to compare the
shapes of the two functions.
The preceding detailed comments are presented here as an example
of one of the opportunities that exist for establishing true-bench-mark
validations of computational rarefied gas dynamics. Similar studies of
mixture shocks and shock waves in gases with internal degrees of freedom
in order to study the details of inelastic collisions would be extremely
useful. In both of these cases, measurements beyond those already avail
able may be necessary. Space limitations do not permit further discussion
on these subjects here, although both arc extremely important for the
complete validation of computational rarefed gas dynamics.
Flow-Field Studies and Knudsen Layers
The prediction of rarefed fow fields about simple shapes with detailed
comparisons to experiments remains to be completed. The issue here is
essentially how the kinetic layer near the interface between gas and solid
(the Knudsen l ayer) is treated. Kogan ( 1 973, 1 985) and Cercignani ( 1 978,
\ .L
L.U
2
0.8
3 0.7
l
g 0.6
u
L.
u
0.4
: L.
L.<
Mp " dL
; " L.Z
* EXPERI MENT. Fp
PREDICTION. MOTT-SMITH
L.!
Z.L 1.5 0.5 L L

(Veil X W- 5 ( cm/s )
Figure 6 Comparison of the shapes of parallel distribution functions at a point in an
M 20 helium shock wave.
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408
MTZ
1 979) have addressed the problem from a theoretical point of view. Cheng
( 1 988) describes the near-continuum rarefaction problem as shock slip and
surface slip. Shock slip is the interaction between a thick shock wave and
a fully viscous layer between the shock and the body. Surface slip refers
to the jump conditions that occur in the kinetic layer (a thickness of order
one mean free path) at the interface between gas and surface.
Crawford & Vogenitz ( 1 974) presented detailed DSMC fow-field cal
culations for a cylinder. These results included perpendicular and parallel
temperature predictions. Davis & Harvey ( 1 979) have studied a high
Mach-number nitrogen fow over a fat plate (actually a large-diameter
hollow cylinder aligned with the flow) and a plate with a forward facing
step. The latter authors compared experiments with DSMC calculations
by using several energy-transfer models to account for rotational energy
transfer in collisions. Crusciel & Pool ( 1 986) have studied the Knudsen
layer and other fow-field details for flows over a sphere and a sharp cone
(Crusciel & Pool 1 987). In the latter case the flow-field density measure
ments of Hickman ( 1 967) were compared with the predictions. Measure
ments by Krylov et al. ( 1 985) of surface stress using a floating element
balance are available for comparison to predictions. Molodtsov & Ryabov
( 1 985) compare measurements of flow around a sphere with DSMC and
Navier-Stokes calculations. The Knudsen layer has been probed by Gottes
diener ( 1 984) with a free-molecule wire probe; this experiment is one of
the few to resolve profiles in the Knudsen layer. Earlier velocity-profile
measurements in a Knudsen layer have been presented by Reynolds et
al. (1 974). Electron-beam fluorescence density measurements have been
compared by Allegre et al . ( 1 986) with Navier-Stokes solutions with slip
boundary conditions for a NACA 001 2 airfoil in an M " 2 flow. Velocity
distribution function measurements in the flow field over a flat plate made
by Becker et al. ( 1 974) have been compared with DSMC predictions by
Hermina ( 1 987) and Hurlbut (1 987).
It is clearly time for a detailed review of fow-field comparisons between
experiments and predictions, as well as of the related issue of the Knudsen
number limits of continuum-flow approaches that include slip. Space
limitations do not permit such a review here.
RADIATING, REACTING, NONEQUILIBRIUM
COMPUTATIONAL RAREFIED GAS DYNAMICS
As noted in the introduction there is a growing need to be able to predict
highly nonequilibrium, radiating and reacting flow fields. A major triumph
of the past 5 to 10 years has been the development of the DSMC technique
to provide this capability. The DSMC, or any similar particle treatment
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of a gas where classes of particles are followed (in this case only in a
statistical sense), intrinsically is able to provide a representative refection
of nature and can be correct in highly nonequil ibrium situations. This of
course is only true if all important elastic and inelastic collision cross
sections are known as a function of energy. However, the possibil ity is
there, whereas in continuum treatments reliance must be made on the
assumptions of nonequilibrium thermodynamics. In the past decade, Graeme
Bird and his associates at the Langley Research Center have been able to
develop in "an engineering context" (Bird 1 985) the DSMC technique so
as to provide predictions for highly nonequilibrium real air fow fields
including radiation (Moss et al. 1 988). The "engineering context" refers
to the numerous necessary approximations that must be made in describing
the collision processes and energy transfers during collisions. The com
putational resources and physical information needed to avoid these
approximations are lacking at this time. The exciting point is that the
engineering calculations are possible and provide reasonable agreement
with the very few experimental results that are available (Bird 1 987). It is
also clear that the agreement may be fortuitous, since there are a very large
number of interacting approximations and not very well known collision
cross sections involved.
