Annu. Rev. Mater. Sci. I994.24.

293-320
Copyright I991by Annual Reviews Inc. Xhrights reserved
IV^L1V1 1L1^1Lb 1LV
I^111V1 L1 LLLV11
. J. hJh J0J L. L)J0q
National Science Foundation Center for Advanced Cement-Based
Materials, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208
KEY WORDS: crack, concrete, fracture process, fracture resistance, micro
structure, localization, strain, stress
INTRODUCTION
Failure of concrete structures is usually accompanied by cracking of con
crete. Understanding and modeling of how and when concrete fails are
not only critical for designing concrete structures, but are also important
for developing new cement-based materials. Recent publications ( 1, 2) have
shown that fracture mechanics has now been established as a fundamental
approach that can explain certain nonlinear aspects of concrete behavior,
help to prevent brittle failures of structures, and be an important aid in
materials engineering. In this paper we discuss applications of fracture
mechanics to failure of concrete structures. These topics include internal
microstructure of concrete; the concept of strain localization, which is a
typical feature of concrete behavior; the principles of linear elastic fracture
mechanics (LEFM); fracture processes and toughening mechanisms in
concrete; nonlinear fracture mechanics approaches used to describe frac
ture of concrete; the determination of material fracture parameters of
concrete; and derivation of an R-curve. We demonstrate that many experi
mental phenomena associated with failure of concrete, such as size efect
on tensile strength and brittleness of high strength concrete, can be inter
preted by fracture mechanics.
INTERNAL STRUCTURE AND STRAIN
LOCALIZATION OF CONCRETE
Concrete is an anisotropic and heterogenous material consisting of cement,
fine aggregate, coarse aggregate, and water. The cement hydrates when it
293
0084-6600/94/0801-0293$05.00
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Further
ANNUAL
REVIEWS
294 SHAH & OU ANG
is mixed with water and forms a hard matrix after a certain period of
curing. When fluid, the matrix fills the space among aggregates and after
hardening bonds them together to form a monolith termed concrete.
Physically, at mezo-Ievel, concrete can be considered a two-phase material
consisting of the matrix and the aggregate. However, internal voids ranging
up to several millimeters in size may be regarded as another major com
ponent of the hardened concrete. These voids include pores in cement
paste, cracks at matrix-aggregate interface, and shrinkage cracks. These
defects play an important role for the mechanical behavior of concrete.
Pores in the cement paste are usually classifed as gel pores and capillary
pores. The gel pores, ranging approximately from 0.5 to 10 nm in size,
can be regarded as part of calcium-silicate-hydrate (C-S-H), whereas the
capillary porosities, varying from 0.01 to 10 /m in size, are the remnants
of water-filled spaces that exist between the partially hydrated cement
grains.
The matrix and the aggregate are bonded together at the interface. Since
bleeding or segregation usually occurs for a fresh concrete, some cracks
form at the interface between the matrix and the aggregate when the
concrete is hardened. On the other hand, since the matrix and the aggregate
are diferent in modulus of elasticity, in their thermal expansion coefcient
and response to change of moisture content, the interfacial transition zone
between the matrix and the aggregate often has more voids and is weaker
compared to the bulk cement matrix (3).
Hardening of a fresh concrete is accompanied by the loss of moisture
in the cement paste, which causes shrinkage of the concrete. Shrinkage
only happens within the cement paste. Shrinkage strain is usually not
uniform over a concrete structure because the loss of moisture is diferent
for the surface area and for the interior part of the concrete. On the other
hand, shrinkage in the paste is usually restrained by aggregates and
boundary conditions of the structure during casting. Both the non-uniform
distribution of the shrinkage strain and the restraints from the aggregates
and the boundary conditions can develop a certain value of tensile stress
in some parts of the concrete, which may cause shrinkage cracks before
loading. Similarly, exothermic reaction during hardening can cause difer
ent temperature distributions and consequent thermal cracking.
The properties of concrete are infuenced by its chemical constituents
and micro-, mezo- and macro-structures, which are characterized by the
number and distribution of internal pores and cracks. However, only the
infuence of internal cracks on mechanical properties of cement-based
materials is discussed here. Sizes of porosities, which afect the fracture
processes and properties, depend on various internal structures of
materials. Hierarchy of fracture processes in cement-based materials is
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FRACTURE MECHANICS FOR CONCRETE 295
presented in Figure 1. Since microstructure of cement paste is in scale of
nanometers, as shown in Figure l a, fracture processes in cement pastes are
infuenced by particles and voids in the same scale. The internal structure of
mortar is shown in Figure 1 b. Use of sands or fne aggregates results in
voids in mortars up to scale of micrometers. As a result, fracture processes
in mortars may primarily involve initiation and propagation of internal
voids in the scale of micrometers. Interfacial cracks and weak zone in scale
of millimeters are major defects for concrete with coarse aggregates as
shown in Figure l c. Therefore, fracture processes in concrete may pri
marily depend on the stability of these interfacial cracks. Although con
crete is an anisotropic and heterogenous material consisting of matrix and
aggregates, it is generally accepted that concrete may be generally treated
as a uniform material before cracking if the minimum dimension of con
crete structures is greater than fve times the maximum size of aggregates
used.
Many experimental techniques such as quantitative acoustic emission
(Figure 2a) and electronic speckle pattern interferometry (Figure 2b) have
been used to observe crack propagation in concrete. In contrast to a linear
elastic material (ideally brittle) shown in Figure 3a, concrete is a quasi
brittle material, and a substantial nonlinearity exists before the maximum
stress, as shown in Figure 3b. Recent experimental observations (5) made
using the methods shown in Figure 2, have indicated that a stress-elon
gation relationship for a concrete subjected to uniaxial tension may be
divided into four stages as shown in Figure 3b (4, 5). The frst stage is
before point A, which is about 30% of the peak load. Propagation of
internal voids is negligible during the frst stage. The second stage is from
point A to point , which is about 80% of the peak load. Internal voids
propagate during this stage. These cracks are isolated and randomly dis
tributed over the specimen volume, and the distribution of tensile strain
in the loading direction is approximately uniform over the specimen length.
The third stage is between point and point C. The internal cracks start
to localize into a major crack, which propagates with increasing load.
This phenomenon is often referred to as damage localization or strain
localization. When strain localization occurs, the distribution of tensile
strain in the loading direction is no longer uniform over the specimen
length. Crack propagation is stable until the peak load (point C). Stable
crack growth means that the crack propagates only when the load
increases. The crack length at the peak load is referred to as the critical
crack length. The fourth stage is after the peak load. The major crack
continuously propagates even though the load decreases. The tensile strain
of the material within the localized damage band continuously increases,
whereas unloading may occur for the material outside the damage band.
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296 SHAH & OUY ANG
()LOlp8S8
[b) NOQB|
T|gure 1 Hierarchy of fracture process in cement-based materials.
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FRACTURE MECHANICS FOR CONCRETE 297

