Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Saravanaman
Annapoorana
Lninccrin Collcc
Salcm
Ft6ltFFRlt6
CHFHl3TRY-ll
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 2
Unit-I
Electrochemistry
Galvanic (or) Voltaic (or) Electrochemical cell
It is a device that produces electrical energy at the expense of chemical energy
produced in a reaction.
A cell consists of two half cells or electrodes.
A half-cell or electrode contains a metal rod dipped in an electrolytic solution.
Electrolytic cell: It is a cell in which electrical energy brings about a chemical
reaction.
Electrochemical cell: It is a device that produces electrical energy at the expense of
chemical energy produced in a reaction.
Differences between electrolytic cell and electrochemical cell.
Electrolytic Cell Electrochemical cell
1. Electrical energy brings about a
chemical reaction.
2. Anode is positively charged.
3. Cathode is negatively changed.
4. Electrons move from anode to
cathode through external circuit.
5. The extent of chemical reaction at the
electrode is governed by Faradays
laws of electrolysis.
6. The amount of electricity passed is
measured by a coulometer.
7. One electrolyte and two electrodes of
the same element are generally used
in these cells.
1. Electrical energy is produced at the
expense of chemical energy.
2. Anode is negatively charged.
3. Cathode is positively charged.
4. Electrons move from cathode to
anode through external circuit.
5. The emf of the cell depends on
concentration of electrolyte and
nature of the metal electrode.
6. The emf of the cell is measured by a
potentiometer.
7. Two different electrolytes and two
different electrodes are often used.
Electrochemical (or) galvanic cell: Daniel cell is a typical galvanic or
electrochemical cell. The cell consists of a zinc rod dipped in ZnSO
4
solution. The
two solutions are interconnected by a salt bridge. The electrodes are connected by a
wire through a voltmeter.
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 3
When the cell produces current, oxidation occurs at anode and reduction at
cathode.
Zn Zn
2+
+ 2e
(at anode)
Cu
+2
+ 2e
Cu (at cathode)
Zn + Cu
2+
Zn
2+
+ Cu (net cell reaction)
Daniel cell is represented as
Zn |ZnSO
4
||CuSO
4
| Cu
(IM) (IM)
The Standard emf of the cell is 1.1 volt.
Representation of a galvanic cell
A galvanic cell has two electrodes namely anode and cathode. The following
points are kept in view when a cell is represented:
1) Anode is written on the left hand side and cathode on the right side.
2) The electrode and the electrolyte are separated by a vertical line to denote the
phase boundaries. The physical state is indicated in bracket. For anode, the
electrode is written first and then the electrolyte. (e.g)
Pt |H
2
(g) |H
+
(1M)
(1atm)
Zn |ZnSO
4
(1M)
For cathode, the electrolyte is written first and then the electrode (e.g.)
CuSO
4
(1M)| Cu
3) Concentrations of electrolytes and pressures of gases are mentioned.
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 3
When the cell produces current, oxidation occurs at anode and reduction at
cathode.
Zn Zn
2+
+ 2e
(at anode)
Cu
+2
+ 2e
Cu (at cathode)
Zn + Cu
2+
Zn
2+
+ Cu (net cell reaction)
Daniel cell is represented as
Zn |ZnSO
4
||CuSO
4
| Cu
(IM) (IM)
The Standard emf of the cell is 1.1 volt.
Representation of a galvanic cell
A galvanic cell has two electrodes namely anode and cathode. The following
points are kept in view when a cell is represented:
1) Anode is written on the left hand side and cathode on the right side.
2) The electrode and the electrolyte are separated by a vertical line to denote the
phase boundaries. The physical state is indicated in bracket. For anode, the
electrode is written first and then the electrolyte. (e.g)
Pt |H
2
(g) |H
+
(1M)
(1atm)
Zn |ZnSO
4
(1M)
For cathode, the electrolyte is written first and then the electrode (e.g.)
CuSO
4
(1M)| Cu
3) Concentrations of electrolytes and pressures of gases are mentioned.
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 3
When the cell produces current, oxidation occurs at anode and reduction at
cathode.
Zn Zn
2+
+ 2e
(at anode)
Cu
+2
+ 2e
Cu (at cathode)
Zn + Cu
2+
Zn
2+
+ Cu (net cell reaction)
Daniel cell is represented as
Zn |ZnSO
4
||CuSO
4
| Cu
(IM) (IM)
The Standard emf of the cell is 1.1 volt.
Representation of a galvanic cell
A galvanic cell has two electrodes namely anode and cathode. The following
points are kept in view when a cell is represented:
1) Anode is written on the left hand side and cathode on the right side.
2) The electrode and the electrolyte are separated by a vertical line to denote the
phase boundaries. The physical state is indicated in bracket. For anode, the
electrode is written first and then the electrolyte. (e.g)
Pt |H
2
(g) |H
+
(1M)
(1atm)
Zn |ZnSO
4
(1M)
For cathode, the electrolyte is written first and then the electrode (e.g.)
CuSO
4
(1M)| Cu
3) Concentrations of electrolytes and pressures of gases are mentioned.
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 4
4) Direct contact between the electrolyte solutions is indicated by a single vertical line
(|).
If they are connected through a salt bridge two vertical parallel lines (||) are
used.
For example, Daniel cell with a salt bridge is represented as follows:
Zn |ZnSO
4
||CuSO
4
| Cu
(1M) (1M)
5) When emf is mentioned, the temperature is also indicated.
Reversible cells
Cells obeying three conditions of thermodynamic reversibility are reversible
cells.
e.g. Daniel cell
Zn |ZnSO
4
||CuSO
4
| Cu
(1M) (1M)
(i) When an emf of 1.1 volt is applied from external source, no current flows in
the cell. Also no chemical reaction occurs at the electrodes.
(ii) When the external emf applied is slightly higher than 1.1 volt, small current
flows into the cell. Chemical reactions occur at the electrodes. Zn
2+
ions are
reduced. Cu atoms are oxidized.
(iii) When the external emf applied is slightly less than 1.1 volt, current flows in
the opposite direction. Electrode reactions are reversed.
Irreversible Cells :
Cells not obeying the conditions of thermodynamic reversibility are
irreversible cells.
(e.g.) Zinc-silver cell.
Zn | H
2
SO
4(aq)
| Ag
The cell reaction is
Zn + H
2
SO
4
ZnSO
4
+ H
2
|
When external emf slightly greater than the cell emf is applied, the cell
reaction is not reversed. This is because H
2
has escaped.
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 5
EMF OF A CELL
It is the potential difference that causes flow of electrons from the electrode of
higher potential to the electrode of lower potential.
EMF of a cell is related to electrode potentials as follows:
EMF of Cell = [Standard reduction potential of RHS electrode]
[Standard reduction potential of LHS electrode]
E cell = E right E left
Measurement of emf of a Cell :
Using Poggendorfs compensation principle, the emf of a cell can be measured
using a potentiometer.
AB is a uniform wire of high resistance. A battery W is connected to the ends
of the wire through a rheostat. The unknown cell X is connected in the circuit. Its
positive pole is connected to A and negative pole to a sliding contact D through a
galvanometer, G. The sliding contact is moved along the wire AB, till the
galvanometer shows null deflection. The distance AD is measured. The emf of
unknown cell is proportional to AD.
Ex o AD ----- (1)
Now the unknown cell is replaced by the standard cell S and the sliding
contact is moved along the wire, until galvanometer shows null deflection. The
distance AD' is measured.
Es o AD' ----- (2)
From equations (1) & (2)
Ex AD
=
Es AD'
AD
Ex = x Es
AD'
Knowing Es, the emf of unknown cell can be calculated.
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 6
W
Applications of emf measurement :
1. Potentiometric titrations are performed.
2. Solubility of sparingly soluble salt is determined.
3. Hydrolysis constants of salts are determined.
4. The valency of ions is determined.
5. The standard free energy change of a reaction is calculated using the equation
- G = nFE A
n = Number of electrons involved in the reaction
E = Standard emf of the cell
F = 96500 coulombs.
6. The equilibrium constant K of a reaction is calculated from E
o
.
log K =
nE
0.0591
7. pH of a solution is determined.
Electrode Potential :
When a metal M is dipped in its salt solution, one of the following reactions
occurs depending on the metal :
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 7
1. Positive metal ions pass into the solution :
M M
n+
+ ne
-
(oxidation)
(e.g.) When Zn rod is dipped in ZnSO
4
solution, Zn goes into solution as Zn
2+
.
The electrons attach to Zn rod, giving it a negative charge. The negative charge on the
rod attracts positive ions from solution. Thus a double layer of ions is formed close to
the rod.
2. Positive ions from the solution deposit over the metal.
M
n+
+ ne
-
M (reduction)
When Cu rod is dipped in CuSO
4
solution, Cu
+2
ions from the solution
deposit on metal rod. They attract negative ions from solution. Thus a double layer of
ions is formed close to the metal rod. This is called Helmholtz double layer.
As a result a potential difference is set up between the metal and the solution.
The equilibrium value of the potential difference is known as electrode potential.
Factors affecting electrode potential or emf of Cell :
(i) nature of the metal
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 8
(ii) temperature
(iii) concentration of metal ions in the solution
Single electrode potential (or) electrode potential :
It is a measure of the tendency of the metal electrode to lose or gain electrons,
when it is in contact with its own salt solution. It is developed due to the formation of
a double layer around the metal rod.
Standard electrode potential :
It is a measure of the tendency of the metal electrode to lose or gain electrons,
when it is in contact with its own salt solution of 1M strength at 25C.
Nernst equation for electrode potential :
Let us consider the reaction
M
n+
+ ne
-
M ----- (1)
The free energy change of this equilibrium AG is related to the equilibrium
constant K by the Vant Hoff isotherm.
