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Nuclear power in India - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Nuclear power in India

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Nuclear power is the fourth-largest source of electricity in India after thermal, hydroelectric and renewable sources of electricity.[1] As of 2012, India has 20 nuclear reactors in operation in six nuclear power plants,having an installed capacity of 5780 MW[2][3] and producing a total of 29,664.75 GWh of electricity[4] while seven other reactors are under construction and are expected to generate an additional 6,100 MW.

New Delhi

Narora

Rajasthan Kakrapar

Tarapur In October 2010, India drew up "an ambitious plan to BARC reach a nuclear power capacity of 63,000 MW in Jaitapur 2032",[5] but, after the 2011 Fukushima nuclear disaster in Japan, "populations around proposed Indian NPP Kaiga Kalpakkam sites have launched protests, raising questions about atomic energy as a clean and safe alternative to fossil Koodankulam fuels".[6] There have been mass protests against the French-backed 9900 MW Jaitapur Nuclear Power Project in Maharashtra and the Russian-backed 2000 Atomic Power Stations in India (view) MW Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant in Tamil Nadu. Active plants The state government of West Bengal state has also Plants under construction refused permission to a proposed 6000 MW facility near the town of Haripur that intended to host six Russian reactors.[6] A Public Interest Litigation (PIL) has also been filed against the governments civil nuclear programme at the Supreme Court.[6][7]

Despite this opposition, the capacity factor of Indian reactors was at 79% in the year 2011-12 compared to 71% in 2010-11. Nine out of twenty Indian reactors recorded an unprecedented 97% Capacity factor during 2011-12. With the imported uranium from France, the 220 MW Kakrapar 2 PHWR reactors recorded 99% capacity factor during 2011-12. The Availability factor for the year 2011-12 was at 89%. India has been making advances in the field of thorium-based fuels, working to design and develop a prototype for an atomic reactor using thorium and low-enriched uranium, a key part of India's three stage nuclear power programme.[8] The country has also recently re-initiated its involvement in the LENR research activities,[9] in addition to supporting work done in the fusion power area through the ITER initiative.

Contents
1 History 2 Nuclear fuel reserves 3 Nuclear agreements with other nations 4 Nuclear power growth in India 5 Nuclear power plants 6 Anti-nuclear protests
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7 See also 8 References

History
India's first research nuclear reactor and its first nuclear power plant were built with assistance from Canada.[10][11] The 40 MW research reactor agreement was signed in 1956, and CIRUS achieved first criticality in 1960. This reactor was supplied to India on the assurance that it would not be used for military purposes, but without effective safeguards against such use.[10][11] The agreement for India's first nuclear power plant at Rajasthan, RAPP-1, was signed in 1963, followed by RAPP-2 in 1966. These reactors contained rigid safeguards to ensure they would not be used for a military programme. The 200 MWe RAPP-1 reactor was based on the CANDU reactor at Douglas Point and began operation in 1972. Due to technical problems the reactor had to be downrated from 200 MW to 100 MW.[citation needed ] The technical and design information were given free of charge by AECL to India.[citation needed ] The United States and Canada terminated their assistance after the detonation of India's first nuclear explosion in 1974.

Nuclear fuel reserves

India's domestic uranium reserves are small and the country is dependent on uranium imports to fuel its nuclear power industry. Since early 1990s, Russia has been a major supplier of nuclear fuel to India.[12] Due to dwindling domestic uranium reserves,[13] electricity generation from nuclear power in India declined by 12.83% from 2006 to 2008.[14] Following a waiver from the Nuclear Suppliers Group in September 2008 which allowed it to commence international nuclear trade,[15] India has signed bilateral deals on civilian nuclear energy technology cooperation with several other countries, including France,[16] the United States,[17] the United Kingdom,[18] Canada.[19] and South Korea.[20] India has also uranium supply agreements with Russia,[21][22] Mongolia,[23] Kazakhstan,[24] Argentina[25] and Namibia.[26] An Indian private company won a uranium exploration contract in Niger.[27] Large deposits of natural uranium, which promises to be one of the top 20 of the world's reserves, have been found in the Tummalapalle belt in the southern part of the Kadapa basin in Andhra Pradesh in March 2011. The Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration and Research (AMD) of India, which explores uranium in the country, has so far discovered 49,000 tonnes of natural uranium (U3O8) in just 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) of the 160 kilometres (99 mi) long belt and there are indications that the total quantity could be three times that amount.[28][29][30]