5 00
(c) Concre!e
Figure l-(conlinued)
It can be deduced from the above discussion that failure of concrete is
characterized by strain localization, which may be modeled by a macro
crack. Thus failure of concrete can be simulated by fracture mechanics
consideration, which provides a powerful tool to describe propagation of
a crack.
LINEAR ELASTIC FRACTURE MECHANICS
Cracks can be classified into mode I (opening mode), mode II (shearing
mode), and mode TIT (tearing mode). Only mode T fracture is discussed in
this chapter. Similar principles can be extended to the other two modes of
fracture. It can be derived from elasticity that the elastic stress feld in the
vicinity of a crack tip can be expressed as
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298 SHAH & OUY ANG
(a) Quantitative acustic emission
Figure z Experimental techniques for detecting strain localization. (a) Quantitative acoustic
emission. (b) Electronic speckle pattern interferometry.
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FRACTURE MECHANICS FOR CONCRETE 299
0
W

m
E|cngaticn
(a)P|inear-e|as|ic[bri|||e)ma|eria|
!

> S0an
L
#
!0||bon
E|cnga|icn
(bBtageso|crackpropagat|on
inccncreleunder|ensicn
Figure J Stress-elongation curves for a linear-elastic material and a concrete specimen.
K/ 8 . 8 .
38

(
2
n
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1/2 COS: 1 SIn:SlI 2
KJ 8 8 38
`

(
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r)
1/2SIn:cos
2
c
os
2
' ,
where r is the distance to the crack tip, and the stress intensity factor for
mode crack, Kh is
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300 SHAH & OUY ANG
K[ -),.//,, 2.
where is the applied stress on the structure, uis the crack length, b is the
size of the structure, ac;,.//,is the geometry factor that can be obtained
from a linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM) handbook (6).
According to the elastic stress fi eld given by Equation 2, the stress
approaches infnity at a crack tip where f tends to zero. This phenomenon
is termed as the stress singularity at the tip of an elastic crack. Since infinite
stress cannot develop in real materials, a certain range of inelastic zone
must exist at the crack tip. The value of K[ indicates the intensity of the
stress field in the neighborhood of the crack-tip, and is a function of load,
specimen geometry and size, boundary condition and crack length. The
stress intensity factor K
[
can serve as a fracture criterion. A crack propa
gates whenever K
[
is equal to a threshold value, i.e.
3.
where K
[
c
is the critical stress intensity factors for mode I crack. The value
of K
[
c is regarded as a material fracture parameter in linear elastic fracture
mechanics.
Alternatively, Equation 3 can be expressed in terms of fracture energy:
G " G[n 4.
where G " (K[)2/E' is the strain energy release rate, and G[c " (K[J2/E' is
the critical strain energy release rate, where E' = E for the plane stress
condition, E' " E/( l V,for the plane strain condition, and V is Poisson's
ratio.
FRACTURE PROCESS IN CONCRETE
Since an inelastic region is always present at the crack-tip in a real material,
stresses do not become singular. This region is ofen called the fracture
process zone. The LEFM solutions can still be applied when the zone is
small enough compared to the dimensions of the structure.
It has been reported that the fracture process zone in concrete is not
small (7). The presence of a sizeable fracture process zone may be attributed
to the inherent material heterogeneity of concrete. Many mechanisms that
are responsible for the fracture process zone have been reported. Some of
these toughening mechanisms are indicated in Figure 4. During fracture,
the high strcss state near the crack-tip causes micro cracking at flaws. This
phenomenon, known as micro crack -shielding, as shown in Figure 4a,
consumes some of the energy input to the specimen by the applied load
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FRACTURE MECHANICS FOR CONCRETE 301
Main crack
Microcracks
t
m