[Product]
G=G +RTln -----(2)
[Reactant]
We know, AG = - nFE
AG = -nFE ------ (3)
Substituting equations (1) & (3) in equation (2)
n+
[M]
-nFE = -nFE RTln -----(4)
[M ]
+
Dividing by nF and using the fact that activity of solid metal [M]=1, we have
=
[ ]
( )
At 25C, R = 8.314J/K/mol
F = 96500 coulombs. So equation (5) becomes,
n+
n+
0.0591 1
E = E log ( )
n [M ]
0.0591
E = E log [M ]
n
or
+
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 9
This is Nernst equation for a single electrode potential.
Applications of Nernst Equation :
i) To calculate electrode potential of unknown metal.
ii) To predict corrosion of metals.
iii) To set up electrochemical series.
Nernst equation for a reversible cell :
Let us consider the reaction in a reversible cell :
A + B C + D ----- (1)
The free energy change AG of this equilibrium is related to the equilibrium
constant K by the Vant Hoff isotherm.
[Product]
G= G + RTln -----(2)
[Reactant]
We know, AG = - nFE
AG = -nFE ------ (3)
Substituting equations (1) & (3) in equation (2)
[C][D]
-nFE = -nFE RTln -----(4)
[A][B]
+
Dividing by nF
RT [C][D]
E = E- ln -----(5)
nF [A][B]
At 25C, R = 8.314J/K/mol,
F = 96500 coulombs. So equation (5) becomes,
0.0591 [C][D]
E = E log
n [A][B]
At 25
o
C,
E = E 0.0591 log (Cl
-
)
For saturated KCl, E = +0.242 volt.
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 12
Measurement of single electrode potential using a reference electrode (saturated
calomel electrode):
The given electrode, say zinc electrode, is coupled with saturated calomel
electrode as in the figure. Since the reduction potential of zinc electrode less than that
of calomel electrode, zinc acts as anode and calomel as cathode. The cell reaction will
be
Zn/ ZnSO
4
(1 M) // KCl (satd )/ Hg
2
Cl
2
/Hg
Zn + Hg
2
Cl
2
Zn
2+
+ 2Hg + 2Cl
-
The emf of the cell is measured using a potentiometer. The value of E
cell
=
1.002 volt.
Now, E
cell
= E
right
E
left
= E
cal
- E
Zn
1.002 = 0.242 - E
Zn
E
Zn
= 0.242-1.002
E
Zn
= - 0.76 volt.
Advantages of Reference Electrode (Calomel Electrode):
1. Easy to set up.
2. Easily transportable
3. Long shelf life
4. Reproducibility of emf
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 13
5. Low temperature coefficient
6. Electrode can be used in a variety of solutions.
7.
E
o
value is accurately known.
Ion sensitive electrode :
Ion sensitive electrodes have the ability to respond only to a specific ion and
develop a potential ignoring other ions in the solution.
Applications of Ion-sensitive electrode :
i) To determine ions like H
+
, K
+
, Li
+
, etc.
ii) To determine hardness of water (Ca
+2
and Mg
+2
ions)
iii) To determine concentration of F
-
, NO
3
-
, CN
-
etc.
iv) To determine concentration of a gas using gas-sensing electrodes.
v) To determine pH of a solution using H
+
ion sensitive electrode.
The types (classification) of ion-sensitive electrode :
1) Glass membrane electrodes
2) Solid state electrode
3) Pungor or precipitate electrodes
4) Liquid liquid electrode
Glass Electrode (or) Measurement of pH using glass electrode :
Glass electrode contains a thin-walled glass bulb. The glass has low melting
point and high electrical conductivity. 0.1M HCl is present in the bulb. A platinum
wire is inserted in the acid.
When the glass membrane separates two solutions differing in pH, exchange
of H
+
ions takes place between the solutions. As a result a potential is developed
across the membrane. The potential E
G
is given by,
E
G
= E
G
+ 0.0591 pH
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 14
Measurement of pH :
The glass electrode is dipped in the given solution. This system is connected to
saturated calomel electrode as in the figure. The emf of the resulting cell is measured
using a potentiometer.
From the emf, the pH of the solution is calculated as below:
E
cell
= E
right
E
left
E
cell
= E
cal
E
glass
E
cell
= 0.242 (E
G
+ 0.0591 pH)
E
cell
= 0.242 - E
G
- 0.0591 pH
pH =
G cell
0.242 - E - E
0.0591
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 15
Advantages of Glass Electrode :
i) It is easily constructed and used
ii) Results are accurate
iii) Electrode is not easily poisoned
iv) Equilibrium is quickly attained
v) It can be used in strong oxidizing solutions, coloured solutions and in
presence of metal ions
vi) Using special glass electrode, pH can be measured from 0 to 12.
vii) It is used in chemical, industrial, biological and agricultural laboratories.
Disadvantages or Limitations :
i) Glass has high resistance. So special electronic potentiometer must be
used.
ii) It cannot be used in highly alkaline solutions, in pure ethanol or in acetic
acid. If the solution pH is more than 12, glass membrane is affected by
cations.
Electrochemical Series :
Electrodes are arranged in the increasing order of their standard reduction
potential values. This order is called electrochemical series.
Use or Application or Significance of Electrochemical series or emf series:
1. Calculation of Standard emf of a Cell :
We can calculate the standard emf of a cell, by noting the standard reduction
potentials from the electrochemical series.
E E E
Cell RHS LHS
=
2. Predicting feasibility of a reaction :
The feasibility of a reaction can be predicted from the E value of the
corresponding cell reaction.
If E
Cell
is negative, the
reaction is not feasible.
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 16
3. Hydrogen displacement behavior:
We can find out which metals displace hydrogen gas from dilute acids.
Metals with negative electrode potential liberate hydrogen from dilute
sulphuric acid.
(e.g.) Zn with E = -0.76 V displaces H
2
from dil. H
2
SO
4
.
Zn + H
2
SO
4
ZnSO
4
+ H
2
Silver with a positive E value of 0.8, will not displace H
2
from dil.H
2
SO
4
.
Ag + H
2
SO
4
No reaction
4) Determination of Equilibrium constant of a reaction :
Standard electrode potentials are used to determine the equilibrium constants
as follows : We know,
- AG = nFE
- AG = 2.303 RT log K
Hence, 2.303 RT log K = nfE
log K =
nFE
2.303RT
Knowing E, n, F, R and T, K can be calculated.
5) Displacement of one element by another :
Metals with a lower value of reduction potential will displace metals with a
higher reduction potential from their solution.
(e.g.) Zn with E = -0.76V can displace copper (E=+0.34V) or silver
(E=+0.8V) from their solution.
Zn + CuSO
4
Cu+ + ZnSO
4
Potentiometric Titrations :
Principle :
We know the potential of an electrode depends on the concentration of the
solution in which it is dipped. As the concentration changes, the emf also changes.
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 17
In potentiometric titration, we measure the emf of the cell between a reference
electrode and indicator electrode. At the end point, there is a drastic change in the
potential.
There are three types of potentiometric titrations :
1) Redox titrations
2) Precipitation titrations
3) Acid-base titrations
1) Redox Titrations :
Let us consider the titration of FeSO
4
versus K
2
Cr
2
O
7
.
FeSO
4
solution is taken in a beaker and a platinum electrode (indicator
electrode) is dipped in it. It is then connected to a calomel reference electrode. The
emf of the resulting cell is measured using a potentiometer.
K
2
Cr
2
O
7
is added in small quantities from the burette. The Fe
2+
concentration
decreases because of the reaction.
Fe
+2
Fe
+3
+ e
-
So the emf changes as the titration proceeds. At the end point there is a drastic
change in the emf.
When the emf is plotted against volume of K
2
Cr
2
O
7
, we get a curve as in
figure. The end point is that point where the slope of the curve is maximum.
A better end point is obtained by plotting AE / AV against the volume of
K
2
Cr
2
O
7
. The resulting curve reaches a maximum at the end point.
2. Precipitation Titration :
Let us consider the titration of silver nitrate versus sodium chloride.
Silver nitrate is taken in the beaker and a silver electrode (indicator electrode)
is dipped in it. It is then connected to a calomel reference electrode through
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 18
ammonium nitrate salt bridge. The emf of the resulting cell is measured using a
potentiometer.
NaCl is added in small quantities from the burette. The Ag
+
concentration
decreases because of the reaction.
Ag
+
+ Cl
-
AgCl +
So the emf changes as the titration proceeds. At the end point there is a drastic
change in the emf.
When the emf is plotted against volume of NaCl, we get a curve as in figure.
The end point is that point, where the slope of the curve is maximum.
A better end point is obtained by plotting AE / AV against the volume of NaCl.
The resulting curve reaches a maximum at the end point.
Advantages of Potentiometric Titrations :
1) The apparatus is cheap and readily available.
2) Coloured solutions can be titrated.
3) Very dilute solutions can be accurately titrated.
4) Fixing of end point is easy.
5) Several components may be titrated in the same solution.
6) Indicator is not necessary.
Conductor :
A substance that permits electricity to flow through it is a conductor. (e.g.)
metal, fused salt aqueous solutions of salts, acid base etc.
Non-Conductor :
A substance that does not permit electricity to flow through it is a non-
conductor. (e.g.) plastic, wood, many non-metals.
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 19
Electrolyte and its conductivity :
Electrolyte like NaCl completely ionizes in solution.
NaCl Na
+
+ Cl
-
The ions formed move in an electric field to oppositely charged electrodes and
conduct electricity.
Strong electrolyte :
A strong electrolyte is completely ionized in solution at all concentrations.
E.g. NaCl.
NaCl Na
+
+ Cl
-
(100%)
Weak electrolyte :
A weak electrolyte is partially ionized in solution. (e.g.) CH
3
COOH.