Nuclear agreements with other nations

The nuclear agreement with USA led to India issuing a Letter of Intent for purchasing 10,000 MW from the USA. However, liability concerns and a few other issues are preventing further progress on the issue. Experts say that India's nuclear liability law discourages foreign nuclear companies. This law gives accident victims the right to seek damages from plant suppliers in the event of a mishap. It has "deterred foreign players like General Electric and Westinghouse Electric, a US-based unit of Toshiba, with companies asking for further clarification on compensation liability for private operators".[31] Russia has an ongoing agreement of 1988 vintage with India regarding establishing of two VVER 1000 MW reactors (water-cooled water-moderated light water power reactors) at Koodankulam in Tamil Nadu.[32] A 2008 agreement caters for provision of an additional four third generation VVER-1200 reactors of capacity
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1170 MW each.[33] Russia has assisted in Indias efforts to design a nuclear plant for its nuclear submarine.[34] In 2009, the Russians stated that Russia would not agree to curbs on export of sensitive technology to India. A new accord signed in Dec 2009 with Russia gives India freedom to proceed with the closed fuel cycle, which includes mining, preparation of the fuel for use in reactors, and reprocessing of spent fuel.[35][36] After the Nuclear Suppliers Group agreed to allow nuclear exports to India, France was the first country to sign a civilian nuclear agreement with India, on 30 September 2008.[37] During the December 2010 visit of the French President Nicholas Sarkozy to India, framework agreements were signed for the setting up two thirdgeneration EPR reactors of 1650 MW each at Jaitapur, Maharashtra by the French company Areva. The deal caters for the first set of two of six planned reactors and the supply of nuclear fuel for 25 years.[38] The contract and pricing is yet to be finalised. Construction is unlikely to start before 2014 because of regulatory issues and difficulty in sourcing major components from Japan due to India not being a signatory to the Nuclear NonProliferation Treaty.[39] India and Mongolia signed a crucial civil nuclear agreement on 15 June 2009 for supply of Uranium to India, during Prime Minister Manmohan Singh's visit to Mongolia making it the fifth nation in the world to seal a civil nuclear pact with India. The MoU on development of cooperation in the field of peaceful uses of radioactive minerals and nuclear energy was signed by senior officials in the department of atomic energy of the two countries.[40] On 2 September 2009, India and Namibia signed five agreements, including one on civil nuclear energy which allows for supply of uranium from the African country. This was signed during President Hifikepunye Pohamba's five-day visit to India in May 2009. Namibia is the fifth largest producer of uranium in the world. The IndoNamibian agreement in peaceful uses of nuclear energy allows for supply of uranium and setting up of nuclear reactors.[41] On 14 October 2009, India and Argentina signed an agreement in New Delhi on civil nuclear cooperation and nine other pacts to establish strategic partnership. According to official sources, the agreement was signed by Vivek Katju, Secretary in the Ministry of External Affairs and Argentine foreign minister Jorge Talana. Taking into consideration their respective capabilities and experience in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy, both India and Argentina have agreed to encourage and support scientific, technical and commercial cooperation for mutual benefit in this field.[42][43] The Prime Ministers of India and Canada signed a civil nuclear cooperation agreement in Toronto on 28 June 2010 which when all steps are taken, will provide access for Canada's nuclear industry to India's expanding nuclear market and also fuel for India's reactors. Canada is one of the world's largest exporters of uranium[44] and Canada's heavy water nuclear technology is marketed abroad with CANDU-type units operating in India, Pakistan, Argentina, South Korea, Romania and China. On 6 November 2012, India and Canada finalised their 2010 nuclear export agreement, opening the way for Canada to begin uranium exports to India.[45] On 16 April 2011, India and Kazakhstan signed an inter-governmental agreement for Cooperation in Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy, that envisages a legal framework for supply of fuel, construction and operation of atomic power plants, exploration and joint mining of uranium, exchange of scientific and research information, reactor safety mechanisms and use of radiation technologies for healthcare. PM Manmohan Singh visited Astana where a deal was signed. After the talks, the Kazakh President Nazarbaev announced that his country would supply India with 2100 tonnes of uranium and was ready to do more. India and Kazakhstan already have civil nuclear cooperation since January 2009 when Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited (NPCIL) and Kazakh nuclear company KazAtomProm signed an MoU during the visit of Nazarbaev to Delhi. Under the contract, KazAtomProm supplies uranium which is used by Indian reactors.[46][47]

