Jos de San Martn

Jos de San Martn

General Don

Jos de San Martn

Protector of Peru In office 28 July 1821 20 September 1822 Succeeded by Francisco Xavier de Luna Pizarro Founder of the Freedom of Peru, Founder of the Republic, Protector of Peru, and Generalissimo of Armas (ad honorem) In office 20 September 1822 17 August 1850 (death) Governor of Cuyo In office 10 August 1814 24 September 1816 Preceded by Succeeded by Marcos Gonzlez de Balcarce Toribio de Luzuriaga Personal details Born 25 February 1778 Yapey, Corrientes, Viceroyalty of the Ro de la Plata (now Argentina) 17 August 1850 (aged72) Boulogne-sur-Mer, France Argentina Patriot Mara de los Remedios de Escalada y la Quintana Mara de las Mercedes Tomasa de San Martn y Escalada Military Roman Catholicism

Died

Nationality Political party Spouse(s) Children Profession Religion Signature

Military service Allegiance Spain (until 1812) United Provinces of the Ro de la Plata (modern Argentina) Patria Nueva (modern Chile) Protectorate of Peru (modern Peru)

Jos de San Martn

2
17891822 General of Argentina, Commander-in-Chief of the armies of Chile and Peru Regiment of Mounted Grenadiers, Army of the North, Army of the Andes, Chilean Army Spanish American wars of independence

Years of service Rank Commands Battles/wars

Jos Francisco de San Martn (25 February 1778 17 August 1850), known simply as Jos de San Martn (Spanish pronunciation:[xose e san martin]), was an Argentine general and the prime leader of the southern part of South America's successful struggle for independence from the Spanish Empire. Born in Yapey, Corrientes, in modern Argentina, he left his mother country at the early age of seven to study in Mlaga, Spain. In 1808, after taking part in the Peninsular War against France, San Martn contacted South American supporters of independence from Spain. In 1812, he set sail for Buenos Aires and offered his services to the United Provinces of the Ro de la Plata, present-day Argentina. After the Battle of San Lorenzo and time commanding the Army of the North during 1814, he organized a plan to defeat the Spanish forces that menaced the United Provinces from the north, using an alternative path to the Viceroyalty of Peru. This objective first involved the establishment of a new army, the Army of the Andes, in Cuyo Province, Argentina. From there, he led the Crossing of the Andes to Chile, and triumphed at the Battle of Chacabuco and the Battle of Maip (1818), thus liberating Chile from royalist rule. Then he sailed to attack the Spanish stronghold of Lima, Peru. On 12 July 1821, after seizing partial control of Lima, San Martn was appointed Protector of Peru, and Peruvian independence was officially declared on 28 July. On 22 July 1822, after a closed-door meeting with fellow libertador Simn Bolvar at Guayaquil, Ecuador, Bolvar took over the task of fully liberating Peru. San Martn unexpectedly left the country and resigned the command of his army, excluding himself from politics and the military, and moved to France in 1824. The details of the 22 July meeting would be a subject of debate by later historians. San Martn is regarded as a national hero of Argentina and Peru, and, together with Bolvar, one of the liberators of Spanish South America. The Order of the Liberator General San Martn (Orden del Libertador General San Martn), created in his honor, is the highest decoration conferred by the Argentine government.

Early life
Jos de San Martn was the fifth and last son of Juan de San Martn, an unsuccessful Spanish soldier, and Gregoria Matorras del Ser. He was born in Yapey, Corrientes, an Indian reduction of Guaran people.[1] The exact year of his birth is disputed, as there are no records of his baptism. Later documents formulated during his life, such as passports, military career records and wedding documentation, gave him varying ages. Most of these documents point to his year of birth as either 1777 or 1778.[2] The family moved to Buenos Aires in 1781, when San Martn was three or four years old. Juan requested to be transferred to Spain, leaving the Americas in 1783. The family settled in Madrid, but as Juan was unable to earn a promotion, they moved to Mlaga. Once in the city, San Martn enrolled in Mlaga's school of temporalities, beginning his studies in 1785.[3] It is unlikely that he finished the six-year long elementary education, before he enrolled in the Regiment of Murcia in 1789, when he reached the required age of 11. He began his military career as a cadet in the Murcian Infantry Unit.[4]