CH
3
COOH CH
3
COO
-
+ H
+
(Partial)
Conductometric Titrations :
The conductance of a solution depends on the number of ions, nature and
charge of the ion and its mobility. During a titration, there is a change in the number
and nature of ions in solution. Hence there is a change in conductance. This can be
used to detect end point of a titration. This type of titration is called conductometric
titrations. The temperature should be maintained constant throughout. The titrant
should be 10 times stronger than the solution to be titrated so that volume change is
very small.
Titration of strong acid versus strong base :
Let us consider the titration of HCl versus NaOH.
A known volume of HCl is taken in a beaker. The conductivity cell is dipped
in the acid. The NaOH is added from the burette in small volumes and the
conductance is measured each time. When the alkali is added, the fast moving H
+
ions
is replaced by slow moving Na
+
ions. So the conductance decreases until all the acid
is neutralized.
H
+
+ Cl
-
+ (Na
+
+ OH
-
) Na
+
+ Cl
-
+ H
2
O
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 20
After neutralization, further addition of NaOH increases the conductance
sharply due to the presence of fast moving OH
-
ions in the solution.
A graph is plotted between conductance and volume of NaOH added. The
point of intersection of two straight lines gives the end point.
Titration of weak acid versus strong base:
Let us consider the titration of acetic acid versus NaOH.
A known volume of acetic acid is taken in a beaker. The conductivity cell is
dipped in the acid. The NaOH is added from the burette in small volumes and the
conductance is measured each time. When the alkali is added, the conductance of the
solution increases due to the formation of completely ionized sodium acetate.
CH
3
COOH + (Na
+
+ OH
-
) CH
3
COO
-
+ Na
+
+ H
2
O
After neutralization, further addition of NaOH increases conductance sharply
due to the presence of fast moving OH
-
ions in the solution.
A graph is plotted between conductance and volume of NaOH. The point of
intersection of two straight lines gives the end point.
Titration of a mixture of weak and strong acids versus strong base:
Let us consider the titration of a mixture of HCl and CH
3
COOH versus NaOH.
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 21
A known volume of HCl and CH
3
COOH is taken in a beaker. The
conductivity cell is dipped in the acid. The NaOH is added from the burette in small
volumes and the conductance is measured each time.
First the strong acid HCl is neutralized and the conductance decreases until all
the acid is neutralized. Then the neutralization of CH
3
COOH takes place. The
conductance slowly increases, until all CH
3
COOH is neutralized. Further addition of
alkali increases the conductance sharply due to the presence of fast moving OH
-
ions
in the solution.
A graph is plotted between conductance and volume of NaOH. The first end
point corresponds to neutralization of HCl. The second end point corresponds to
neutralization of CH
3
COOH.
Advantages (Merits) of Conductometric titrations :
1. Indicator is not necessary.
2. Dilute solutions can be titrated.
3. Accurate end point is obtained.
4. No special attention is necessary near the end point.
5. Coloured solutions can be titrated.
6. Weak acid can be titrated against weak base.
QUESTIONS :
PART A
1. Write about conductivity of electrolyte.
2. What are strong and weak electrolytes?
3. Define electrochemical cell.
4. Differentiate between Galvanic and Electrolytic cells.
5. Distinguish between reversible and irreversible cells.
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 22
6. Justify whether the reaction is irreversible or not.
Zn + H
2
SO
4
ZnSO
4
+ H
2
7. What is an electrode potential? How is it developed?
8. Define standard electrode potential.
9. What are the factors that affect electrode potentials?
10. What are the factors that affect the emf of a cell?
11. Define emf of a cell.
12. What is an electrochemical cell?
13. Why is it not possible to measure the potential of an isolated half cell or
electrode?
Answer : Let us connect the metal rod to one arm of voltmeter. When we connect
the other arm to the solution through a wire, the metal wire dipping in the solution
will produce another double layer.
14. Represent a galvanic cell according to IUPAC convention.
15. What is a salt bridge? What are its uses or functions?
Answer : Salt bridge is an inverted U tube containing a paste of KCl or NH
4
NO
3
and agar agar.
Functions or Uses : (i) It gives internal connection between the two electrode
solutions; (ii) It eliminates liquid junction potential; (iii) It maintains electrical
neutrality between electrodes; (iv) It helps accurate measurement of emf of the
cell.
16. Can we use a KCl salt bridge for a cell containing silver electrode?
Answer : No. Because the silver ions react with Cl
-
ions.
Ag
+
+ Cl
-
AgCl +
So, the concentration of Ag+ ion changes and emf also changes.
17. What are the factors that affect emf of a cell?
18. Can we use a nickel and zinc spatula to stir CuSO
4
solution?
Answer: No, Ni and Zn have more negative potentials than Cu. They displace Cu
from its solution.
Ni + Cu
2+
Ni
2+
+ Cu
Zn + Cu
+2
Zn
+2
+ Cu
19. How will you predict the spontaneity of a (redox) reaction using emf value?
20. Define reference electrode. Give example.
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 23
Answer : An electrode whose potential is accurately known or whose potential is
arbitrarily fixed is reference electrode. The potential is accurate, stable,
reproducible. The electrode has long shelf life. (E.g.) Calomel electrode.
21. Why cannot we use a voltmeter to measure the emf of a cell?
Answer : The cell current is drawn into the voltmeter. It may lower the cell emf.
We cannot get accurate value.
22. Zn reacts with H
2
SO
4
to liberate H
2
. But Ag does not. Explain.
23. Explain electrochemical series.
24. What are uses or significances of electrochemical series?
25. Write down the cell reaction and expression for the emf of the cell : Zn | ZnSO
4
|| CuSO
4
| Cu.
26. What are the applications of Nernst equation?
27. What are the applications of emf measurement?
28. Give two examples of reference electrodes.
29. What are the advantages of conductometric titrations?
30. What are the advantages of potentiometric titrations?
31. Give some advantages of glass electrode.
32. What are the disadvantages of glass electrode?
33. What are the differences between metallic conductance and electrolytic
conductance?
Metallic Conductance Electrolytic Conductance
1. It involves flow of electrons in a
conductor.
It involves movement of ions in
solution.
2. It does not involve transfer of matter. Transfer of ions occurs.
3. Conductance decreases with increase
in temperature. This is because the
flow of electrons is disturbed.
Conductance increases with increase
in temperature. This is because the
mobility of ions increases.
34. What is ion-sensitive electrode?
35. Write the Nernst equation for Daniel Cell.
Answer : Zn | Zn
2+
|| Cu
+2
| Cu
Zn + Cu
2+
Zn
2+
+ Cu
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 24
+2
+2
0.0591 [Zn ]
E = E - log
2 [Cu ]
36. Write the Nernst equation for any one electrode reaction.
Answer : M
n+
+ ne
-
M
n+
0.0591
E = E + log [M ]
n
i
water
(l)
vapour
(g)
There are three phases. All have the same chemical composition namely H
2
O.
The component of the system is one.
Thermal decomposition of CaCO
3
: It is a two component system.
CaCO
3(s)
CaO
(s)
+ CO
2(g)
The composition of each phase can be expressed in the form of a chemical
equation using two constituents. When CaCO
3
and CO
2
are components,
Phase Component
CaCO
3
CaCO
3
+0 CO
2
CaO CaCO
3
- CO
2
CO
2
0 CaCO
3
+ CO
2
PCl
5(s)
PCl
3(l)
+ Cl
2(g)
is a two component system.
While NH
4
Cl dissociates, the following equilibrium exists.
NH
4
Cl
(s)
NH
3(g)
+ HCl
(g)
The system has two phases namely solid and gas. Each can be expressed using
one chemical constituent namely NH
4
Cl, as long as NH
3
and HCl exists in equal
amounts. It is a one component system.
Degree of Freedom
It is the minimum number of independent variables such as pressure,
temperature and concentration that must be fixed to define the system completely.
Let us consider the equilibrium :
ice
(s)
iq
(s)
water
(l)
vapour
(g)
All the three phases will be in equilibrium only at a particular temperature and
pressure. So we need not specify any variable. The degree of freedom of the system is
zero. The system is non-variant.
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 78
For a gas or mixture of gases, we have to specify both temperature and
pressure. So the degree of freedom is two.
Let us consider the equilibrium
water
(l)
vapour
(g)
To define the system we have to mention either pressure or temperature. The
degree of freedom is one. The system is univariant.
Phase Diagram
Phase diagram is the graph obtained by plotting one degree of freedom against
another.
When a phase diagram is plotted between temperature and pressure, it is called
P-T diagram. It is used for one component system.
When a phase diagram is plotted between temperature and composition, it is
called T-C diagram. It is used for two component system.
Uses of Phase Diagram
i) We can predict from phase diagram whether a eutectic mixture or solid
solution or compound is formed on cooling a liquid mixture of two metals.
ii) We can understand the properties of materials in a heterogeneous equilibrium
system.
iii) A study of low melting eutectic alloys used in soldering can be made using
phase diagram.
Application of Phase rule to Water system
Water system is a one component system. There are three equilibria:
ice
(s)
water
(l)
water
(l)
vapour
(g)
ice
(s)
vapour
(g)
The phase diagram contains curves, areas and a triple point.
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 79
Curves
Along the vapourisation curve OA, water and vapour are in equilibrium.
water
(l)
vapour
(g)
Along the sublimation curve OB, ice and vapour are in equilibrium.
ice
(s)
vapour
(g)
Along the melting point curve OC, ice and water are in equilibrium.
ice
(s)
water
(l)
OC is slightly inclined towards pressure axis. This shows that melting point of
ice decreases with increase of pressure.
Along all the curves, two phases are in equilibrium. Applying phase rule,
F = C - P + 2 = 1 - 2 + 2 = 1
The degree of freedom is one or univariant. To define any point along the
curve, it is enough to mention either pressure or temperature.
Areas
Areas AOC, BOC, AOB represent water, ice and vapour respectively. In any
area, only one phase is present. Applying phase rule,
F = C - P + 2 = 1 - 1 + 2 = 2
To define any point in an area, we have to mention both pressure and
temperature.