(a) Crack shielding
Aggregates
e~
(c) Aggregate brdging
Aggregate
Mai n crack
t
(b) Crack deflection
Friction between

(d) Crack surace roughness
induced closure
Figure 4 Some toughening mechanisms in the fracture process zone.
(8). Crack deflection occurs when the path of least resistance is around
a relatively strong particle or along a weak interface (Figure 4b). This
mechanism has been studied in detail by Faber &Evans (9). Other impor
tant toughening processes in concrete are grain bridging (10), as shown in
Figure 4c. Bridging occurs when the crack has advanced beyond an aggre
gate that continues to transmit stresses across the crack until it ruptures
or is pulled out. Also, during grain pullout or the opening of a tortuous
crack, there may be some contact (or interlock) between the faces (Figure
4d). This causes energy dissipation through friction and some bridging
across the crack.
Many investigations have focused on this zone, especially its size and
its constituents ( 11). Results have been infuenced considerably by method
ology, and information has sometimes been contradictory. During the
search for a consensus, one frequent question is whether the fracture
process zone should be in front of the crack-tip or behind it. As shown by
Thouless ( 12), both approaches are equivalent as far as structural analysis
is concerned; i.e. bridging and damage zones may be considered equivalent,
but can give diferent physical insights. Based on their observations using
laser holographic interferometry, Castro-Montero et al ( 13) reported that
the fracture process zone consisted of a wake zone behind the observed
crack-tip and a zone in front of the tip. The wake process zone increased
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302 SHAH & OU ANG
with crack extension, whereas the front zone remained primarily constant
in size. Since size of the wake zone was much larger than that of the front
zone, they concluded that most of the toughening in concrete occurs in
the wake zone. This fact suggests that the increasing size of the wake
process zone rather than the constant size of the crack-tip process zone
should be primarily responsible for the growing R-curve behavior in con
crete. Similar observations have been reported for ceramics (14, 15). By
using a dye-penetration method, Swartz &Go (16) found that the fracture
process zone varies along specimen thickness. A similar result has been
also detected using acoustic emission techniques (Figure 5) ( 17).
Since the work of Kaplan (18), many attempts have been made to apply
Acoustic emission
\
3Umm(15 in.)
(a) Acoustic emission source locations
Estimated crack prOfile
(b) Distribution 0! acustic emission events through
the thickness 0IS 0Smspeimen
Figure J Microcracks in concrete beams detected by acoustic emission techniq.es.
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FRACTURE MECHANICS FOR CONCRETE 303
fracture mechanics to concrete. However, the presence of the sizeable
fracture process zone hinders the application of linear elastic fracture
mechanics to concrete (19). Therefore, nonlinear fracture mechanics
should be used for modeling concrete fracture.
NONLINEAR FRACTURE MECHANICS FOR
CONCRETE
Fracture behavior of concrete is greatly infuenced by the relatively large
fracture process zone. Other difculties for using linear elastic fracture
mechanics for failure of concrete include (.,the crack path in concrete is
tortuous, and (b) it is difcult to determine the crack tip in concrete because
of particles bridging and variation of the fracture process zone along the
thickness direction. An accurate description of concrete fracture should
incIude the IorIuous crack path, and the three-dimensional aspects of the
crack profle, as well as the inelastic material response within the fracture
process zone. In order to apply fracture mechanics to the failure of
concrete, most currently available models attempt to simulate mode I
concrete fracture with an efective line crack. The variation of the fracture
process zone across the thickness or width is usually neglected. The inelastic
fracture response due to the presence of the fracture process zone may be
taken into account by a cohesive pressure acting on the crack faces.
An efective quasi-brittle crack is shown in Figure 6, where an initial
crack and the associated fracture process zone are presented by an efective
crack with length ..The toughening mechanisms in the fracture process
zone are modeled by a cohesive pressure acting on the crack surfaces. The
cohesive pressure a(w) is a monotonically decreasing function of crack
separation displacement w. The value of a(w) is equal to material tensile
sIrengthjIor W F 0 (the end oIIheIracture processzone). This cohesive
pressure tends to close the crack and is the function of the crack opening
displacement w. When a concrete structure with the efective quasi-brittle
crack is subjected to loading, the applied load results in an energy release
rate
at the tip of the efective quasi-brittle crack. The energy release rate

may be set equal to resistance to crack propagation that can be divided

into two portions: (.,the energy rate consumed during material fracturing
in creating two surfaces (the material surface energy), and (b) the energy
rate required to overcome the cohesive pressure a(w) in the separating of
the surfaces. Therefore, the energy release rate for a mode I quasi-brittle
crack may be expressed as (20)