Jos de San Martn

Military career in Europe

San Martn took part in several Spanish campaigns in Africa, fighting in Melilla and in Oran against the Moors in 1791, among others.[5] His rank was raised to Sub-Lieutenant in 1793. He began a naval career during the War of the Second Coalition, when Spain was allied with France against Great Britain, during the time of the French Revolution. His ship "Santa Dorotea" was captured by British forces, who kept him prisoner for some time. Soon afterward, he continued to fight in southern Spain, mainly in Cadiz and Gibraltar with the rank of Second Captain of light infantry. He continued to fight Portugal on the side of Spain in the War of the Oranges in 1801. He was promoted to captain in 1804.[6] During his stay in Cdiz he was influenced by the ideas of the Spanish Enlightenment.[7]

The Battle of Bailn was one of the most important battles fought by Jos de San Martn at the Peninsular War.

At the outbreak of the Peninsular War in 1808, San Martn was named adjutant of Francisco Mara Solano Ortiz de Rosas. Rosas, suspected of being an afrancesado, was killed by a popular uprising which overran the barracks and dragged his corpse in the streets. San Martn was appointed to the armies of Andaluca, and led a battalion of volunteers. In June 1808 his unit is incorporated into a guerrilla force led by Juan de la Cruz Mourgen. He was nearly killed during the battle of Arjonilla, but was saved by Sergeant Juan de Dios. On 19 July 1808, Spanish and French forces engaged in the battle of Bailn, a Spanish victory that allowed the Army of Andalusia to attack and seize Madrid. For his actions during this battle, San Martn was awarded a gold medal, and his rank raised to lieutenant colonel. On 16 May 1811, he fought in the battle of Albuera under the command of general William Carr Beresford. By this time, the French armies held most of the Iberian Peninsula under their control, except for Cdiz.[8] San Martn resigned from the Spanish army, for controversial reasons, and moved to South America, where he joined the Spanish American wars of independence. Historians propose several explanations for this action: the common ones are that he missed his native country, that he was a British agent and the congruence of the goals of both wars. The first explanation suggests that when the wars of independence began San Martn thought that his duty was to return to his country and serve in the military conflict. The second explanation suggests that Britain, Arrival of San Martn and Carlos Mara de Alvear which would benefit from the independence of the South American to Buenos Aires, aboard the frigate "George countries, sent San Martn to achieve it. The third suggests that both Canning". wars were caused by the conflicts between Enlightenment ideas and absolutism, so San Martn still waged the same war; the wars in the Americas only developed separatist goals after the Spanish Absolutist Restoration.[9] San Martn was initiated in the Lodge of Rational Knights in 1811. They met at the house of Carlos Mara de Alvear, other members were Jos Miguel Carrera, Aldao, Blanco Encalada and other criollos, American-born Spaniards. They agreed to return to their home countries and join the local revolutionary movements. San Martn asked for his retirement from the military, and moved to Britain. He stayed in the country for a short time, and met many other South Americans at a lodge held in a house at 28 Grafton Street. Then he sailed to Buenos Aires aboard the frigate George Canning, along with the South Americans Alvear, Francisco Jos de Vera and Matas Zapiola, and the Spaniards Francisco Chilavert and Eduardo Kailitz. They arrived on March 9, 1812, to serve under the First

Jos de San Martn Triumvirate.[10]