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
Temperature
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 80
Triple Point
The three curves OA, OB and OC meet at the tripe point O. At O ice, water
and vapour are in equilibrium,
ice
(s)
water
(l)
vapour
(g)
Applying phase rule, F = C P+2 = 1 3 + 2 = 0
The degree of freedom is zero. The triple point is self-defined. Temperature
and pressure at O are 0.0075C and 4.58mm respectively.
Metastable curve OA
Sometimes water can be cooled carefully below 0C without ice formation.
Thus we realize the super cooled water - vapour pressure curve OA'. The metastable
equilibrium is,
Super-cooled water vapour
The equilibrium is unstable. Water can be converted into ice by slight
disturbance.
Reduced or Condensed phase rule
A solid-liquid equilibrium of an alloy has practically no vapour phase and the
effect of pressure is negligible. The experiment is regarded as being conducted at
constant atmospheric pressure. Since the vapour phase is neglected, the system is
called a condensed system. As pressure is kept constant, the phase rule becomes F' =
C - P + 1. This is called reduced phase rule or condensed phase rule.
Classification of a two component system
Two component system is classified into three types based on solubility and
reactivity.
i) Simple eutectic formation
ii) a) Compound formation with congruent melting point
b) Compound formation with incongruent melting point
iii) Solid solution
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 81
i) Simple eutectic formation
It is a two component system of two solids which are completely miscible in
the molten state. But the two solids are completely immiscible in the solid state. They
do not form any solid solution or react chemically. Of the different mixtures of the
two solids, the mixture with the lowest melting point is called eutectic mixture.
ii) a) Compound formation with congruent melting point
Here the two component system of two solids form one or more compounds
with definite composition. If the compound melts at a constant temperature, with the
same composition in the solid and molten state, the compound has a congruent
melting point.
b) Compound formation with incongruent melting point
If the compound formed in a two component solid system, decomposes at a
temperature below its melting point, the compound has incongruent melting point.
Also there is formation of a new solid phase with a different composition from that of
the original.
iii) Formation of solid solution
It is a two component system of two solids, which are completely miscible
both in the solid and molten state. They form solid solution with atomic level mixing.
The condition for formation of solid solution is that the two solids must not differ in
atomic radius by more than 15%.
Thermal analysis or Cooling curve
It is the study of the cooling curves of various compositions of a system during
solidification.
Example 1 :
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 82
A pure substance in the molten state is cooled slowly. The temperature is
noted at different intervals. Temperature is plotted against time.
The cooling from A to B is continuous. At the freezing point B, solid begins to
separate. The temperature remains constant, until all the liquid is solidified from B to
C . Then temperature of the solid begins to decrease gradually.
Example 2 :
A molten mixture of A and B is cooled slowly. The cooling from E to F is
continuous. At F one solid begins to separate. There is a break in the rate of cooling
from F to G. At G the second solid also begins to separate. Now the temperature
remains constant until all the molten liquid is completely solidified at H. From H
cooling of the solid mass starts. The temperature along the horizontal line GH is the
eutectic temperature.
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 83
For different compositions of A and B, the experiment is repeated and cooling
curves are drawn. From these curves, a phase diagram is drawn with temperature in Y
axis and composition in X axis.
Use of Cooling curves
1) From cooling curves, melting points and eutectic points are obtained.
2) Behaviour of compounds is understood.
3) Percentage purity of compounds is determined.
4) The composition corresponding to the freezing point gives the composition of
an alloy.
Simple eutectic system or lead-silver system
The lead-silver system is a two component system with the formation of a
simple eutectic. The phase diagram has areas, curves and a eutectic point.
i) Curve AO:
A is the freezing point of pure silver. As lead is gradually added to silver,
melting point of silver decreases along AO. Solid Ag and liquid melt are in
equilibrium along AO.
Solid Ag melt
Applying reduced phase rule,
F' = C - P + 1 = 2 - 2 + 1; F' = 1
Along AO the system is univariant.
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 84
ii) Curve BO:
B is the freezing point of pure lead. As silver is gradually added to lead, the
melting point of lead decreases along BO. Solid lead and liquid melt are in
equilibrium along BO.
Solid Pb melt
Applying reduced phase rule,
F' = C - P + 1 = 2 - 2 + 1; F' = 1
Along BO, the system is univariant.
iii) Eutectic point O:
The curves AO and BO meet at the point O. The temperature at O is 303C. At
O, solid Pb Solid Ag and their liquid are at equilibrium.
Applying reduced phase rule,
F' = C - P + 1 = 2 - 3 + 1 = 0
At O, the system is non-variant.
The eutectic point O is the lowest temperature at which any mixture of silver
and lead will melt. Below this temperature, liquid phase cannot exist. The eutectic
composition is 2.6% Ag and 97.4% Pb.
iv) Areas :
In the area below curve AO, solid Ag and liquid melt are present. In the area
below BO solid Pb and liquid melt are present.
Applying reduced phase rule,
F' = C - P + 1 = 2 - 2 + 1 = 1
At any point in these areas, the system is univariant.
In the area above curve AOB only a molten liquid of Pb and Ag exists.
Applying reduced phase rule,
F' = C - P + 1 = 2 - 1 + 1 = 2
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 85
At any point above AOB, the system is bivariant.
v) Applying Pattinsons process in the desilverisation of argentiferrous lead
Argentiferrous lead contains about 0.1% silver. It is melted to liquid state. Let
us consider the melt at the point p as in the figure. If the melt is allowed to cool, Pb
begins to crystallize at q. The solution becomes richer and richer in silver. If cooled
further, more lead separates along BO. The melt becomes richer in Ag. When the
eutectic point is reached the percentage of Ag rises to 2.6%. The process of raising the
percentage of lead in the alloy is Pattinsons process.
Uses of eutectic systems
i) Study of eutectic system helps to predict suitable alloy composition.
ii) Eutectic system is useful to prepare solders, used to join two metal pieces.
Differences between melting point, eutectic point and triple point
Melting point : It is the temperature at which a solid and its liquid phase, having the
same composition are at equilibrium.
Solid A liquid A
Eutectic point : It is the temperature at which two solids A and B and a liquid phase
are at equilibrium.
Solid A + Solid B Liquid
Triple point : It is the temperature at which three phases namely, solid, liquid and
vapour are in equilibrium.
Solid A liquid A vapour A
Eutectic point is a melting point. But melting point need not be eutectic point.
Merits of phase rule
1) The rule is applied to physical as well as chemical equilibrium.
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 86
2) It shows that different systems with the same degree of freedom have similar
behavior.
3) We can decide whether the given number of substances can remain in
equilibrium or not.
4) We can classify equilibrium states in terms of phases, components and degrees
of freedom.
Limitations of phase rule
i) The rule is applied to only systems in equilibrium.
ii) All the phases must be at the same temperature and pressure.
iii) Solid and liquid states must not be in finely divided state. Otherwise there may
be deviations.
iv) External forces like electrical, magnetic and gravitational forces should be
absent. Only P, T, C variables are to be considered.
ALLOYS
Alloy
Alloy is a homogeneous solid solution of two or more elements, one of which
is a metal. Alloy with mercury as a constituent is called amalgam.
Properties of alloys
1) Alloys are harder and less malleable. They have lower melting point than the
component metals.
2) Alloys have low electrical conductivity.
3) They resist corrosion and action of acids.
Importance or need or purpose or use or advantages of making alloy
i) Increasing the hardness of metals
In general pure metals are soft, but their alloys are hard. Gold and silver are
usually soft. When alloyed with copper they become hard. On addition of 0.5%
Arsenic, lead becomes so hard that we can make bullets.
ii) Lowering the melting point
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 87
The melting point of a metal decreases on alloying. (e.g.) Woods metal (alloy
of lead bismuth, tin and cadmium) melts at 60.5C. This is below the melting point of
any constituent metal.
iii) Increasing corrosion resistance
Alloying a metal makes it less reactive and helps resist corrosion. (e.g.) Pure
iron rusts. When alloyed with chromium, it opposes corrosion.
iv) Change in chemical activity
The chemical reactivity of a metal can be increased or decreased by alloying.
v) Change in colour
Alloying improves the colour of metal. (e.g.) Brass with 90% Cu and 10% Zn
is golden yellow in colour.
vi) Casting property
Alloying makes a soft, brittle metal into hard, fusible and easily castable.
Alloy of lead with 5% tin and 2% antimony is used for casting printing type.
Function (or) Effect of alloying elements
If we add small amounts of Ni, Cr, Mn, V, Mo, W etc., to steel, there is a
drastic change in properties like tensile strength, resistance to corrosion, coefficient of
expansion etc. The resulting products are called alloy steels or special steels.
Element Effect on properties Use
1. Nickel Fine grain formation, low
coefficient of expansion, high
corrosion resistance.
Making balance wheels.
2. Chromium High tensible strength,
hardening, high corrosion
resistance.
Making surgical
instruments, cutlery
3. Manganese High abrasion resistance Making grinding wheel
steering, spindles, rails
4. Vanadium Production of reversible stress,
increase in tensile strength and
abrasion resistance
Making axles, crank pin,
piston and locomotive
forgings
5. Molybdenum Cutting hardness at high
temperature
Making high speed stools
6. Tungsten Increase in magnetic retention
and cutting hardness
Making cutting tools,
permanent magnets
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 88
Heat treatment of alloys (steel)
Definition : It is the process of heating and cooling steel under carefully controlled
conditions.
Purpose or objectives of heat treatment
1. To improve corrosion resistance
2. To remove internal stress and strain
3. To improve electrical and magnetic properties
4. To remove trapped gases
5. To refine grain structure
6. To reduce brittleness and increase toughness and ductility.
Various types (methods) of Heat treatment of alloys (steel).
There are several types, 1. Annealing, 2. Hardening, 3. Tempering,
4.Normalizing, 5.Carburizing, 6. Nitriding, 7.Cyaniding.