=
ie

a(w) dw 5.
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304 SHAH & OUY ANG
Appliedload,p
t t t t t t t t t t t t
X
Initial crack
LLU
C I.
a
a
:1
Figure Modeling of a crack in concrete.
where G/ is the strain energy rate to create two new crack surfaces for
mode I crack, a(w) is the normal traction pressure that is the function of
crack opening displacement w as shown in Figure 6, and C1U L is the
original crack-tip opening displacement. ^ crack is assumed to be a line
in Equation 5. Two types of energy dissipation mechanisms for the fracture
process have been introduced in Equation 5. The Grifth-Irwin energy
dissipation mechanism is represented by a non-zero stress intensity factor,
and the Dugdale-Barenblatt energy dissipation mechanism is represented
by the traction term. However, one may approximately use models only
based on a single fracture energy dissipation mechanism: either the
Grifth-Irwin mechanism by assuming a(w) = 0, or the Dugdale-Baren
blatt mechanism by assuming K/ " O.
Hillerborg et al (21) proposed a cohesive model with K/ F O. Bazant
(22) developed a crack band model using a similar concept. It is noted that
by assuming K/ " 0 some computational efciency may be accomplished.
However, the single Dugdale-Barenblatt energy dissipation mechanism
may only achieve global energy balance by selecting model parameters.
Some actual features associated with crack propagation, such as the crack
profile, computed based on the pure cohesive model, do not match with
those experimentally measured ( 13).
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FRACTURE MECHANICS FOR CONCRETE 305
The fracture process zone in concrete can be modeled by a single Grifth
Irwin energy mechanism by assuming a(w) = O. An efective elastic crack
governed by LEFM criteria can be introduced, and the equivalence
between the actual and the corresponding efective crack can be prescribed
explicitly in the model. Since a stable crack extension before the peak load
is present in concrete, the critical efective crack length at failure of the
material is diferent from the initial crack length. To predict a failure
condition of the material, two conditions must exist to determine the
critical load and the corresponding crack length. Most of these efective
crack models use two or more fracture parameters to defne the inelastic
fracture process
(
23, 24).
Since the critical efective crack length has been experimentally found
to be specimen size and geometry-dependent, it cannot directly serve as
the fracture criterion. Using the concept of the efective elastic crack, Jenq
& Shah (23) proposed the two-parameter fracture model as shown in
Figure 7. In their model, the two independent material fracture properties
are the critical stress intensity factor K;e and the critical crack tip opening
displacement CTODCl which are defned in terms of the efective elastic
crack. The fracture criteria for an unstable crack are
p(
a
L`'~L_

a'

l
a'
O

CTOD
=
=CTOD_
`
a

X
O
K =K_

Figure 7 Two parameter fracture model, fracture criteria: K/ Kfe and CTOD CTODe.
Superscripts (1) and (2) represent diferent sizes of structures.
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306 SHAH & OUY ANG
crOD = CrODe> 6.
where KJ and CrOD are the stress intensity factor and the crack-tip
opening displacement, respectively. Both parameters can be calculated
based on linear elastic fracture mechanics. Experimental determination of
two material fracture parameters KJe and CrODe are discussed below. In
the two-parameter fracture model, the efective crack exhibits a compliance
equal to the unloading compliance of the actual structure. Karihaloo &
Nallathambi (25) have proposed a similar efective crack model.
In Equation 6, the so-called two-parameter fracture model, the values
of KJ and CrOD are functions of the applied load, structure geometry,
and size, as well as the crack length, whereas the critical stress intensity
factor Kle and the critical crack-tip opening displacement CrODe are the
fracture parameters only depending on the material. As a result, Equation
6 provides two conditions needed to determine the critical fracture load
and the critical crack length of a structure.
It may be worthwhile to explain the physical signifcance of cI0n,.
The existence of erODe can be justifed from the fact that all materials
I
i
ave some sort of initial faws. This is especially true for concrete. When
the material is subjected to an external load, these faws will open, propa
gate, and sometimes coalesce with other cracks. The opening displacement
of these faws can be directly linked to the value of CrOD. At the critical
fracture load, the crack opening displacement at the initial crack-tip can
be defned as erODe. For quasi-brittle materials such as concrete, the
stable crack extension occurs before the critical fracture load. Since erODe
is defned at the tip of the initial crack, it may primarily account for the
growing size of the wake process zone.
Based on fracture mechanics, fracture properties of a material are related
to its surface fracture energy. For the same type of materials, roughness
of fracture surface may provide a means to characterize fracture properties.
A typical three-dimensional image for a fracture surface of cement paste
is shown in Figure 8 (26). This image was obtained using a tandem scanning
confocal microscope, which has the unique ability to provide an image of
an isolated focal plane. Based on this image, the surface roughness of a
material may be described by a roughness number, 1 defined as the
ratio of actual surface area to projected surface area. The actual surface
area is estimated by triangulating the surface area between adjacent pixels,
and summing all elements. Surface roughness of cement paste and mortar
specimens was correlated to fracture properties determined from three
point notched beam tests. The relationship between the critical crack
length, .,determined from the two-parameter fracture model, and the
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FRACTLRF MFCHAMlCS FOR COMCRFTF 307
Figure Topographic map of a cement past (top)and its three-dimensional representation
(/ottom).
roughness number obtained are shown in Figure 9, where the value of _
was obtained based on the two-parameter fracture model that is discussed
below. The value of 0 increases with increasing the value of RN
For a material obeying linear elastic fracture mechanics, one parameter
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308 SHAH & OUY ANG
0.022
0.021
0.02
0.019
L
M
0.018
0.017
0.016
1.6 1.8 2 2.2
A
2.4 2.6 2.8
Figure Relationship between the surface roughness number and the critical crack length.
(K1c or CTODc or G1J is sufcient to describe its fracture toughness. For
concrete, if only one parameter (e.g. Klc or GF) is considered, then one
observes that fracture toughness increases with increasing compressive
strength or increasing strain rate. Such one-parameter representation is
misleading since concrete, in fact, becomes more brittle as its compressive
strength decreases. However, in the two-parameter fracture model, K1c is
usCd!CgC!crwI! Cf1 !C dC!Ct1:DC lCfailure of concrete.
DETERMINATION OF FRACTURE PARAMETERS:
KI
c
and L1L J
c
ct/0c0 J0JJ|0tcJ|c\
The procedure for experimentally obtaining the values of Klc and CTODc
is detailed in a 1990 RILEM recommendation (27).
The three-point bend beam with Sib = 4, as shown in Figure lOa, is
recommended. A closed-loop testing machine with the crack mouth open
ing displacement (CMOD) as a feedback signal, or a relative stif machine,
is required to achieve a stable failure. The crack mouth opening dis
placement and the applied load are recorded continuously during the test.
A clip gauge is recommended to measure the CMOD. The rate of loading
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(a)
p
P
.
--
FRACTURE MECHANICS FOR CONCRETE 309
I
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Ball
Unllng
at pea ld
I
I
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CMOD
- I. CMOO: .1
CMOO:
(b)
Figure 10 Testing specimen and procedure to determine the values of Kf, and CTODc
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310
SHAH & OUAMG
should be controlled by a constant rate of increment of CMOD such that
the peak load is reached in about 5 min.
The beam should be monotonically loaded up to the maximum load.
The applied load is then manually reduced (also termed unloading) when
the load passes the maximum load and is within 95% of the maximum
load as shown in Figure l Ob. When the applied load is reduced to zero,
reloading is applied.
1\l1\|l\ J0JLJ|c|Jl/u0\
Using the measured curve of CMOD as a function of load, the following
quantities can be calculated as shown below: thc modulus of elasticity 1,
the critical stress intensity factor KL and the critical crack-tip opening
displacement CTODc
The modulus of elasticity 1is calculated from
7.
where Co is the initial compliance calculated from the load-CMOD curve,
as shown in Figure l Ob, and g(c) is