South America
Argentina
A few days after his arrival, San Martn was interviewed by the First Triumvirate. They appointed him as lieutenant colonel of cavalry, and requested the creation of a cavalry unit, as Buenos Aires did not have a good cavalry. He began to organize the Regiment of mounted grenadiers with Alvear and Zapiola. As Buenos Aires was lacking professional military leaders, San Martn was trusted with the protection of the whole city, but kept focused in the task of building the military unit.[11] San Martn, Alvear and Zapiola established a local branch of the Lodge of Rational Knights, along with morenists, the former supporters of the late Mariano Moreno. This lodge sought to promote the liberal ideas; the high secrecy does not allow to clarify if it was a real Masonic lodge or just a lodge with political goals. It had no ties to the Premier Grand Lodge of England. San Martn married Mara de los Remedios de Escalada, a 14 year-old girl from one of the local wealthy families.[12] The lodge organized the Revolution of October 8, 1812 when the terms of office of the triumvirs Manuel de Sarratea and Feliciano Chiclana ended. Juan Martn de Pueyrredn promoted antimorenist new members, Manuel Obligado and Pedro Medrano, by preventing the vote of three deputies and thus achieving a majority. As this caused a commotion, San Martn and Alvear intervened with their military force, and the Buenos Aires Cabildo disestablished the triumvirate. It was replaced by the Second Triumvirate, with the triumvirs Juan Jos Paso, Nicols Rodrguez Pea and Antonio lvarez Jonte.[13] The new triumvirate called the Assembly of the Year XIII and promoted San Martn to colonel.[14] San Lorenzo Montevideo, on the other shore of the Ro de la Plata, was still a royalist stronghold. Jos Rondeau laid siege to it, but the Montevidean navy eluded it by pillaging nearby cities. San Martn was sent with the new Regiment to watch the activities in the Paran River shore.[15][16] The Regiment followed the navy from a distance, avoiding detection. They hid in the San Carlos Convent, in San Lorenzo, Santa Fe. San Martn watched the enemy ships from the top of the convent during the night. The royalists disembarked at dawn, ready to pillage and the regiment charged into battle. San Martn employed a pincer movement to trap the royalists. He led one column and Justo Bermdez the other.[15][17]

Jos de San Martn, trapped under his dead horse during the battle of San Lorenzo, is saved by Juan Bautista Cabral.

San Martn's horse was killed during the battle, and his leg was trapped under the corpse of the animal after the fall. A royalist, probably Zabala himself,[18][19] attempted to kill San Martn while he was trapped under his dead horse where he suffered a saber injury to his face, and a bullet wound to his arm. Juan Bautista Cabral and Juan Bautista Baigorria intervened and saved San Martn's life. Cabral was mortally wounded during the rescue, and died shortly afterwards.[18] The battle did not have a notable influence on the war and did not prevent further pillages. Montevideo was finally subdued by William Brown during the Second Banda Oriental campaign.[19] Antonio Zabala, the leader of the Montevidean army, served under San Martn during the crossing of the Andes years later.[20]

Jos de San Martn Army of the North Once again in Buenos Aires, San Martn and his wife attended to the first official performance of the Argentine National Anthem, on May 28, 1813 at the Coliseo Theater. Oral tradition has it that the premiere took place on May 14, 1813 at the home of aristocrat Mariquita Snchez de Thompson, with San Martn also attending, but there is no documentary evidence of that.[21] The lyrics of the new anthem included several references to the secessionist will of the time.[22] Although they were still allies, San Martn began to distance himself Meeting of Manuel Belgrano and Jos de San from Alvear, who controlled the Assembly and the lodge. Alvear Martn at the Yatasto relay. opposed the merchants and the Uruguayan caudillo Jos Gervasio Artigas, San Martn thought that it was risky to open such conflicts when the royalists were still a threat. The Army of the North, which was operating at the Upper Peru, was defeated at the battles of Vilcapugio and Ayohuma, so the triumvirate appointed San Martn to head it, replacing Manuel Belgrano.[23][24] San Martn and Belgrano met at the Yatasto relay. The army was in poor condition, and San Martn initially refused to remove Belgrano from the army, as it would hurt the soldiers' morale. However, the supreme director Gervasio Posadas (who replaced the triumvirate in government) insisted, and San Martn acted as instructed. San Martn stayed only a few weeks in Tucumn, reorganizing the army and studying the terrain. He also had a positive impression of the guerrilla war waged by Martn Miguel de Gemes against the royalists,[25] similar to the Peninsular War. It was a defensive war, and San Martn trusted that they could prevent a royalist advance in Jujuy.[26][27] San Martn had health problems in April 1814, probably caused by hematemesis. He temporarily delegated the command of the Army to colonel Francisco Fernndez de la Cruz and requested leave to recover. He moved to Santiago del Estero, and then to Crdoba where he slowly recovered. During this time King Ferdinand VII returned to the throne, began the absolutist restoration and began to organize an attack on the rogue colonies. After an interview with Toms Guido, San Martn came up with a plan: organize an army in Mendoza, cross the Andes to Chile, and move to Peru by sea; all while Gemes defended the north frontier. This would place him in Peru without crossing the harsh terrain of Upper Peru, where two campaigns had already been defeated. To advance this plan, he requested the governorship of the Cuyo province, which was accepted. He took office on September 6.[28][29] Governor of Cuyo The absolutist restoration in Spain and the growing influence of Artigas generated a political crisis in Buenos Aires, forcing Posadas to resign. Alvear became the new Supreme Director, but had to resign after three months. San Martn's plan was complicated as well by the Disaster of Rancagua, a royalist victory that restored absolutism in Chile, ending the Patria Vieja period. San Martn initially proposed a regular-sized army, simply to reinforce Chile, but changed to propose a Training of the Army of the Andes at camp Plumerillo. larger one, to liberate the country from the occupation.[30] Chileans Bernardo O'Higgins, Jos Miguel Carrera, Luis Carrera and Manuel Rodrguez, the leaders of the deposed Chilean rule, sought refugee in Cuyo, along with their armies. O'Higgins and Rodrguez were well received, but the Carrera brothers intended to act as a government in exile. They ignored the local laws of Cuyo, and their soldiers committed acts of vandalism. San Martn imprisoned them and sent them to