1. Annealing
The alloy or steel is heated to a high temperature and then slowly cooled in a
furnace.
Purpose
To increase machinability
To remove trapped gases
Types of annealing
Low temperature annealing
High temperature annealing.
Low temperature annealing
The steel is heated to a temperature below the lower critical temperature and
then cooled slowly.
Purpose
To increase machinability
To reduce hardness
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 89
To increase ductility and shock-resistance
To remove internal stress and strain.
High temperature annealing
The steel is heated to 30 to 50C above the higher critical temperature. It is
held at that temperature for sufficient time to allow for internal changes. Then it is
cooled to room temperature.
Purpose
To make steel soft with increase in toughness.
To increase ductility and machinability
2. Hardening (Quenching)
The steel is heated beyond the critical temperature and then cooled suddenly in
oil or brine-water. This process increases the hardness of steel.
Purpose
To increase abrasion resistance for making cutting tools.
To increase resistance to wear.
3. Tempering
Already hardened steel is heated to a temperature below its hardening
temperature and cooled slowly. To retain strength and hardness, reheating temperature
should not exceed 400C. To increase ductility and toughness, reheating temperature
must be in the range 400 to 600C.
Purpose
To increase ductility and toughness and to reduce brittleness.
To make cutting tools, blades etc.
To remove internal stress and strain.
4. Normalising
Steel is heated to a temperature above its higher critical temperature and
cooled gradually in air.
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 90
Purpose
To make steel suitable for engineering works.
To have homogeneity in structure with refined grains.
To remove internal strain and stress
To increase toughness.
5. Carburising
Mild steel article is placed in a cast iron box containing pieces of charcoal. It
is heated to 900-950C and kept at the temperature for sufficient time. Carbon is
absorbed to required depth. The article is cooled slowly within the iron box. The outer
part of the of the article becomes a high-carbon steel with 0.8 to 1.2% carbon.
6. Nitriding
Steel or alloy is heated to about 550C in pressure of ammonia. Ammonia
decomposes to give N
2
which combines with the surface of alloy to form hard nitride.
Purpose
To form super hard surface.
7. Cyaniding:
Steel is immersed in molten salt bath containing KCN at 1120K and then
quenched in oil or water. Purpose to get hard surface.
Classification (or) types of alloys
Based on the type of base metal, alloys are classified into ferrous and non-
ferrous alloys.
Properties of Ferrous alloys
They have high strength and yield point.
The possess ductility and weldability.
They are corrosion and abrasion resistant.
They have less cracks and distortion.
Important ferrous alloys
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 91
Nichrome
It is an alloy with 60%nickel, 12% chromium, 25% iron and 2% manganese.
Properties
It has high resistance to oxidation and heat.
It has high melting point.
It possesses high electrical resistance.
It withstands heat upto 1100C.
Use
To make heating elements and resistance coils.
To make machineries exposed to high temperature.
Used in electric irons other household electrical equipments.
To manufacture boiler parts, steam lines stills, retort, aero-engine valves, gas-
turbines.
Stainless steel
It is an alloy steel containing chromium with other elements like Nickel,
Molybdenum. It is corrosion resistant due to the formation of a tough film of
chromium oxide at the surface.
There are two types of stainless steels.
a. Heat treatable stainless steel
b. Non-heat treatable stainless steel
a. Heat treatable stainless steel
This steel contains upto 1.2% carbon, less than 12-16% of chromium.
Properties
It is magnetic, tough and resistant to weather and water. It can be heated upto
800C.
Use
Making surgical instruments, scissors, blades etc.
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 92
b. Non-heat treatable stainless steel
It has less strength at high temperature. Corrosion resistance is more. There
are two types.
i) Magnetic type
Composition
12-20% chromium and 0.35% carbon.
Properties
It has very high corrosion resistance.
It can be forged and rolled.
Use
To make chemical equipments and automobile parts.
ii) Non-magnetic type
Composition
0.15% carbon, 18-25% chromium, 8 to 20% of nickel. Total percentage of
nickel and chromium is above 23%.
18/8 stainless steel
It has 18% chromium and 8% nickel and 0.15% carbon.
Properties
It has extreme resistance to corrosion. The resistance is increased by the
addition of a small amount of molybdenum.
Use
To make household utensils, sinks and surgical instruments.
Non-ferrous alloys
These do not have iron as a constituent. The main constituents of non-ferrous
alloys are copper, zinc, lead, tin etc. They have low melting points compared to
ferrous alloys.
Properties
Non-ferrous alloys are characterized by
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 93
i) Softness and ductility
ii) Attractive colours
iii) Low density and coefficient of friction
iv) Corrosion resistance
Important Non-ferrous alloys
Copper alloys
Brass and Bronze are alloys of copper.
Brass
Brass is copper alloy with copper and zinc as main constituents.
Some important brasses, their properties and uses are tabulated below.
Type of Brass Composition Property Use
Commercial
brass
Cu = 90%
Zn = 10%
i. Golden colour
ii. Stronger and harder
than Cu
Forging, rivet
hardwares jewellery
Dutch metal Cu = 80%
Zn = 20%
i. Golden colour
ii. Suitable for
drawing and
forming operation
Tube, flexible hoses
jewellery
Cartridge brass Cu = 70%
Zn = 30%
Soft and ductile cold,
-deformed
Condenser tubes,
sheets household
articles
German Silver Cu = 25 to 50%
Zn = 10 to 35%
Sn = 5 to 30%
Silver colour,
malleable, corrosion
resistance
Ornament, bolt nut,
utensil, coins
Jobin brass Cu = 59 to 62%
Zn = 35 to 38%
Sn = 0.5 to 1.5%
High corrosion and
abrasion resistance
Propeller and marine
works
Bronze
Bronze is a copper alloy with copper and tin as main constituents. Bronze has
lower melting point than steel. It has better heat and electricity conducting property
than steel. It has good corrosion resistance.
Some important bronzes, their properties and uses are tabulated below:
Type of Bronze Composition Property Use
Coinage Bronze Cu = 89-92%
Sn = 8-11%
Soft, ductile Pump, valve, coin,
statue wire, utensils
Gun metal Cu = 85% Hard and tough, Foundry work, heavy
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 94
Zn = 4%
Sn = 8%
Pb = 3%
resistant to explosive
forces.
load bearing, steam
plant
Aluminium
bronze
Cu = 90-93%
Al = 7-10%
Yellow colour,
fusible, resistant to
corrosion and
abrasion.
Jewellery, utensil,
coin bushes
Phosphorus
Bronze
Cu = 87-90%
Sn = 10-13%
P = 0.4 - 1%
Hard, brittle, low
coefficient of friction
Bearing, gear, tap,
spring turbine, blade.
Nickel bronze Cu = 90%
Ni = 9%
Fe = 1%
Hard, good tensile
strength, corrosion
resistant
Valves, semi-hard
bearings.
QUESTIONS
PART - A
1. Define phase rule.
2. Define the terms : phase, component, degrees of freedom.
3. Comment on degrees of freedom.
Ans : It is the minimum number of independent variables such as pressure,
temperature, concentration that must be fixed to define the system completely.
(e.g.) In water system, at the triple point, three phases are in equilibrium.
Applying phase rule,
F = C - P + 2 = 1 - 3 + 2 = 0
The degree of freedom is zero; the triple point is self-defined and non-variant.
If F=1, the system is called univariant. We have to mention one variable to
define the system.
4. Calculate the number of components in the following:
KCl
(s)
+ Water
(l)
KCl hydrate
(s)
MgCO
3(s)
A
MgO
(s)
+ CO
2(g)
PCl
5(s)
PCl
3(l)
+ Cl
2(g)
5. Calculate the number of phases in the following:
A gaseous mixture of N
2
, H
2
, NH
3
.
H
2(g)
+ Cl
2(g)
2HCl
(g)
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 95
NH
4
Cl
(s)
NH
3(g)
+ HCl
(g)
Rhombic sulphur
(s)
Monoclinic sulphur
(s)
6. Calculate the number of phases, degree of freedom and components for the
equilibrium:
NH
4
Cl
(s)
NH
3(g)
+ HCl
(g)
7. What is a phase diagram?
8. What is triple point?
9. Explain metastable equilibrium.
10. Explain invariant point.
11. How does the melting point of ice change with pressure?
12. What is meant by reduced phase rule?
13. Define eutectic point.
14. Eutectic mixture is a mixture and not a compound. Explain.
Ans : In the solid eutectic, the two components are completely immiscible, though
they are miscible in the liquid state. Also the solid eutectic shows the properties of
both the components. So it is a mixture and not a compound.
15. What are the uses of eutectic mixture?
16. What are the applications of phase rule?
17. State the merits of phase rule.
18. Explain the limitations of phase rule.
19. Define an alloy.
20. Name some properties of alloys.
21. What are the advantages of alloys?
22. State some ferrous and non-ferrous alloys.
23. What is the composition of nichrome? What are its uses?
24. Write the composition and uses of the following alloys :
German silver, Dutch metal, Gun metal, brass (commercial), solder, phosphor
bronze, wood metal.
25. Explain the following terms. What are their purposes?
Hardening, tempering, annealing, normalizing, carburising, cyaniding, nitriding.
26. What is quenching?
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 96
27. What is 18/8 steel? What are its uses?
PART - B
1. Apply phase rule to a one component system.
2. Discuss in detail lead-silver system with the help of the phase diagram.
3. What is thermal analysis? Draw the cooling curves of a pure substance and its
mixture with another solid and discuss.
4. Why is condensed phase rule applied to a two component alloy system?
5. Apply phase rule to a two component system forming eutectic mixture.
6. Define alloy. What is the effect of alloying a metal? Explain with examples.
7. What are the properties of alloys?
8. Mention the purposes of making alloys.
9. Name some ferrous and non-ferrous alloys. Give their composition, properties and
uses.