_ 0.66
g(co) " O.76-2.28co+3.87co-2.04co+
( l-C
O
)
2
8.
where Co " (ao + HO)/(b + HO), and s, ao, HO, b, and t are defned in
Figure l Oa.
An efective-elastic critical crack length .,may be defined in such a way
that it results in the unloading compliance, (within 95% of the peak load
based on linear elastic fracture mechanics. Therefore, the modulus of
0JI0Iy10JH JO b0 0J0uJI0d!Om
as.,;,-

)
1

C b
2
t '
C
9.
where ( is the unloading compliance within 95% of the peak load cal
culated from the load-CMOD curve as shown in Figure l Ob, and the
geometrical function g(cc) is based on Equation 9, but Cc

(ac+HO)/
(b+ HO), instead of 0
q
, should be used.
By equating Equations 7 and 9, the value of the efective-elastic critical
crack length .,for a tested material can be solved. Then the critical stress
intensity factor is calculated using the equation

s

f(
c
c)
Kjc -
3(
P0
+0
*
5
W
2b
__
10.
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FRACTURE MECHANICS FOR CONCRETE 311
where Pc is the peak load, W = Wo S/L, and Wo is the self-weight of the
beam.
The critical crack-tip opening displacement is then calculated using the
equation
6(Pc+0.5 W)Sacg(ac/b)
CTODc
Eb2t
PO)2+ 1.08 1-1. 149 ,(Po-P6)
11.
where Po = ao/an and g(ac/b) is based on Equation 8, but (o should be
replaced by ac/b.
A large round-robin test program was conducted by the RILEM Com
mittee TC89 (28). It was shown that the value of K} evaluated at the tip
of the efective elastic crack was essentially independent of the dimensions
of notched beams. A similar extensive comparison is not available for
CTODc
'
Since CTODc is a small quantity and difcult to measure,
additional verifcation is needed to confrm that it is indeed a material
property.
AN R-CURVE BASED ON THE TWO-PARAMETER
FRACTURE MODEL
Application of load to a structure with an initial crack of size, ao, produces
strain energy /. The rate of strain energy release with respect to crack
length, O, is denoted by U, and is termed the strain energy release rate. On
the other hand, the crack propagation at the crack tip needs to consume
some energy H The rate of change of W with respect to crack length, O,
is denoted by R, and is termed the fracture resistance. The crack propagates
when the following condition is satisfed:
G= R. 12.
For a brittle material,
R
is a material constant, and propagation of the
initial faw may mean catastrophic failure of the structure. However, due
to the existence of crack arrest mechanisms such as aggregate bridging in
concrete, the crack steadily propagates until a second condition is also
satisfed (see Figure 11):
0U 0
aa aa
'
13.
In order to use Equations 12 and 13 to simulate cracking of concrete,
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312 SHAH & OUYANG
W
0