Jos de San Martn Buenos Aires. They proposed a plan to liberate Chile, different to the one outlined by San Martn, who rejected it as impractical. This initiated a rivalry between the Carrera and San Martn.[31][32] San Martn began immediately to organize the Army of the Andes. He drafted all the citizens who could bear arms and all the slaves from ages 16 to 30, requested reinforcements to Buenos Aires, and reorganized the economy for war production. He took another leave to restore his health four months after taking power, so Alvear appointed Gregorio Perdriel. This appointment was resisted by the Mendoza Cabildo, which ratified San Martn.[33][34] The government of San Martn repeated some of the ideas outlined in the Operations plan, drafted by Mariano Moreno at the beginning of the war. A combination of incentives, confiscations and planned economy allowed the country to provision the army: gunpowder, pieces of artillery, mules and horses, food, military clothing, etc. Mining increased, with increased extraction of lead, copper, saltpeter, sulfur and borax, which had several usages and improved local finances. Hundreds of women wove clothing used by the soldiers. Father Jos Luis Beltrn headed a military factory of 700 men, which produced rifles and horseshoes. San Martn stayed on good terms with both the government of Buenos Aires and the provincial caudillos, without fully allying with either one. He was able to receive provisions from both. He considered that the war of independence took priority over the civil wars.[35] The army was not ready as of the summer of 1815, delaying the crossing. Given the harsh conditions on the mountains, the crossing could only be done in the summer season, when there is less snow. Buenos Aires did not send more provisions after the ousting of Alvear. San Martn proposed to resign and serve under Balcarce, if they would support the campaign. San Martn and Guido wrote a report in the autumn of 1816, detailing to the Supreme Director Antonio Gonzlez de Balcarce the full military plan of operations.[36] San Martn proposed that the country declare independence immediately, before the crossing. That way, they would be acting as a sovereign nation, and not as a mere rebellion.[37] He had great influence over the Congress of Tucumn, a Congress with deputies from the provinces, which was established in March 1816. He opposed the appointment of Jos Moldes, a soldier from Salta who was against the policies of Buenos Aires, as he feared Moldes would break national unity. He rejected proposals to be appointed Supreme Director himself. He supported his friend and lodge member Juan Martn de Pueyrredn for the office. Pueyrredn resumed the military aid to Cuyo. The Congress of Tucumn declared independence on July 9, 1816.[38] Congress discussed the type of government of the United Provinces of the Ro de la Plata (modern Argentina). General Manuel Belgrano, who had made a diplomatic mission to Europe, informed them that independence would be more easily acknowledged by the European powers if the country established a monarchy. For this purpose, Belgrano proposed a plan to crown a noble of the Inca Empire as king (the Sapa Inca dynasty had been dethroned in the 16th century).[39] San Martn supported this proposal, as well as Gemes and most deputies, except for those from Buenos Aires, who undermined the project and prevented its approval.[40] Needing even more soldiers, San Martn extended the emancipation of slaves to the ages from 14 to 55, and even allowed them to be promoted to higher military ranks. He proposed a similar measure at the national level, but Pueyrredn encountered severe resistance. He included as well the Chileans who escaped Chile after the disaster of Rancagua, and organized them in four units, each one of infantry, cavalry, artillery and dragoons. At the end of 1816, the Army of the Andes had 5,000 men, 10,000 mules and 1,500 horses. San Martin organized military intelligence, propaganda and disinformation to confuse the royalist armies (such as the specific routes taken in the Andes), boost the national fervor of his army and promote desertion among the royalists.[41][42]