10. Write a note on stainless steels.
11. Discuss the various methods of heat treatment of alloys and steel.
12. What is Bronze? Name some important bronzes, their composition, properties and
uses.
13. Define Brass. Write briefly about different types of brass.
14. Explain with examples how the property of steel changes with the addition of
small amounts of nickel, chromium, manganese vanadium, molybdenum and
tungsten.
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 97
UNIT - V
Analytical techniques
Spectroscopy
The study of interaction of electromagnetic radiation with atoms or molecules
is spectroscopy. During this interaction, radiation is absorbed or emitted by the
molecules or atoms. The measurement of the intensity of the emitted or absorbed
radiation forms the basis of spectroscopy.
Absorption spectrumor absorption spectroscopy
When electromagnetic radiation is passed through a solution or vapour, certain
wavelengths are absorbed by the solution or the vapour. The atoms or molecules
undergo transition to a higher energy level. The measurement of the decrease in the
intensity of the radiation is absorption spectroscopy. The spectrum obtained is
absorption spectrum.
Emission spectrum (emission spectroscopy)
Atoms or molecules are excited to higher energy levels by heat or electric
discharge. The excited atoms or molecules come to the ground state by emitting
radiation. The study of the emitted radiation is emission spectroscopy. The spectrum
obtained is emission spectrum.
Atomic spectra
It is the study of interaction of electromagnetic radiation with atoms. Atoms
are excited to higher electronic energy levels. The spectrum contains discrete lines.
Molecular spectra
It is the study of interaction of electromagnetic radiation with molecules.
Molecules are excited to higher rotational, vibrational and electronic energy levels.
The spectrum contains bands.
Differences between atomic and molecular spectra
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 98
Atomic spectra Molecular spectra
1. It arises due to the interaction of
electromagnetic radiation with atoms
It arise due to the interaction of
electromagnetic radiation with
molecules
2. The spectrum has discrete lines The spectrum has complicated bands.
3. It is due to electronic transitions It is due to rotational vibrational and
electronic transitions
Absorption laws
Lamberts law:
Let a beam of monochromatic radiation pass through a homogeneous
absorbing medium. Now the rate of decrease in intensity of the radiation dI with the
thickness of the absorbing medium dx, is proportional to intensity I of the incident
radiation.
dI dI
kI (or) kdx
dx I
= =
k= absorption coefficient - (1)
Let I
o
and I be the intensities before entering the medium (x=0) and after
passing through any thickness x respectively.
Integrating equation (1)between these limits.
o
I x
I o
dI
kdx
I
=
} }
o
I
ln kx
I
= - (2)
This is Lamberts Law.
Beers law or Beer-Lamberts law
Let a beam of monochromatic radiation pass through a homogeneous
absorbing medium. Now the rate of decrease in intensity of the radiation dI with the
thickness of the absorbing medium dx is proportional to the intensity of the incident
radiation I as well as the concentration C of the solution.
dI
kI C
dx
=
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 99
k = molar absorption coefficient (or)
dI
I
= kCdx -(1)
Let I
o
and I be the intensities before entering the medium (x=0) and after
passing through thickness x respectively. Integrating equation (1) between these
limits,
o
I x
I o
dI
kC dx
I
=
} }
o
I
ln kCx
I
= (or)
o
I
ln kCx
I
=
2.303 =
o
I k
log Cx
I 2.303
= (2)
A = eCx
o
I
A log
I
= = absorbance or optical density
k
2.303
c = = molar extinction coefficient.
Equation (2) is Beers law (or) Beer - Lamberts law.
Application of Beer Lamberts law
Absorbance A
s
of solution of known concentration C
s
is measured. Now,
A
s
= eC
s
x
ex = A
s
/C
s
-(1)
Then the absorbance A
u
of unknown solution is measured.
A
u
= eC
u
x
u
u
A
x
C
= c - (2)
From equations (1) and (2)
s u
s u
A A
C C
= (or)
u
u s
s
A
C C
A
=
knowing A
u
, A
s
and C
s
, unknown concentration C
u
can be calculated.
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 100
Limitation of Beer - Lamberts law
1. Applicable only for dilute solutions.
2. Monochromatic radiation must be used.
3. The solute should not dissociate or associate in solution.
4. Not applicable to suspensions.
5. Solution should not contain impurities.
6. Temperature should not change to a large extent.
Colorimetry (or) Colorimetric analysis
Colorimetry is an analytical technique to measure the concentration of
coloured solutions. The absorbance A of the solution is measured using a
photoelectric colorimeter. Then the concentration is determined using Beer-Lamberts
law. If the substance is colourless, a suitable complexing agent is added to convert it
into a coloured compound.
Photoelectric colorimeter - Instrumentation
I. Components
1. Radiation Source: Tungsten filament lamp is used to get visible light between
400-750nm.
2. Monochromator: It allows the radiation of required wavelength to pass through
the solution. It absorbs other wavelengths.
3. Slit i) Entrance slit: It selects a narrow source of light.
ii) Exit slit : It provides narrow band of dispersed spectrum for observation by
the detector.
4. Cell: It holds the test solution. It is transparent. It is made of colour-corrected fused
glass or quartz.
5. Detector : It measures the intensity of the transmitted radiation from the test
solution. Photosensitive devices are used. They produce a current which is
proportional to the transmitted radiation.
6. Recorder (or) Meter: It measures the fraction of radiation abosorbed.
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 101
II. Working
A narrow beam of light enters through the monochromator and passes through
the test solution in the cell. The light then passes into the detector. The instrument is
provided with filters and slits to select desired wavelength. The detector generates a
current proportional to the intensity of light transmitted from the test solution. The
current or intensity of transmitted light is more if the solution absorbs less light, i.e.,
the concentration is low.
Current o transmitted light o 1 / Concentration
Now a days, the transmitted light passes into a meter which shows the fraction
of light absorbed, which is proportional to the concentration.
Estimation of Iron by colorimeter
Principle
Iron (III) forms an intense blood-red coloured complex with thiocyanate in
solution.
Fe
3+
+ 6NH
4
CNS [Fe(CNS)
6
]
3-
+ 6
+
4
NH
Blood-red
coloured complex
Reagents
i) Standard iron solution : 0.865 g of FAS is dissolved in minimum amount
of distilled water. 10 ml of conc.HNO
3
is added and the solution is diluted
to one litre. 1ml of this solution conatins 0.1 mg of Fe.
ii) Ammonium thiocyanate solution : A 10% solution in distilled water is
prepared.
iii) 1:1 HCl acid: 50ml conc.HCl is added to 50ml distilled water.
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 102
Procedure
A series of standard solutions of Fe
3+
are prepared by adding NH
4
CNS
solution and a little 1:1 HCl.
A blank is prepared by adding same amount of reagents.
The colorimeter is set at zero absorbance using the blank solution with a
suitable filter. The absorbance of each standard solution is measured using the same
filter. Absorbance is plotted against concentration in a graph. A straight line passing
through the origin is obtained. This is calibration curve.
According to Beer-Lamberts law,
A = eCx
Since the thickness x is a constant for the given cell,
A C.
The absorbance of the test solution is measured under the same conditions.
The concentration of the test solution is read from the calibration curve.
Applications of Colorimetry
1. Very small concentrations of many metal ions can be determined.
2. Stability constants of complexes can be evaluated.
3. Geometry of inorganic complexes, cis-trans isomers can be examined.
4. Dissociation constants of acid-base indicators can be determined.
5. Molar extinction coefficients of complexes can be evaluated.
Flame photometry
Atomised metal is introduced into a flame. The metal atoms are excited and
then come to the ground state. The intensity of the emitted light is measured. The
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 103
wavelength of the light emitted identifies the metal. Its intensity measures the
concentration of the metal.
Theory or Principle
A metal salt solution is introduced into the flame.
i) The solvent evaporates leaving behind the solid salt.
ii) The solid salt vaporises and dissociates into atoms.
iii) Some of the metal atoms are excited to higher energy levels by absorbing
heat energy.
iv) The excited atoms return to the ground state by emitting radiation.
v) The emitted radiation passes through the filter and falls on a detector. The
detector generates a current which is amplified and recorded.
Evaporation vapourization dissociaton
M
+
X
-
=========== MX============MX==========M + X
(solution) (solid) (gas) (gas) (gas)
(gas) M*------------- M
excited state ground
state
Instrumentation
Components
1. Burner
Propane-air or acetylene-air flame is used. The flame should,
i) vapourise the solvent from the test solution.
ii) dissociate the solid into atoms.
iii) excite atoms and make them emit radiation.
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 104
2. Mirror
Radiation from the flame is emitted in all directions. To increase the radiation
reaching the detector, a concave mirror is kept behind the burner.
3. Slit
i) Entrance slit : It is kept between flame and monochromator. It allows only radiation
from the flame and mirror.
ii) Exit slit : It is placed between detector and monochromator. It prevents entry of
interfering radiations.
4. Monochromator
It permits only radiation of required wavelength to pass through. It absorbs
other radiations.
5. Detector
Radiation from the monochromator falls on a detector. It generates a current
which is proportional to the intensity of radiation.
6. Amplifier and Recorder
The current from the detector is amplified and recorded.
Working
At a constant pressure, air is sent into an atomiser. This suction draws some
test solution into the atomiser. The mixture of air and sample solution is mixed with
fuel and burnt in the burner. The radiation emitted from the burner flame is sent
successively through lense, filter, detector, amplifier and recorder. A graph, called
calibration curve, is drawn between recorder reading (intensity of emitted radiation)
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 105
and concentration of sample solution. A similar experiment is performed for the test
solution. Its concentration is read from the graph.
Applications of flame photometry
1. Estimation of sodium
The flame photometer is switched on. Air and gas supplies are regulated.
Initially double distilled water is sent in and ignition is started. After the instrument is
warmed up for nearly 10 minutes, it is adjusted for zero reading in the display.