Z
L
I
D

C
I
U
Failure crteria:
G= R
dG dR
d
\

Concrete
Brittle matrix
P
Crack Length
Figure 11 R-curves for diferent materials.
both G-curves and R-curves should be known. The G-curves depend
on geometry of specimens, boundary conditions, and nature of applied
loading. The expressions for the G-curves can be derived from LEFM
considerations.
Based on Equations 12 and 13, Ouyang &Shah (29) derived a diferential
equation governing R-curves as given below:
1 d
R
.
(-ct+
R
=O,

M. d: o-1
..
where e = a-ao is the crack extension, . is defined as ac/ao, and u, is the
critical crack length. If only up to second order terms (M = 2) are
considered, the following R-curve can be derived:
d
. .. . .. ..

"`

_ - _
2

4 . .
15.
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FRACTURE MECHANICS FOR CONCRETE 313
where the two constants, oand p, can be determined from Kle and ...
as:
.,...
(
=
32a (KS )
2
/
2

q Ic J 2
and
....
32a

)
2
/
2
1
q Ic J2
p

(
Kl)2(ao-ao)-d2
do-o1
'
E 1------
L
do-o1
16.
17.
Note where!1 and!
2
depend on the geometry of the specimens. For the
three-point bend beam, !I " 1.12 and!2 " 1.45. It is noted that the R
curve given by Equation 15 is an envelope of G-curves with diferent sizes
but the same notch and geometry.
SOME RESULTS FROM APPLYING FRACTURE
MECHANICS TO CONCRETE
Si:eEectoocoocreteIeosi|eStreota
Experimental results have indicated that the strength of concrete usually
decreases with increasing size of structures and then remains constant as
shown in Figure 12, where nominal strength of a three-point bend beam
is equal to its failure load (peak load) divided by its cross-sectional area.
This size efect on concrete strength may be primarily explained by the
fracture process zone. When a concrete structure is loaded, the strain
energy produced by applied load is converted to the energy consumed to
create a new fracture surface and the energy absorbed in the fracture
process zone. For large sized structures, the latter is negligible compared to
the former, whereas for small sized structures, the latter can be comparable
compared to the former. Therefore, the larger the structure size, the lower
the nominal strength. However, the concrete strength approaches a con
stant when sizes of concrete structures become very large.
This size efect on concrete tensile strength can be predicted using the
fracture mechanics approach mentioned above. The nominal stress of a
concrete structure can be obtained directed from Equation 2 as
K
lc
UN
= .
Fac!
(ac/
b
)
1.
Tang et al (30) found that if the values of K/
c
and ac are determined
from the two-parameter fracture model, the size efect on tensile nominal
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314 SHAH & OUYANG
5
4 -
D
W

3 -

O
C O
e
w
9
W
$
m
2 -
D
C

C
2
J
f000Inl 0n0 0amB l0Bl00
y N.O. PI0Xan00f, 18dT
0
| | | I
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Dept of beams (mm)
Figure !z Strength of concrete beams with diferent sizes.
strength of concrete can be predicted by Equation 18. The results that they
obtained for three-point bend beams are shown in Figure 13, which shows
the similar trend with experimental values.
Bazant &Pfeifer (31) explained this size efect on concrete strength by
their size efect model based on geometrically similar structures.
1/qh l|0qlh Lu0c|l
Typical high strength concrete has a matrix that is very strong and stif, is
compact, and possesses well-bonded aggregate-mortar interfaces. Due to
its composition, several of the toughening mechanisms found in normal
concrete are absent during the fracture process. Microcracking at inter
faces, flaws, and voids are infrequent, and cracks propagate through the
coarse aggregates instead of being defected by them. Carrasquillo et al
(32) observed these diferences and concluded that as its compressive
strength; increases, concrete behaves more like a homogeneous material.
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.4
FRACTURE MECHANICS FOR CONCRETE 315

.
T.Z
Beam Depth (m)

&?M

&?1U

T.b Z
J|gure1J The predicted nominal strength of three-point bend beams with diferent depths.
This decrease in toughening leads to an increase in brittleness. Designers
have been forced to confne (i.e. provide transverse reinforcement) high
strength concrete with steel in order to prevent catastrophic failure,
especially under seismic loading. Obviously, a less brittle material would
make design more economical and safer. For concrete or high strength
concrete if only one parameter such as ,is considered, one observes that
the fracture toughness increases with increasing compressive strength as
shown in Figure 14. Such a one-parameter representation is misleading
since concrete in fact becomes more brittle as its compressive strength
increases. The importance of a two-parameter representation for high
strength concrete is shown in Figure 15 (25), where the critical crack
extension calculated using Equation 6 is plotted against compressive
strength. It is seen that the critical crack extension decreases with increasing
compressive strength. For an ideally brittle material, critical crack exten
sion is zero. Thus the two-parameter fracture model correctly simulates
the observed brittle response of high strength concrete.
8i/t-1eas/oa8teaqt/ofcoacete
Since the direct tension test is difcult to perform, the split-tension test
shown in Figure 16 is often used to measure tensile strength of concrete.
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316