The possibil ity of making fow-field predictions for multidimensional,
reacting and radiating fows (also of course viscous) with the DSMC
technique impl ies a clear direction for future work. Signifcant efort in
rarefed gas dynamics will be aimed at developing inelastic coll ision
models and establ ishing their validity in situations that are less complicated
than a nonequilibrium air chemistry flow feld. As an example, the standard
way of treating inelastic collisions with transfer of rotational energy in the
DSMC technique is based on the model of Borgnakke & Larsen ( 1 975).
In the model a certain fraction of collisions are considered inelastic; for
these collisions, new translational and rotational energies are sampled
from the distribution of these quantities that would occur in an equilibrium
gas with a spcci fic cnergy that is the same as the specifc energy available
in the collisions. This of course is not very realistic, but if the fraction of
inelastic collisions is chosen so that the rotational relaxation rate in the
gas is matched, it seems to work quite satisfactorily in an "engineering
context. " Vibration and electron excitation have been handled by analo
gous techniques. Experiments can be done quite easily to investigate
models of, say, rotational energy transfer [for instance, rotational-level
population distributions in a shock wave are already available (Robben &
Talbot 1 966)]. It is to be expected that diferent inelastic collision models
(e.g. Anderson et al. 1 986) will appear, and that experimental studies in
simple situations will be undertaken to validate their predictions.
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41 0
MUNTZ
In summary, because of the DSMC technique's potential importance i n
many scientifc and technological felds (e.g. astrophysics, radiation trans
fer, exhaust gas radiation) the details of i ts application to reacting, radi
ating fow fields should be studied and improved where appropriate in
order to construct a sound foundation for the technique's predictive capa
bilities. I t is likely that more detailed knowledge can be included in the
future owing to increasing computational performance. The necessary
research will be an active area in rarefed gas dynamics in the next decade
(for an example, see Kunc 1 989).
BRIEF DISCUSSIONS OF SOME INTERESTING
SUBJECTS
Evaporation- and Condensation-Induced Flows
In 1 970 Bochkaryov et al . ( 1 970) reported on the study of radially expand
ing fows from cylindrical and spherical sources constructed from per
forated sheets. A similar, al though plane, source was used by Ytrehus
( 1 977) to simulate an evaporating surface. Considerable attention has been
paid to the evaporation-condensation problem because of its technological
importance and i ts intrinsic interest as a problem in rarefied gas dynamics.
A Knudsen layer is at the interface between the surface and the vapor for
the case of evaporation or condensation. Condensation or evaporation
can be described as strong or weak (Kogan 1 985). Strong conditions are
identifed with sufcient vapor mass fow such that, to leading order in the
approximation at the outer edge of the Knudsen layer, the Navier-Stokes
terms can be neglected; a drifting Maxwelliln and a fni te fow velocity
outside of the Knudsen layer are appropriate. If, at the edge of the Knudsen
layer, Navier-Stokes terms are present in the approximation, then the fow
is considered weak. While the evaporation and condensation Knudsen
layers are symmetric and seem theoretically well understood for weak
evaporation and condensation, this is not the case for strong condensation
layers. Hatakeyama and Oguchi have identifed a subsonic-supersonic
bifurcation (Hatakeyama & Oguchi 1 979, Oguchi 1 98 1 ) that involves
conditions in the fow outside of the Knudsen layer. Kogan ( 1 985), in his
RGD 1 3 review of transport processes in Knudsen layers, outlines the
theoretical status as of 1 982. Also at the same symposium (RGD 1 3),
Schilder et al. ( 1 985) reported on the frst known measurements in an
evaporative Knudsen layer, which in this case was produced by i ntensive
evaporation of iodine. They used laser-induced fuorescence to measure
fuorescence emission-line profles from which temperatures parallel and
perpendicular to the evaporating fow were determined. Further theoretical
studies of the subsonic-supersonic transition in strong condensation have
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RAREFIED GAS DYAMICS 41 1
been presented by Hatakeyama (1 984), who expands on the properties of
the subsonic and supersonic branches. Ytrehus & Aukrust (1 984) also
discuss fow breakdown of condensation Knudsen layers. Unsteady strong
condensation has been analyzed by Sone et al. (1 986) with emphasis on
the establishment of a steady-state fow.
Two situations of practical interest for space applications-the evapora
tion of spherical and cylindrical sources into a high vacuum-have been
studied by Edwards & Collins (1 969) and by Knight (1 976). Based on the
work of Fuchs & Legge (1 979), Muntz et al. (1 984), Muntz & Orme (1 987),
Anders & Frohn (1 984), and Faubel (1 989), it has become clear how to
investigate evaporating liquid surfaces in a vacuum. It is expected that a
number of studies concerning the characteristics of liquid surface evap
oration in vacuum will appear over the next few years. Detailed studies of
the associated vapor flow fields are possible, with some initial work already
:epo:ted(!akensetal. i v4,iaubel l vv).
