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Discrete-Time Systems
We start with discrete-time (DT) systems because they are conceptually simpler than continuous-time systems illustrate same important modes of thinking as continuous-time are increasingly important (digital electronics and computation)
y [ n]
Dierence Equations
Dierence equations are mathematically precise and compact. Example: y [n] = x[n] x[n 1] Let x[n] equal the unit sample signal [n], [n] = 1, 0, if n = 0; otherwise. x[ n] = [ n]
n 1 0 1 2 3 4
We will use the unit sample as a primitive (building-block signal) to construct more complex signals.
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Check Yourself
Solve y [n] = x[n] x[n 1] given x[n] = [n] How many of the following are true? 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. y [2] > y [1] y [3] > y [2] y [2] = 0 y [n] y [n 1] = x[n] 2x[n 1] + x[n 2] y [119] = 0
Step-By-Step Solutions
Dierence equations are convenient for step-by-step analysis.
y [n] = x[n] x[n 1] y [1] = x[1] x[2] y [0] = x[0] x[1] y [1] = x[1] x[0] y [2] = x[2] x[1] y [3] = x[3] x[2] ... =00=0 =10=1 = 0 1 = 1 =00=0 =00=0
x[ n] = [ n]
y [ n]
n 1 0 1 2 3 4
7
n 1 0 1 2 3 4
Check Yourself
Solve y [n] = x[n] x[n 1] given x[n] = [n] How many of the following are true? 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 4 y [2] > y [1] y [3] > y [2] y [2] = 0 y [n] y [n 1] = x[n] 2x[n 1] + x[n 2] y [119] = 0 X
Step-By-Step Solutions
Block diagrams are also useful for step-by-step analysis. Represent y [n] = x[n] x[n 1] with a block diagram: start at rest
x[ n ] 1
Delay
+ 0
y [ n]
x[ n] = [ n]
y [ n]
n 1 0 1 2 3 4
9
n 1 0 1 2 3 4
Step-By-Step Solutions
Block diagrams are also useful for step-by-step analysis. Represent y [n] = x[n] x[n 1] with a block diagram: start at rest
1 1 1
Delay
+ 0
x[ n] = [ n]
y [ n]
n 1 0 1 2 3 4
10
n 1 0 1 2 3 4
Step-By-Step Solutions
Block diagrams are also useful for step-by-step analysis. Represent y [n] = x[n] x[n 1] with a block diagram: start at rest
10 1 1
Delay
+ 0 1
x[ n] = [ n]
y [ n]
n 1 0 1 2 3 4
11
n 1 0 1 2 3 4
Step-By-Step Solutions
Block diagrams are also useful for step-by-step analysis. Represent y [n] = x[n] x[n 1] with a block diagram: start at rest
10 1 0
Delay
1 0 1
x[ n] = [ n]
y [ n]
n 1 0 1 2 3 4
12
n 1 0 1 2 3 4
Step-By-Step Solutions
Block diagrams are also useful for step-by-step analysis. Represent y [n] = x[n] x[n 1] with a block diagram: start at rest
0 1 0
Delay
+ 1
x[ n] = [ n]
y [ n]
n 1 0 1 2 3 4
13
n 1 0 1 2 3 4
Step-By-Step Solutions
Block diagrams are also useful for step-by-step analysis. Represent y [n] = x[n] x[n 1] with a block diagram: start at rest
0 1 0
Delay
1 1 0
x[ n] = [ n]
y [ n]
n 1 0 1 2 3 4
14
n 1 0 1 2 3 4
Step-By-Step Solutions
Block diagrams are also useful for step-by-step analysis. Represent y [n] = x[n] x[n 1] with a block diagram: start at rest
0 1 0
Delay
0 1 0
x[ n] = [ n]
y [ n]
n 1 0 1 2 3 4
15
n 1 0 1 2 3 4
Step-By-Step Solutions
Block diagrams are also useful for step-by-step analysis. Represent y [n] = x[n] x[n 1] with a block diagram: start at rest
0 1 0
Delay
+ 0
x[ n] = [ n]
y [ n]
n 1 0 1 2 3 4
16
n 1 0 1 2 3 4
Step-By-Step Solutions
Block diagrams are also useful for step-by-step analysis. Represent y [n] = x[n] x[n 1] with a block diagram: start at rest
0 1 0
Delay
+ 0
x[ n] = [ n]
y [ n]
n 1 0 1 2 3 4
17
n 1 0 1 2 3 4
Check Yourself
DT systems can be described by dierence equations and/or block diagrams. Dierence equation: y [n] = x[n] x[n 1] Block diagram: x[ n ] 1
Delay
y [ n]
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Check Yourself
In what ways are dierence equations dierent from block diagrams? Dierence equation: y [n] = x[n] x[n 1] Dierence equations are declarative. They tell you rules that the system obeys. Block diagram: x[ n ] 1 Block diagrams are imperative. They tell you what to do. Block diagrams contain more information than the corresponding dierence equation (e.g., what is the input? what is the output?)