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South Korea became the latest country to sign a nuclear agreement with India after it got the waiver from the Nuclear Suppliers' Group (NSG) in 2008. On 25 July 2011 India and South Korea signed a nuclear agreement, which will allow South Korea with a legal foundation to participate in Indias nuclear expansion programme, and to bid for constructing nuclear power plants in India.[48]

Nuclear power growth in India

India now envisages to increase the contribution of nuclear power to overall electricity generation capacity from 2.8% to 9% within 25 years.[49] By 2020, India's installed nuclear power generation capacity will increase to 20,000 MW ( 2.0 1010 Watts, which is 20 GW).[50] As of 2009, India stands 9th in the world in terms of number of operational nuclear power reactors. Indigenous atomic reactors include TAPS-3, and -4, both of which are 540 MW reactors.[51] India's US$717 million fast breeder reactor project is expected to be operational by 2012-13.[52] The Indian nuclear power industry is expected to undergo a significant expansion in the coming years, in part due to the passing of the U.S.-India Civil Nuclear Agreement. This agreement will allow India to carry out trade of nuclear fuel and technologies with other countries and significantly enhance its power generation capacity.[53] When the agreement goes through, India is expected to generate an additional 25,000 MW of nuclear power by 2020, bringing total estimated nuclear power generation to 45,000 MW.[54] India has already been using imported enriched uranium for light-water reactors that are currently under IAEA safeguards, but it has developed other aspects of the nuclear fuel cycle to support its reactors. Development of select technologies has been strongly affected by limited imports. Use of heavy water reactors has been particularly attractive for the nation because it allows Uranium to be burnt with little to no enrichment capabilities. India has also done a great amount of work in the development of a thorium centred fuel cycle. While uranium deposits in the nation are limited there are much greater reserves of thorium and it could provide hundreds of times the energy with the same mass of fuel. The fact that thorium can theoretically be utilised in heavy water reactors has tied the development of the two. A prototype reactor that would burn UraniumPlutonium fuel while irradiating a thorium blanket is under construction at Kalpakkam by BHAVINI - another public sector enterprise like NPCIL Uranium used for the weapons programme has been separated from the power programme, using uranium from indigenous reserves. This domestic reserve of 80,000 to 112,000 tons of uranium (approx 1% of global uranium reserves) is large enough to supply all of India's commercial and military reactors as well as supply all the needs of India's nuclear weapons arsenal. Currently, India's nuclear power reactors consume, at most, 478 tonnes of uranium per year.[55] Even if India were quadruple its nuclear power output (and reactor base) to 20 GW by 2020, nuclear power generation would only consume 2000 tonnes of uranium per annum. Based on India's known commercially viable reserves of 80,000 to 112,000 tons of uranium, this represents a 4050 years uranium supply for India's nuclear power reactors (note with reprocessing and breeder reactor technology, this supply could be stretched out many times over). Furthermore, the uranium requirements of India's Nuclear Arsenal are only a fifteenth (1/15) of that required for power generation (approx. 32 tonnes), meaning that India's domestic fissile material supply is more than enough to meet all needs for it strategic nuclear arsenal. Therefore, India has sufficient uranium resources to meet its strategic and power requirements for the foreseeable future.[55] Indian President A.P.J.Abdul Kalam, stated while he was in office, that "energy independence is India's first and highest priority. India has to go for nuclear power generation in a big way using thorium-based reactors. Thorium, a non fissile material is available in abundance in our country."[56] India has vast thorium reserves and quite limited uranium reserves.[57][58]
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Nuclear power plants