Jos de San Martn Crossing of the Andes Although the Congress of Tucumn had already formalized the flag of Argentina, the Army of the Andes did not use it, choosing a banner with two columns, light blue and white, and a coat of arms roughly similar to the Coat of arms of Argentina. The army did not use the flag of Argentina because it was not exclusively an Argentine army.[43] Contrary to the common understanding, the crossing of the Andes was not the first time that a military expedition crossed the mountain range. The difference from previous operations was the size of the army, and that it had to be ready for combat right after the crossing. The army was divided in six columns, each taking a different path. Colonel Francisco Zelada in La Rioja took the Come-Caballos pass towards Generals Jos de San Martn (left) and Bernardo Copiap. Juan Manuel Cabot, in San Juan, moved to Coquimbo. O'Higgins (right) during the crossing of the Ramn Freire and Jos Len Lemos led two columns in the south. The Andes. bulk of the armies left from Mendoza. San Martn, O'Higgins and Soler led a column across the Los Patos pass, and Juan Gregorio de Las Heras another one across the Uspallata Pass.[44][45] The whole operation took nearly a month. The armies took dried food for the soldiers and fodder for the horses, because of the inhospitable conditions. They also consumed garlics and onions, to prevent altitude sickness.[46] Only 4,300 mules and 511 horses survived, less than half the original complement.[47] Martn Rodrguez had returned to Chile before the crossing, and began a guerrilla war in Santiago de Chile against the royalists, in support of the upcoming army. He was supported in the south of the city and the countryside. The strategy was to occupy nearby villages, seize the royalists' weapons and flee. The attacks on Melipilla and San Fernando, and a failed one at Curic, demoralized the royalists.[48][49]

Chile
Battle of Chacabuco The columns that crossed the Andes began to take military actions. The column in the north led by Cabot defeated the royalists in Salala, seized Coquimbo and then Copiap. In the south, Freire captured Talca. Las Heras routed royalist outposts in Juncalito and Potrerillos.[50] Bernardo O'Higgins, who came from Los Patos pass, defeated the royalists at Las Coimas.[51] This allowed the main columns to gather at Aconcagua valley, meeting at the slopes of Chacabuco. Royalist commander Rafael Maroto converged his armies The Battle of Chacabuco between the Army of the Andes and Spanish forces in 1817. on that location as well. Maroto had 2,450 men and 5 pieces of artillery, San Martn had 3,600 men and 9 pieces of artillery. The misdirection that concealed the path of the bulk of the Army allowed San Martn this advantage, as other royalist forces were scattered in other regions of Chile.[52][53] The battle began on February 12. San Martn organized a pincer movement, with Soler leading the west column and O'Higgins the east one. O'Higgins, eager to avenge the defeat at Rancagua, rushed to the attack, instead of coordinating with Soler. This gave the royalists a brief advantage. San Martn instructed Soler to rush the attack as well. The combined attack was successful and San Martn's column secured the final victory. The battle ended with 600 royalists dead and 500 prisoners, with only 12 deaths and 120 injuries in the Army of the Andes.[54][55]