SHAH & OUYANG

z6oo
zooo
:soo
:ooo
b
= Zb.4 DD g \ VPo = \<b ps
z
+ :a
cem;essive su--qta, f
:z
:+
(s:o
:
;s)
Figure 14 Relationship between the critical stress intensity factor and the compressive
strength.
The trend in strength change with size for a split-tension cylinder is shown
in Figure 17 (33, 34). The nominal strength decreases at frst, and then
increases before approaching a limit value for this type of specimen. Tang
et al found that this type of trend on the nominal strength of the cylinder
may be explained by the two-parameter fracture model. They applied 8
30r---
-

-----

v
: 20
f l
O C
oq 4
12 _ t
0 dimensions in inches
15
1 inh:25
.4mm
-
-
@
@
@

1 psi: 0.0069
10
2 4 6 10 12
Compressive stregth. f,(X10
3
psi)
Figure 1J Derease of prepeak nonlinearity (extent of prepeak crack growth) with increasing
compressive strength.
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FRACTUE MECHANICS FOR CNCRETE 317
Figure 10 A split-tension test for mea
suring tensile strength of concrete.
fnite element analysis to the cylinder, and Equation was used as criterion
for failure of the cylinder. Since the actual load on the cylinder is distributed
on a certain width as shown in Figure 16, analyses were performed for
the cylinder subjected to a concentrated load and a distributed load,
respectively. The obtained nominal strength for the cylinder subjected to
the distributed load with the 11 mm load distribution width (I " 6 mm) is
compared with that for the concentrated load in Figure 1. It is seen that
the predicted critical nominal stress for the distributed load shows the
same trend with the experimental data given in Figure 18. The results
obtained here suggest that the load distribution width is an important
parameter for the split-tension cylinder used to evaluate the tensile strength
of a concrete. Idealizing the actual distributed load as the concentrated
load in many previous studies may result in a misinterpretation of the
experimental results.
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318 SHAH & OUYANG
P

M MMMMM 1LoD CID0ot

DL oL m., 1001)

p#

7
M
#
M

W
D
W
6
M #

W
m
W
5-
G
<
W
W
W
W
W
I00 z00 800 400 500 600
0imeIer 0 UylInder [n)
Figure 17 Measured size-dependence of split-tension strength of concrete.
SUMMARY
A series of studies on application fracture mechanics to predict failure of
concrete have been summarized in this chapter. Topics discussed include
ntcrnuIatructuvcofconcrctc,rcIutionahpbctwccncruckpropugutionund
mechanical response ofconcrete, strain localization, principles oflinear
elastic fracture mechanics, fracture processes and toughening mechanisms
in concrete, nonlinear fracture mechanics models used to describe failure
of concrete, and determination of material fracture parameters of concrete.
Although intensive studies on fracture of concrete have been conducted
during the past two decades, many fundamental aspects on fracture process
in concrete still remain unclear because of heterogeneity of concrete
materials. Further progress in this feld may primarily depend on broad
cooperation and development of new experimental techniques.
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FRACTURE MECHANICS FOR CONCRETE 1V
b
H