Currently, twenty nuclear power reactors produce 4,780.00 MW (2.9% of total installed base).[59][60] Power station Operator Kaiga Kakrapar Kalpakkam Narora Rawatbhata Tarapur Kudankulam NPCIL NPCIL NPCIL NPCIL NPCIL NPCIL NPCIL State Karnataka Gujarat Tamil Nadu Uttar Pradesh Type PHWR PHWR PHWR PHWR Units Total capacity (MW)

220 x 4 880 220 x 2 440 220 x 2 440 220 x 2 440 100 x 1 200 x 1 1180 220 x 4 160 x 2 1400 540 x 2 1000 x 1 1000[61] 21 5780

Kota Rajasthan PHWR Maharashtra Tamil Nadu BWR (PHWR) VVER-1000 Total

The projects under construction are:[62] Power station Operator Kalpakkam Kakrapar Rawatbhata Kudankulam Bhavini NPCIL NPCIL NPCIL State Gujarat Rajasthan Type PHWR PHWR Total The planned projects are:[63][64] Units Total capacity (MW)

Tamil Nadu PFBR

500 x 1 500 700 x 2 1400 700 x 2 1400 6 4300

Tamil Nadu VVER-1000 1000 x 1 1000

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Power station Chutka Mahi Banswara Kaiga Kalpakkam Site to be decided Kudankulam Jaitapur Kovvada Mithi Virdi (Viradi)

Operator NPCIL NPCIL NPCIL NPCIL

State Haryana Rajasthan Karnataka Tamil Nadu Tamil Nadu Maharashtra Gujarat

Type PHWR PHWR PHWR FBR AHWR EPR AP1000 Total

Units

Total capacity (MW)

Fatehabad district NPCIL

700 x 4 2,800[65] 700 x 2 1,400 700 x 2 1,400 700 x 2 1,400 500 x 2 1,000 300 x 1 300 1650 x 2 3300 1594 x 6 9564[66] 1100 x 6 6600[67] 27 28364

Madhya Pradesh PHWR

VVER-1000 1000 x 2 2000

Andhra Pradesh ESBWR

Some sites may be abandoned if not found technically feasible or due to strategic, geopolitical, international and domestic issues. The details of the nuclear power generation capacity in the country are given below :[68] Year Total Nuclear electricity generation Capacity Factor 50 61 71 79 80

2008-09 14921 Million Units 2009-10 18798 Million Units 2010-11 26472 Million Units 2011-12 32455 Million Units 2012-13 32863 Million Units

Anti-nuclear protests
Following the March 2011 Fukushima nuclear disaster in Japan, populations around proposed Indian NPP sites have launched protests that had found resonance around the country.[6] There have been mass protests against the French-backed 9900 MW Jaitapur Nuclear Power Project in Maharashtra and the 2000 MW Koodankulam Nuclear Power Plant in Tamil Nadu. The Government of West Bengal refused permission to a proposed 6000 MW facility near the town of Haripur that intended to host 6 Russian reactors.[6][69] But that now is disputed: it's possible for Bengal to have its first nuclear power plant at Haripur despite resistance.[70] A Public-interest litigation (PIL) has also been filed against the governments civil nuclear programme at the Supreme Court. The PIL specifically asks for the "staying of all proposed nuclear power plants till satisfactory safety measures and cost-benefit analyses are completed by independent agencies".[6][7] But the Supreme Court said it was not an expert in the nuclear field to issue a direction to the government on the nuclear liability issue.[71]

See also
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Economics of new nuclear power plants Energy policy of India Electricity sector in India List of Nuclear Power Stations in India

References
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