Sodium gives a characteristic yellow emission at 589nm. The instrument is set
at this wavelength.
Series of standard solutions of sodium chloride (1,2,3,4,....10ppm) are
prepared. They are introduced one by one into the flame and readings (intensity of
emitted light) are noted. A calibration graph is drawn between intensity of emitted
light and concentration. A straight line passing through origin is obtained.
Now the test solution is introduced into the flame and the reading is noted.
The concentration of sodium in the (water) sample is read from the graph.
2. Quantitative analysis
Alkali and alkaline earth metals, transition metals like Fe, Mn, Cu can be
estimated.
3. Qualitative analysis
Alkali and alkaline earth metals can be detected from the colour of the flame.
Element i
max
(nm) Colour of the flame
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 106
Ca 422 nm Brick red
Li 670 nm Scarlet red
K 766 nm Red
4. Measurement of alkali and alkaline earth metals, Fe, Cu, Mn etc are useful in
medicine, agriculture and botany.
5. It is highly useful in the analysis of biological fluids and tissues.
6. Industrial and natural waters, petroleum products, glass, cement are analysed
by this technique.
Interferences in flame photometry
i) Spectral interference : When two elements show different spectra but both emit at
the same wavelength, this interference occurs.
ii) Ionic interference : It occurs due to ionisation of metal atoms at high temperature.
Ionisation reduces atomic emission.
iii) Cation-anion interference : Anions like oxalate, phosphate form stable complexes
with cations and so interfere.
Cation-Cation Interference: This reduces intensity of the signal.
Limitations of flame photometry
i) Inert gases and all metal ions cannot be determined.
ii) Molecular nature of the metal present in the original sample cannot be ascertained.
iii) Liquid samples alone are to be used.
Atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS)
Principle
It is based on the atomisation of sample accompanied by absorption of
characteristic radiation by the ground state gaseous atoms. When a radiation of
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 107
suitable wavelength is passed through the flame containing metal atoms, part of the
radiation is absorbed. The extent of absorption is proportional to the concentration of
metal atoms in the flame. The amount of radiation absorbed is determined in AAS.
Components
i. Radiation source
It is a hollow cathode lamp.It has a glass tube containing a noble gas like
argon (anode) and a hollow cathode made of the analyte metal. The lamp emits stable
intense characteristic radiation of the metal to be estimated.
ii. Chopper
It is a rotating wheel placed between the hollow cathode lamp and the flame. It
breaks the steady light from the lamp into a pulsating light. This is because the
recorder recognises only a pulsating current.
iii. Burner
Total combustion burners or premixed burners are used to convert liquid
sample into gas and the molecules into atomic state.
iv. Nebuliser
Before the liquid sample enters the burner, it is converted into small droplets
by the nebuliser.
v. Monochromator
It selects a particular wavelength from the radiation emitted by the hollow
cathode lamp. Prisoms and gratings are used as monochromators.
vi. Detector
Photomultiplier tubes are used as detectors. They convert the light falling on
them into electric current.
vii. Recorder
The signal from the amplifier is recorded in a chart paper or digital read out
device.
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 108
Working
The characteristic radiation from the radiation source passes through the flame
to which the sample solution is aspirated. The metallic compounds are decomposed
and reduced to the elemental state forming a cloud of atoms. The atoms absorb a
fraction of radiation in the flame. The unabsorbed radiation from the flame passes
through the monochromator, and then to the detector, amplifier and recorder.
Quantitative estimation of nickel
Requirements
i) Wavelength : 232 nm
ii) Light source : Hollow cathode lamp (nickel)
iii) Flame : Nitrous oxide - acetylene flame-reducing (rich, red)
Step I : Preparation of standard stock solution
1.0g of nickel nitrate is dissolved in minimum amount of dil. 1:1 HNO
3
and
made up to one lit. with 1% HNO
3
. This standard nickel solution has a strength of
1000ppm.
Step II : Construction of calibration curve
The instrument is switched on and allowed to warm up for ten minutes. 232nm
wavelength is selected. A blank solution is aspirated into the flame and the assembly
is adjusted for zero absorbance.
From the standard nickel stock solution, a series of standard solutions are
prepared. They are aspirated into the flame one by one and the absorbance is
measured. A calibration graph is plotted between absorbance and concentration of
nickel (ppm).
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 109
Step III : Estimation of unknown concentration
The test solution is aspirated into the flame under the same conditions and its
absorbance is measured. The corresponding concentration is read from the graph.
Applications of AAS
i) Nearly seventy to eighty metals present in any sample can be accurately and
rapidly determined.
ii) Trace amount of lead in alloy can be estimated.
iii) Vanadium in lubricating oil can be determined.
iv) AAS is used to analyse clinical samples like blood, urine, hair, teeth and tissues
etc.
v) AAS is applied in food industry, soil analysis and pharmaceutical industry.
Limitations of AAS
i) Sample preparation is tedious and time consuming.
ii) Chemical form of metal cannot be ascertained.
iii) Only metals can be determined.
UV - Visible Spectroscopy
UV-Visible spectroscopy involves transition of valence electrons of molecules
or ions from the ground electronic state E
0
to a higher electronic state E
1
. The ultra
violet region is 100 to 400 nm. The visible region is 400 to 800 nm. The amount of
energy required for the transition is,
AE = h = E
1
- E
0
Type of transitions involved in organic molecules
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 110
There are three types of electrons in organic molecules - o bonded electrons, t
bonded electrons and non-bonded electrons (n). All the three types of electrons are
present in formaldehyde :
H
H
C
o
H
: n
The types of transitions and their order of energeis are:
n H* < H H* < n o* << o o*
1. n * transitions
These are shown by unsaturated molecules with heteroatoms like N, O, S and
halogen. They are due to the excitation of an electron from non-bonding lone pair (n)
to an empty anti-bonding H* orbital.
Example :
Acetaldehyde and acetone
n H* transition occurs at 270 to 300 nm. An electron from the non-bonding
orbital of oxygen atom is excited to a H* orbital.
2. * transitions
These are shown by molecules with H electrons. (e.g.) olefins, aromatic
compounds. They are due to the excitation of an electron from H bonding orbital to
anti-bonding H* orbital.
Example :
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 111
Ethylene CH
2
= CH
2
A H H* transition occurs at 200 nm.
3. n * transitions
These are shown by saturated compounds containing a lone pair of electrons.
They are due to the excitation of an electron from non-bonding orbital (n) to a o*
anti-bonding orbital.
Example :
Trimethyl amine (CH
3
)
3
N:
n o* transition occurs at 227 nm. An electron from the non-bonding orbital
of N atom is excited to a o* orbital.
3. * transitions
These are shown by all saturated compounds. They are due to the excitation of
an electron from o bonding orbital to a o* anti-bonding orbital.
Example : CH
4
o o* transition occurs at 122 nm. o o* are high energy transitions.
They are weak, and usually not observed.
Chromophores
These are groups with multiple bonds and are responsible for the colour of a
compound.
N O
nitroso
azo nitro carbonyl
N N
N
O
O
O C
Auxochromes
These are groups that are not themselves responsible for the colour of the
compound. But they enhance the colour of chromophore by conjugation.
(e.g.) - OH - NH
2
Chromophore Auxochrome
1. This group is responsible for
colour
This group is not responsible for colour,
but enhances the colour of chromophore
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 112
2. Contains multiple bond. Contains lone pair of electrons
3. (e.g.) - N = O - N = N - - NH
2
- OH
Instrumentation of UV- Visible SpectrophotometerComponents
i) Radiation source
Hydrogen discharge and deuterium lamps as well as mercury lamps are the
common sources. They must supply a steady radiation of sufficient intensity.
ii) Monochromator
It disperses the radiation according to the desired wavelength. It comprises an
entrance slit, a dispersing prism or grating and an exit slit.
iii) Cells
They hold the sample and reference solutions. The cell must be uniform in
construction, inert to solvents and transparent.
iv) Detector
Barrier layer cell, photomultiplier tube, photocell are used as detectors. The
detector converts the radiation falling on it into electric current.
v) Recorder
The signal from the detector is recorded on a chart paper by the recorder.
Working
The radiation from the source passes through the monochromator, which
selects a narrow range of wavelength to pass through an exit slit. The radiation from
the monochromator is split into two equal beams. One half (reference beam) passes
through cell containing the blank solution. The other half (sample beam) passes
through the cell containing test solution. The detector compares the intensities of the
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 113
two beams. If sample absorbs, the intensity of the sample beamI will be less than
that of reference beam (I
0
). The recorder plots absorbance versus wavelength.
Applications
i) Determination of structure of compound
Hartley established that compounds of similar constitution have similar
absorption spectra. This is Hartley rule. Using this, we can characterise organic
compounds by comparing the UV-visible of spectrum unknown compound with that
of known compounds available in the reference books.
ii) Study of coordinate complexes
Visible spectroscopy is used to study the structure of coordination complexes.
We can identify the cis-trans isomers, octahedral, tetrahedral and square planar
structures.
iii) Determination of formation constants
Visible spectroscopy is used to determine the composition and the formation
constants of coordination complexes.
iv) Kinetic studies
UV-visible spectroscopy is used to study the kinetics of reactions involving
coloured complexes. The absorbance is directly proportional to the concentration. If
the concentration changes, the absorbance also changes. The change in absorption
(concentration) with time is used as a tool in studying the kinetics of ligand
displacement reactions and hydrolysis of coordination complexes.
v) Determination of concentration of solutions
Beer Lamberts law is,
0
I
log cx
I
= c
This law is used to determine molar extinction coefficient e of a compound.
Also we can determine concentration of solutions, since absorbance
0
I
log
I
is directly
proportional to concentration. Absorbances of solutions of known concentrations are
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 114
measured. A graph is plotted between absorbance and concentration. The absorbance
of unknown solution is measured. Its concentration is read from the graph.
vi) Study of Tautomerism
The percentage of keto and enol forms in a tautomeric equilibrium is estimated
from the relative intensities of absorbance bands of the UV spectrum.