b
O
V

-
v
4
W
m
w
+
U

'E
V

o
o

C
Z
2

0
& DNL, 0=0
C NU 8e=0

H Dmb T ,
a=2.5mm + CU a =2.5 H
'C
L
V
Db L,
a=6mm O
CL amm

.
4 TZ T Z Z4 Z
Cylinder Radius (mm)
Figure 1 Predicted size-dependence of spliHension strength of concrete.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Support of National Science Foundation Center for Science and Tech
nology of Advanced Cement-Based Materials (ACBM) is gratefully
appreciated.
Any HnnualRcvicchapter, as wen B any article cited in an HnnuulRcvicchapter,
may bpurchased from Annual Reviews Preprints and Reprints service.
1-800-347-8007; 415-259-5017; email: arpr@class.org
Literature Cited
1. Shah SP, Swartz SE, eds. 1989. Fracture
0/ Concrete and Rock, New York:
Springer-Verlag. 447 pp.
2. Shah SP, ed. 1991. Toughening Mech
anisms in Quasi-Brittle Materials, Dor
drecht: Kluwer. 714 pp.
3. Mehta PK, Monteiro PJM. 1993. In
Concrete, Structure, Properties, and
Materials, pp. 36-41. Englewood Clifs,
NJ: Prentice-Hall. 2nd ed.
4. Gopalaratnam VS, Shah SP. 1985. J.
Am. Conc. J. 82: 310-23
5. Li Z, Kulkarni SM, Shah SP. 1993. Exp.
Meeh. 33: 181-88
6. Tada H, Paris PC, Irwin GR. 1985. The
Stress Analysis 0/ Cracks Handbook. St.
Louis, MO: 2nd Paris Prod.
7. Shah SP, Ouyang C. 1992. In Materials
Science o/Concrete, ed. J Scalny, 3: 243-
70. Westerville, OH: Am. Ceram. Soc.
8. Kachanov M. 1985. In Fracture Tough
ness and Fracture Energy o/Concrete, ed.
FH Wittmann, pp. 3-10. Amsterdam:
Elsevier
9. Faber KT, Evans AG. 1983. Acta
Metall. 31: 565-76
10. van Mier JGM. 1991. Cement Conc. Res.
21: 1-15
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320 SHAH & OUYANG
11. Mindess S. 1991. In Rou.qhening M ech
an isms in Quasi-Brittle Materials, ed. SP
Shah, pp. 271-96. Dordrecht: Kluwer
12. Thouless MD. 1988. J. Am. Ceram. Soc.
71: 408-13
13. Castro-Montero A, Shah SP, Miller K.
1990. J. Eng. Mech. 116: 2463-
84
14. Sakai M, Yoshimura JI, Goto Y,
Inagaki M. 1988. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 71:
609-16
15. Homeny J, Vaughn WL. 1990. J. Am.
Ceram. Soc. 72: 2060-62
16. Swartz SE, Go CG. 1984. Exp. Mech.
24: 129-34
17. Landis E, Shah SP. 1993. J. Non
destructive Eval. In press
18. Kaplan ME. 1961. J. Am. Conc. 58:
591-610
19. Shah SP, McGarry Fl. 1971. J. Eng.
Mech. Div. ASCE 97: 1663-76
20. Jenq YS, Shah SP. 1985. Eng. Fraet.
Mech. 21: 1055-69
21. Hillerborg A, Modeer M, Petersson PE.
1976. Cement Cone. Res. 6: 773-
82
22. Bazant ZP. lVB4. J. Eng. Meeh. ASCE
110: 518-35
23. Jenq YS, Shah SP. 1985. J. Eng. Mech.
Il l: 1227-1
24. Bazant /F, Kazemi MT. 1990. Int. J.
Fraet.44: 111-31
25. Karihaloo BL, Nallathambi P. 1986.
Mag. Cone. Res. 38: 67-76
26. Lange DA, Jennings HM, Shah SP.
1993. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 76: 589-97
27. RILEM Committee on Fracture Meh
anics of Concrete-Test Methods. 1990.
Mater. Struct. 23: 457-60
28. Karihaloo BL, Nallathambi P. 1991. In
Fracture Mechanics Test Methods for
Concrete, ed. SP Shah, A Carpinteri, pp.
1-86. London: Chapman & Hall
29. Ouyang C, Shah SP. 1991. J. Am.
Ceram. Soc. 74: 2831-36
30. Tang T, Shah SP, Ouyang C. 1992. J.
Struct. Eng. 1I8: 3169-85
31. Bazant ZP, Pfeifer PA. 1987. ACI
Mater. J. 84:463-80
32. Carrasquillo RL, Slate FO, Nilson AH.
1981. J. Am. Conc. I 78: 179-86
33. Hasegawa T, Shioy T, Okada . 1985.
Proc. Jpn. Conc. Inst., 7th Can! pp. 309-
12. Jpn. Cone. Inst.
J4. Bazant ZP, Kazemi MT, Hasegawa T,
Mazars J. 1991. ACI Mater. J. 88: 325-32
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Annual Review of Materials Science
Volume 24, 1994
CONTENTS
MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING, AN EDUCATIONAL
DISCIPLINE, Morris E. Fine and Harris L. Marcus
C CARBON-CARBON COMPOSITES, J. E. Sheehan, K. W Buesking,
and B. J. Sullivan
19
THE PROBLEM OF DOPING IN II-VI SEMICONDUCTORS, D. J. Chadi 45
C POLYMER COMPOSITES, F J. McGarry 63
C WHISKER TOUGHENING OF CERAMICS: Toughening Mechanisms,
Fabrication and Composite Properties, Murat Bengisu and
Osman T. Inal
83
ION IMPLANTATION OF OPTICAL MATERIALS, Ch. Buchal,
S. P. Withrow, C. W. White, and D. B. Poker 125
ELECTRODEPOSITED MULTILAYER THIN FILMS, C. A. Ross 159
C TECHNOLOGY OF SELF-REINFORCED SILICON NITRIDE, A. J. Pyzik
and D. F. Carroll 189
SURFACE AND INTERFACE STRESSES, Robert C. Cammarata and
Karl Sieradzki
215
CARBON NANOTUBES, Thomas W. Ebbesen 235
NEUTRON-DIFFRACTION DETERMINATION OF RESIDUAL STRESSES
IN ADVANCED COMPOSITES, D. S. Kupperman 265
C FRACTURE MECHANICS FOR FAILURE OF CONCRETE, S. P. Shah
and C. Ouyang 293
C PLASTIC FLOW IN SIC/ AL COMPOSITES-STRENGTHNING AND
DUCTILITY, N. Shi and R. J. Arsenault 321
C PROGRESS IN TRANSFORMATION TOUGHENING OF CERAMICS,
M. V Swain and R. H. J. Hannink 359
C ORDERED INTERMETALLICS, E. P. George, M. Yamaguchi,
K. S. Kumar, and C. T. Liu 409
STRONGLY GEOMETRICALLY FRUSTRATED MAGNETS,
A. P. Ramirez 453
PLASTIC AND ELASTIC PROPERTIES OF COMPOSITIONALLY
MODULATED THIN FILMS, Scott A. Barnett and
M eenam Shinn 481
(continued) VB
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