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+
Delay
y [ n]
20
y [ n]
Nodes represent whole signals (e.g., X and Y ). The boxes operate on those signals: Delay = shift whole signal to right 1 time step Add = sum two signals 1: multiply by 1
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Operator Notation
Symbols can now compactly represent diagrams. Let R represent the right-shift operator: Y = R{X } RX where X represents the whole input signal (x[n] for all n) and Y represents the whole output signal (y [n] for all n) Representing the dierence machine x[ n ] 1
Delay
y [ n]
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Let Y = RX . Which of the following is/are true: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. y [n] = x[n] for all n y [n + 1] = x[n] for all n y [n] = x[n + 1] for all n y [n 1] = x[n] for all n none of the above
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Check Yourself
Consider a simple signal: X
n 1 0 1 2 3 4
Then
Y = RX
n 1 0 1 2 3 4
Clearly y [1] = x[0]. Equivalently, if n = 0, then y [n + 1] = x[n]. The same sort of argument works for all other n.
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Let Y = RX . Which of the following is/are true: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. y [n] = x[n] for all n y [n + 1] = x[n] for all n y [n] = x[n + 1] for all n y [n 1] = x[n] for all n none of the above
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Y1 1
Delay
Y2
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Operator Algebra
Operator expressions can be manipulated as polynomials. X 1
Delay
Y1 1
Delay
Y2
Using dierence equations: y2 [n] = y1 [n] y1 [n 1] = (x[n] x[n 1]) (x[n 1] x[n 2]) = x[n] 2x[n 1] + x[n 2] Using operator notation: Y2 = (1 R) Y1 = (1 R)(1 R) X = (1 R)2 X = (1 2R + R2 ) X
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Operator Approach
Applies your existing expertise with polynomials to understand block diagrams, and thereby understand systems.
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Operator Algebra
Operator notation facilitates seeing relations among systems. Equivalent block diagrams (assuming both initially at rest): Y1 + + Y2 X 1
Delay
1 +
Delay
X
Delay
2
Delay
Equivalent operator expressions: (1 R)(1 R) = 1 2R + R2 The operator equivalence is much easier to see.