Jos de San Martn The army triumphantly entered Santiago de Chile the following day.[56] Governor Francisco Marc del Pont attempted to escape to Valparaso and sail to Peru, but he was captured on 22 February and returned to Santiago.[57] Several other officials were captured as well and sent as prisoners to San Luis, Argentina.[58] San Martn sent Marc del Pont prisoner to Mendoza.[59] Patria Nueva Three deputies from Coquimbo, Santiago and Concepcin organized a new government, and proposed San Martn as Supreme Director of Chile. He declined the offer and proposed O'Higgins in his stead: he recommended that the Supreme Director should be someone from Chile. San Martn would instead organize the navy to take the fight to Peru.[60] He established a local chapter of the lodge of Rational Knights, named as Logia Lautaro, in reference to mapuche leader Lautaro.[61] The victory in Chacabuco did not liberate all Chile. Royalist forces still resisted in southern Chile, allied with the mapuches. Las Heras occupied Concepcin,[62] but failed to occupy Talcahuano.[63] The royalist resistance lasted for several months,[64] and Talcahuano was only captured when most of the continent was already free.[65] San Martn left O'Higgins in charge of the Army, and returned to Bernardo O'Higgins, commander of the Army of Buenos Aires to request resources for the campaign to Peru. He did not the Andes along with San Martn, and Supreme have a good reception this time. Pueyrredn thought that Chile should Director of Chile after the victory at Chacabuco. compensate Buenos Aires for the money invested in their liberation, as the support to San Martn reduced the support to Belgrano, and the Portuguese-Brazilian invasion of the Eastern Bank menaced Buenos Aires. Incapable of financial support, Buenos Aires sent lawyer Manuel Aguirre to the United States, to request aid and acknowledge the declaration of independence. However, the mission failed, as the United States stayed neutral in the conflict because they negotiated the purchase of Florida with Spain. The Chilean Jos Miguel Carrera had obtained ships on his own after the disaster of Rancagua, which he intended to use to liberate Chile; but as San Martn had already done that, he refused to place his fleet under the Army of the Andes. Carrera was an enemy of O'Higgins and sought to navigate to Chile and depose him, so Pueyrredn imprisoned him, and confiscated his ships.[66] San Martn requested help from British Admiral William Bowles. He wrote from Chile and expected to find him in Buenos Aires, but Bowles had embarked for Ro de Janeiro. Bowles considered that San Martn was more trustworthy than Alvear, and praised his monarchism. San Martn did not obtain the ships and interrupted the correspondence with Bowles for some months. He returned to Chile; his wife Remedios stayed in Buenos Aires with her daughter Mercedes because of her health problems. Unable to get help from either Buenos Aires or foreign powers, San Martn promoted a more decisive commitment from Chile to finance the navy.[67]

Jos de San Martn Battle of Cancha Rayada The failure to liberate Talcahuano was followed by naval reinforcements from the North. The viceroy of Peru sent Mariano Osorio in an attempt to reconquer Chile. The royalists would then advance by land to the northern Chile. San Martn thought that it was not possible to defend Concepcin, so he ordered O'Higgins to leave the city. 50,000 Chileans took cattle and grain and moved north, burning everything else, so that they did not leave supplies for the royalists. As he had done with the Tucumn Congress, San Martn urged a declaration of independence, to legitimize the government and the military actions. The Chilean Declaration of Independence was issued on 18 February 1818, one year after the battle of Chacabuco.[68][69]

The Chilean Declaration of Independence took place on February 18, 1818, shortly before the battles of Cancha Rayada and Maip.

San Martn, Las Heras and Balcarce met in Curic, and the royalists in Talca, in a plain known as "Cancha rayada". As the patriots had a numeric advantage, 7,000 against 4,600, Osorio tried to avoid open battle, and tried instead a stealth operation. A spy informed San Martn that Osorio would make a surprise attack in the night, but the army could not be prepared in time. 1,000 soldiers fled, 120 died, and San Martn's assistant was killed. O'Higgins tried to resist with his unit, but retired when he was shot in the arm. Las Heras managed to retire his army in order, saving his 3,500 men. The patriots escaped to Santiago.[70][71] Despite the defeat, the soldiers were received as heroes in Santiago. Thanks to Las Heras, a potential disaster for the patriot armies turned into a minor setback.[72] The army was reorganized again, but the deaths, injuries and desertions caused by the defeat at Cancha Rayada reduced its size to 5,000 soldiers, which was closer to the royalist forces. They took position next to the Maipo River, near Santiago.[73] Battle of Maip San Martn made a brief reconnaissance of the royalist army, and noticed several flaws in their organization. Feeling secure of victory, he claimed that "Osorio is clumsier than I thought. Today's triumph is ours. The sun as witness!".[74] The battle began at 11:00 am. The patriot artillery on the right fired on the royalist infantry on the left. Manuel Escalada led mounted grenadiers to capture the royalist artillery, turning them against their owners. Burgos' regiment severely punished the patriot left wing, mainly composed of emancipated slaves, and took 400 lives. San Martn ordered the mounted grenadiers The "Embrace of Maip" between Jos de San led by Hilarin de la Quintana to charge against the regiment. The Martn and Bernardo O'Higgins, after the victory firing suddenly ended and royalists began to fight with sword bayonets, in the Battle of Maip. under the cries "Long live the king!" and "Long live the homeland!" respectively. Finally, the royalists ended their cries and began to disperse.[75][76] When the regiment of Burgos realized that their line was broken, they stopped resisting, and the soldiers began to disperse. The cavalry pursued and killed most of them. At the end of the battle, the royalists had been trapped among the units of Las Heras in the west, Alvarado in the middle, Quintana in the east and the cavalries of Zapiola and Freire. Osorio tried to fall back to the hacienda "Lo Espejo" but could not reach it, so he tried to escape to Talcahuano. Ordez made his last stand at that hacienda, where 500 royalists died.[77][78] The battle ended in the afternoon. O'Higgins, still injured by the wound received in Cancha Rayada, arrived during the final action at the hacienda. He claimed "Glory to the savior of Chile!", in reference to San Martn, who praised