Surface Interactions at Medium Energies
The study of surface i nteractions at low energies (up to say I eV) has long
been of interest to the rarefied-gas-dynamics community. Unfortunately,
there is insufcient space in the present review to address this area. New
emphasis, however, has been given to surface interactions at intermediate
energies (say 1 to 20 eV) as a result of the observations of glow and material
erosion in low Earth orbit, as mentioned in the Introduction. Even prior to
this most recent interest, Knuth and his associates had studied momentum
transfer for satellite surfaces (Knuth 1 980, Liu et al. 1 979). An interesting
aside is the work of Steinheil et al. (1 977), which demonstrated an impres
sive reduction in tangential accommodation coefcient for specially pre
pared surfaces, with at least one surface being stable to exposure to atmo
spheric-pressure gases. The advent of new surface preparation techniques
and designer-type materials, as well as of the new surface measurement
techniques such as scanning tunneling microscopy, indicates that the time
may be about right for significant advances in the control of surface
accommodation coefcients. Uses for such control are not entirely clear,
since the drag of practically shaped space vehicles is not very sensitive
to the tangential accommodation coefcient. Nevertheless, a very low
coefcient could signifcantly afect the drag of stabilized slender shapes.
It is also worth noting that an overall reduction in momentum accom
modation will reduce the density of the cloud of refected gases that
concentrate ahead of the windward surfaces of space vehicles.
The status of intermediate-energy surface interaction has been reviewed
by Hurlbut (1 985, 1 989) . Studies of surface-interaction measurements from
space flights are reported by Karr et al. (1 986) and Gregory & Peters (1 986) .
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41 2 MTZ
The production of medium-energy oxygen atoms in ground facilities has
been reported by Cross et al. (1 986) and by Caledonia (1 989). A useful
review of low-Earth-orbit atmospheric efects is given by Green et al.
( 1 985).
Non-Navier-Stokes Gas Dynamics
Kogan and his colleagues (cf. Kogan 1 986) have investigated continuum
limit fows that have Burnett terms contributing efects of the same order
as the Navier-Stokes terms. When a uniformly heated body is immersed
in a gas at a temperature diferent from the gas temperature, such as when
a hot body is immersed in a signifcantly cooler gas, stress terms appear
in the Burnett approximation for so-called slow, nonisothermal fows.
Kogan indicates that these terms can lead to surprising results. If a hot
sphere is in the Stokes-fow regime, then for large enough heating (say 1 0
times the gas temperature) the drag on the sphere can become negative. The
energy for the work done comes from maintaining the sphere's temperature
(Kogan 1 986). Burnett term efects related to the ones just described have
been observed experimentally for one specifc case in elegant work by
Hermans et al. ( 1 977, 1 979). In these experiments, Burnett viscomagnetic
heat-fux predictions have been found to agree well with experiments.
Based on the Burnett terms' importance even in low-Mach-number
shock waves, as well as the recent successful integration of the Burnett
equations at higher Mach numbers and their significant contributions to
non-Navier-Stokes continuum fows, it seems that the earlier perception
that the Burnett approximation was not very useful may be mistaken.
Investigations involving the Burnett equations appear likely to continue.
CONCLUSIONS
Several research subjects within the broad feld of rarefed gas dynamics
have been discussed here, chosen on the basis of what I consider to be
their importance as research directions in the next decade. In this efort I
have undoubtedly slighted some, but I hope only a limited number, of my
professional colleagues; I trust they will forgive the sins of my omissions.
Briefy, I expect the most fundamental issues in rarefed gas dynamics
during the next decade to be the following:
I . Assessing the accuracy of computational rarefed-gas-dynamics tech
niques so that they can be used as surrogates for experiments, including
investigations of the level of knowledge of the microkinetics necessary
for appropriate descriptions of gas fows with active internal degrees of
freedom and chemistry.
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2. Development of hybrid fow-feld computational techniques that match
continuum (Navier-Stokes and Burnett computations) with particle
computations (DSMC, cellular automata) and that can apply to highly
nonequil ibrium, radiating, chemically active flows.
3. Validation of computational rarefed gas dynamics by means of experi
mental studies of Knudsen layers in simple flows with a detailed fol
lowing of internal energy-state populations, and gas-mixture flows.
4. A continuing interest in the theoretical analysis of rarefied-gas-dynamics
problems, which is essential for understanding and developing com
putational methods.
5. Investigation of designer surfaces for achieving stable, low momentum
and thermal accommodation coefcients.
6. Studies of the interactions at 5-20 eV between atmospheric species and
both surfaces and gases.
7. Evaporation and condensation experiments and theory relating to
events close to surfaces.
8. Studies relating to t he formation, properties, and use of clusters.
9. The analysis of evaporating and condensing particle and aerosol clouds
in both Earth and space environments.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I thank Gail Dwinell and Carolyn Gautier for much assistance with the
preparation of this article. In part, the time spent on this review was
supported by a Hypersonic Training and Research grant from NASA,
AFOSR, and ONR (NASA NAGW 1 061 ). Finally, my greatest obligation
is to my colleagues from around the world, with whom I have had many
exciting discussions mixed with an eclectic assortment of beverages over
the past 25 (maybe a few more) years.
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Rarefied Gas Dynamics

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Rarefied Gas Dynamics

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Ann. Rev. Fluid Mech. 1989.

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