(e.g.) Acetoacetic ester.
CH
3
C CH
2
COOC
2
H
5
O
Keto form
i
max
= 275nm
CH
3
C COOC
2
H
5
OH
Enol form
i
max
= 244nm
vii) Determination of calcium in blood
The amount of calcium in blood is estimated. The Ca present in 1 ml of serum
is converted into its oxalate. It is dissolved in dil.H
2
SO
4
and treated with ceric
sulphate solution. The absorbance is measured at 315nm. The amount of calcium in
the blood is determined.
viii) Molecular weight determination
The molecular weight of a compound can be determined by converting it into
a derivative which gives an absorption band. (e.g.) The molecular weight of an amine
is determined by converting it into a picrate derivative.
Infrared (IR) Spectroscopy
If infra red radiation (400-4000 cm
-1
) is passed through molecules, vibrational-
rotational transitions occur in them.
There are two types of fundamental vibrations in a molecule.
1) Stretching vibration
In this vibration, the bonds are elongated and compressed. But the bond angle
remains unchanged. There are two kinds of stretching vibrations:
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 115
i) Symmetric stretching
ii) Asymmetric stretching
2) Bending or deformation vibrations
In this vibration, the bond angle increases and decreases but the bond length
does not change. Bending vibrations are of two kinds.
i) In plane bending vibrations: Here all the atoms are in the same plane during
vibration.
ii) Out of plane bending vibration : Here the atoms go out of plane during vibration.
In plane bending Out of plane bending
Number of modes of vibrations
i) A linear molecule has (3n-5) fundamental vibrational modes. n= number of atoms
in a molecule.
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 116
(e.g.) CO
2
is a linear molecule.
It can exhibit 3 x 3 - 5 = 4 vibrations. They are shown above.
ii) A non-linear molecule has (3n-6) fundamental vibrational modes. n= number of
atoms in the molecule.
(e.g.) Water (H
2
O) is a non-linear molecule. It has (3n-6) = 3 x 3 - 6 = 3 vibrational
modes. They are shown below.
O
H H
O
H
H
O
H H
symmetric
stretching
Asymmetric
stretching
Bending
Instrumentation of IR Spectrometer
Components
i) Radiation Source
Nichrome wire and Nernst glower are the main sources of IR radiation. Nernst
glower is filament made of oxides of Zr, Th and Ce held together using a binder.
ii) Monochromator
It permits only radiation of desired wavelength to pass through and absorbs
other wavelengths.
iii) Cell
The cell holding the sample solution should be transparent to IR radiation.
NaCl cells are used.
iv) Detector
The IR radiation falling on the detector is converted into an electric signal.
Some detectors are:
i) Thermocouple
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 117
ii) Pyroelectric detectors
v) Recorder
The electrical signal from the detector is recorded as percentage transmittance
against wavelength.
Working
The radiation from the source is split into two beams of equal intensity. One
beam passes through the sample and the other through the reference.
When the sample absorbs, the two emerging beams will have different
intensities. This produces an oscillating signal to be measured by the detector. The
signal from detector gets amplified and goes to the recorder which gives a print out or
display.
Applications of IR spectroscopy
1. Identification of Compounds
Each molecule gives its own unique IR spectrum. If two samples give the
same IR spectra, they contain identical molecules. Thus the identity of a compound
can be established by comparing the IR spectrum of a compound with the standard IR
spectra available in the literature.
2. Detection of functional groups
Different functional groups absorb at different IR regions. So from the
absorption frequency, the nature of functional group present in the molecule can be
identified.
Examples
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 117
ii) Pyroelectric detectors
v) Recorder
The electrical signal from the detector is recorded as percentage transmittance
against wavelength.
Working
The radiation from the source is split into two beams of equal intensity. One
beam passes through the sample and the other through the reference.
When the sample absorbs, the two emerging beams will have different
intensities. This produces an oscillating signal to be measured by the detector. The
signal from detector gets amplified and goes to the recorder which gives a print out or
display.
Applications of IR spectroscopy
1. Identification of Compounds
Each molecule gives its own unique IR spectrum. If two samples give the
same IR spectra, they contain identical molecules. Thus the identity of a compound
can be established by comparing the IR spectrum of a compound with the standard IR
spectra available in the literature.
2. Detection of functional groups
Different functional groups absorb at different IR regions. So from the
absorption frequency, the nature of functional group present in the molecule can be
identified.
Examples
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 117
ii) Pyroelectric detectors
v) Recorder
The electrical signal from the detector is recorded as percentage transmittance
against wavelength.
Working
The radiation from the source is split into two beams of equal intensity. One
beam passes through the sample and the other through the reference.
When the sample absorbs, the two emerging beams will have different
intensities. This produces an oscillating signal to be measured by the detector. The
signal from detector gets amplified and goes to the recorder which gives a print out or
display.
Applications of IR spectroscopy
1. Identification of Compounds
Each molecule gives its own unique IR spectrum. If two samples give the
same IR spectra, they contain identical molecules. Thus the identity of a compound
can be established by comparing the IR spectrum of a compound with the standard IR
spectra available in the literature.
2. Detection of functional groups
Different functional groups absorb at different IR regions. So from the
absorption frequency, the nature of functional group present in the molecule can be
identified.
Examples
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 118
Functional group IR Frequency (cm
-1
)
C O
aldehyde & ketones 1680 - 1720
N H amines 3300 - 3400
O H alcohols, phenols 3500 - 3650
C N cyanides 2200 - 2250
NO
2
nitro compound 1350 - 1380
Ar C H aromatic ring 3000 - 3100
R O R ether 1100 - 1200
3. The progress of a reaction can be studied by observing the decrease or
increase in the intensity of a particular peak at different time intervals.
4. Structure determination
We can easily find out whether a molecule is linear or not.
Example :
Let us consider NO
2
. If it is linear, it will show (3n-5) = 3 x 3 - 5 = 4 bands. If
it is non-linear, it will show (3n-6) = 3 x 3 - 6 = 3 bands. The actual IR spectrum of
NO
2
showed 3 bands. So we conclude that NO
2
is non-linear.
N
O O
5. Cis-trans isomers can be identified.
6. Purity of samples
Pure sample gives a sharp and well-resolved IR bands. Impure sample gives
not only broad and poorly resolved bands but also additional bands. So from the IR
spectrum of the sample we can ascertain the purity.
7. Molecular weight of a compound can be determined by measuring end group
concentrations in the IR spectrum.
8. The crystallinity of a solid can be ascertained by changes in the IR spectrum.
PART - A QUESTIONS
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 119
1. What is the relation between wavelength (i) frequency (v) and wave number ( o)?
Ans :
1
C
o
= o =
i
2. What is absorption spectrum (spectroscopy)?
3. What is emission spectrum (spectroscopy)?
4. Explain atomic spectrum.
5. Define molecular spectrum.
6. Name the differences between atomic and molecular spectra.
7. State Lamberts law.
8. State Beer-Lamberts law.
9. Name some factors that affect absorption.
Ans : Path length, wavelength of light, concentration of solution and nature of the
absorbing molecule.
10. What are the common features of absorption instruments?
Ans : Source, analyser, detector, recorder.
11. What are the applications of colorimetry?
12. What is flame photometry? Name a few metals that can be estimated by this
method.
13. What are the limitations of Beer-Lamberts law?
14. What is colorimeter?
15. Write the complexes formed in spectroscopic determination of Fe and Ni.
Ans : Fe
3+
+ 6 CNS
-
[Fe(CNS)
6
]
-3
Ni
+2
+ 2 DMG
-
[Ni(DMG)
2
]
16. What are the important processes that occur in the flame photometry?
17. Write the various types of electronic transitions.
18. What is bathochromic shift?
Ans: Shifting of absorption to a longer wavelength is bathochromic or red shift.
19. Explain the terms : Auxochrome, Chromophore.
20. Write a few differences between auxochrome and chromophore.
21. Name some transitions responsible for molecular spectra.
Ans : Rotational, vibrational and electronic transitions.
22. What is finger-print region in IR? What is its importance?
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 120
Ans : The region 700-1400 cm
-1
is finger-print region. It has rich and complicated
intense IR bands. The region is used to identify a molecule just as we use finger
prints of people to identify them.
23. Calculate the number of vibrational modes (or) bands for H
2
, H
2
O
2
, CH
4
, C
6
H
6
,
CO
2
, H
2
O, C
2
H
2
, C
2
H
6
.
24. Name some applications of IR spectroscopy.
25. What is the principle of atomic absorption spectroscopy?
26. Explain the principle of flame photometry?
27. What is the frequency of a radiation of wavelength 5000.
Ans :
10
14 1
8
C 3 x10
6 x10 s
5000 x10
o= = =
i
PART B QUESTIONS
1. Derive Beer-Lamberts law. What are its limitations?
2. What is the principle of colorimetry? Explain the various parts and working of a
colorimeter. Write about its applications.
3. What is flame photometry? Discuss its principle.
4. Write briefly about the instrumentation, working and applications of flame
photometry.
5. Explain the interferences in flame photometry. What are the limitations of flame
photometry?
6. State the principle of atomic absorption spectroscopy. Write a note on the
instrumentation and working and applications of the spectrometer.
7. How is nickel quantitatively estimated using AAS?
8. Narrate the applications and limitations of AAS.
9. What is UV-visible spectroscopy?
10. Discuss the various types of transitions in UV-visible spectroscopy.
11. Explain the instrumentation, working and applications of UV-visible
spectroscopy.
12. Write about the various types of fundamental vibrations in IR spectroscopy.
13. Sketch the possible vibrational modes of Water and CO
2
.
14. Explain the instrumentation, working and applications of IR spectroscopy.
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Engineering Chemistry-II
Department of Chemistry, Annapoorana Engineering College, Salem 121
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com