Jos de San Martn him for going to the battlefield with his unhealed wound. They made an embrace on their horses, now known as the "Embrace of Maip".[77] The battle of Maip secured Chilean independence.[79] Except for Osorio, who escaped with 200 cavalry, all top royalist military leaders were captured. All their armed forces were either killed or captured, and all their artillery, weapons, military hospitals, money and resources were lost. The victory was praised by Gemes, Bolvar and the international press.[80] Fleet of the Pacific San Martn made a new request for ships to Bowles, but received no answer. He moved again to Buenos Aires, to make a similar request. He arrived to Mendoza a few days after the execution of the Chileans Luis and Juan Jos Carrera, brothers of Jos Miguel Carrera.[81] The specific initiative of those executions is controversial. Chilean historian Vicua Mackenna indicts San Martn, while J. C. Raffo de la Reta blames O'Higgins instead. Manuel Rodrguez was also imprisoned and then killed in prison; this death may have been decided by the Lautaro lodge. San Martn could not have taken part in it, as he was already on the way to Buenos Aires.[82]

10

San Martn before the Congress of Buenos Aires

San Martn was not well received in Buenos Aires. Pueyrredn initially declined to give further help, citing the conflicts with the federal caudillos and the organization of a huge royalist army in Cdiz that would try to reconquer the La Plata basin. He thought that Chile should organize the navy against Peru, not Buenos Aires. San Martn discussed with him and finally got financing of 500,000 pesos. He returned to Mendoza with his wife and daughter and received a letter from Pueyrredn, who said that Buenos Aires could only deliver one-third of the promised funds. This complicated the project, as neither Santiago de Chile nor Mendoza had the resources needed. San Martn resigned from the Army, but it is unclear whether his decision to resign was sincere or was to apply pressure to his backers. The government of Buenos Aires still considered San Martn vital to the national defense, so Pueyrredn agreed to pay the 500,000 pesos requested, and encouraged San Martn to withdraw his resignation.[83] San Martn proposed to mediate between Buenos Aires and the Federal League led by Artigas. He thought that the civil war was counter-productive to national unity, and that an end to hostilities would free resources needed for the navy. He calculated that Artigas might condition the peace on a joint declaration of war to colonial Brazil; so San Martn proposed to defeat the royalists first and then demand the return of the Eastern Bank to the United Provinces. O'Higgins recommended caution, fearing that San Martn might be captured. Pueyrredn rejected the mediation, as he did not recognize Artigas as an equal to negotiate with him.[84] Act of Rancagua Although Artigas was defeated by the Luso-Brazilian armies, his allies Estanislao Lpez and Francisco Ramrez continued hostilities against Buenos Aires for its inactivity against the invasion. Pueyrredn called the Army of the Andes and the Army of the North (led by Belgrano) to aid Buenos Aires in the conflict. Guido noted to San Martn that if both armies did that, the north of Argentina and Chile would be easily reconquered by the royalists. San Martn also knew that most of the soldiers of the Army of the Andes would not be willing to aid Buenos Aires in the civil war, as most were from other provinces or from

Parade of the Army of the Andes in Rancagua.