29
Check Yourself
Operator expressions for these equivalent systems (if started at rest) obey what mathematical property? + 1 X 1
Delay Delay Delay Delay Delay
30
Check Yourself
X 1
Delay
Delay
Y = R(1 R)X
X 1
Y = (R R2 )X
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Check Yourself
Operator expressions for these equivalent systems (if started at rest) obey what mathematical property? 3 + 1 X 1
Delay Delay Delay Delay Delay
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Check Yourself
Delay
Delay
Delay
Delay
Delay
Delay
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Check Yourself
X
Delay 2
Delay
Y = (2R + 1)(2R + 1) X X
Delay
Delay
Y = (4R2 + 4R + 1) X Delay X
Delay 4
Y = (4R2 + 4R + 1) X
Check Yourself
Delay
Delay
Delay
Delay
Delay
Delay
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Recipe: subtract a right-shifted version of the input signal from a copy of the input signal. X 1
Delay
Y Y = (1 R) X
Y Y = RY + X (1 R) Y = X
Example: Accumulator
Try step-by-step analysis: it always works. Start at rest. + x[ n] y [ n]
Delay Find y [n] given x[n] = [n]:
y [n] = x[n] + y [n 1] y [0] = x[0] + y [1] = 1 + 0 = 1 y [1] = x[1] + y [0] y [2] = x[2] + y [1] ... y [ n] =0+1=1 =0+1=1
x[ n] = [ n]
n 1 0 1 2 3 4 1 0 1 2 3 4
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Example: Accumulator
Try step-by-step analysis: it always works. Start at rest. + x[ n] y [ n]
Delay Find y [n] given x[n] = [n]:
y [n] = x[n] + y [n 1] y [0] = x[0] + y [1] = 1 + 0 = 1 y [1] = x[1] + y [0] y [2] = x[2] + y [1] ... y [ n] =0+1=1 =0+1=1
x[ n] = [ n]
n 1 0 1 2 3 4
Example: Accumulator
The response of the accumulator system could also be generated by a system with innitely many paths from input to output, each with one unit of delay more than the previous. +
Delay Delay Delay Delay Delay Delay
... Y = (1 + R + R2 + R3 + ) X
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...
Example: Accumulator
These systems are equivalent in the sense that if each is initially at rest, they will produce identical outputs from the same input. (1 R) Y1 = X1 ? Y2 = (1 + R + R2 + R3 + ) X2
Proof: Assume X2 = X1 : Y2 = (1 + R + R2 + R3 + ) X2 = (1 + R + R2 + R3 + ) X1 = (1 + R + R2 + R3 + ) (1 R) Y1 = ((1 + R + R2 + R3 + ) (R + R2 + R3 + )) Y1 = Y1 It follows that Y2 = Y1 . It also follows that (1 R) and (1 + R + R2 + R3 + ) are reciprocals.
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Example: Accumulator
The reciprocal of 1 R can also be evaluated using synthetic division. 1 +R +R2 +R3 + 1R 1 1 R R R R2 R2 R2 R3 R3 R3 R4 Therefore 1 = 1 + R + R2 + R3 + R4 + 1R
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Feedback
Systems with signals that depend on previous values of the same signal are said to have feedback.
y [ n]
42
Y X + Y
acyclic
cyclic
Acyclic: all paths through system go from input to output with no cycles. Cyclic: at least one cycle.
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y [ n]
n 1 0 1 2 3 4 1 0 1 2 3 4
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y [ n]
n 1 0 1 2 3 4 1 0 1 2 3 4
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y [ n]
n 1 0 1 2 3 4 1 0 1 2 3 4
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y [ n]
n 1 0 1 2 3 4 1 0 1 2 3 4
Each cycle creates another sample in the output. The response will persist even though the input is transient.
47
Check Yourself
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Check Yourself
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X 1
Delay
+
Delay
n 1 0 1 2 3 4 1 0 1 2 3 4
50
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Check Yourself
How many of these systems have divergent unit-sample responses? + 0.5 X + 1.2 X +
Delay Delay Delay
1.2
Delay
0.5
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Check Yourself
y [ n] X + 0.5
Delay
n 1 0 1 2 3 4 y [ n] X + 1.2
Delay
n 1 0 1 2 3 4 y [ n] X +
Delay
1.2
Delay
Y n 1 0 1 2 3 4
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0.5
Check Yourself
y [ n] X + 0.5
Delay
Y X n 1 0 1 2 3 4 y [ n]
+ 1.2
Delay
n 1 0 1 2 3 4 y [ n]
Delay
1.2
Delay
Y X n 1 0 1 2 3 4
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0.5
Check Yourself
How many of these systems have divergent unit-sample responses? 1 + 0.5 X + 1.2 X +
Delay Delay
Y X
Delay
1.2
Delay
Y X
0.5
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+ 1.2
Delay
y [ n]
y [ n]
n 1 0 1 2 3 4 1 0 1 2 3 4
These are geometric sequences: y [n] = (0.5)n and (1.2)n for n 0. These geometric sequences are called fundamental modes.
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y [ n]
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