Jos de San Martn Chile. San Martn had doubts as well about the projected arrival of a large military expedition from Spain, as the absolutist restoration of Ferdinand VII had met severe resistance in Spain. San Martn finally kept the Army in Chile when Belgrano's lieutenant Viamonte signed an armistice with Lpez; he thought that the conflict had ended.[85] However, the minister of war Matas de Irigoyen ordered once more the return of the Army of the Andes, and appointed Francisco Fernndez de la Cruz as its leader, displacing San Martn. San Martn resigned again, and observed that the Army would not be able to cross the Andes from Chile to Buenos Aires because the winter snow was blocking the trails. All the leaders of the military units of the Army of the Andes refused to go to Buenos Aires, as their soldiers would mutiny or desert. Facing both the resignation of San Martn and the refusals to obey the orders, the Supreme Director canceled the orders, and the Army of the Andes stayed in Chile. With the sanction of the Argentine Constitution of 1819, Pueyrredn ended his mandate as Supreme Director, replaced by Jos Rondeau.[86] The navy was finally completed in Chile, and British Earl Thomas Cochrane was appointed to lead it. But it was not sent to Peru immediately: there were still rumors of an attack from Spain, and if needed the navy would move to Buenos Aires and fight the Spanish ships. The civil war resumed and San Martn attempted once more to mediate, to no effect. Rondeau again requested the return of the Army of the Andes, without success.[87] San Martn returned to Chile and prepared to take part in the naval actions against Peru, ignoring Buenos Aires. The Army of the North refused to join the conflict as well, revolting in Arequito and disbanding.[88] Without either reinforcements, Rondeau was defeated by federal forces in the Battle of Cepeda. The Congress of Tucumn and the office of the Supreme Director of the United Provinces of the Ro de la Plata were dissolved and the country turned into a confederation of 13 provinces, without a central state. This period is known as the Anarchy of the year XX.[89] The rebellion of Spanish general Rafael del Riego and an outbreak of yellow fever in the punitive expedition organized in Cdiz ended the royalist threat to Buenos Aires.[90] The Act of Rancagua invested San Martn with the full authority over the Army of the Andes, as it now lacked a national authority over it.[91]

11

Peru
Peru had armed forces nearly four times the strength of those of San Martn: 6,244 soldiers in Lima, 8,000 at the northern provinces, 1,263 in the coast, 1,380 in Arequipa and 6,000 in the Upper Peru; nearly 23,000 soldiers in total. The Army of the Andes had 4,000 soldiers instead, and Cochrane's navy another 1,600. With this disparity of forces, San Martn tried to avoid battles. He tried instead to divide the enemy forces in several locations, as he did during the Crossing of the Chilean landing in Pisco, Peru. Andes, and trap the royalists with a pincer movement with either reinforcements of the Army of the North from the South or the army of Simn Bolvar from the North. He also tried to promote rebellions and insurrection within the royalist ranks, and promised the emancipation of any slaves that deserted their Peruvian masters and join the army of San Martn. The spreading of the news of the Liberal Triennium, a liberal rebellion in Spain that reinstated the Spanish Constitution of 1812, also sought to undermine royalist loyalty.[92] The navy sailed from Chile on August 20, 1820. It was composed of eight warships, eleven gunboats, 247 cannons and a crew of 1,600, most of them Chileans. There were 12 frigates, and a brig with the 4,000 soldiers of the Army of the Andes. San Martn was the leader of the military expedition. They landed in Paracas, 200km to the south of Lima, on September 7, and occupied the nearby city of Pisco, which was abandoned by the royalists.[93][94]

Jos de San Martn Expedition of Peru Peruvian viceroy Joaqun de la Pezuela had instructions from Spain to negotiate with the patriots. Under an armistice the opponents celebrated a meeting in Miraflores. The viceroy's deputies proposed to adopt the liberal Spanish constitution if San Martn left the country, but his deputies requested instead that Spain grant the independence of Peru. The negotiations did not bear fruit.[95][96] San Martn isolated Lima from the surrounding countryside, and sent Juan Antonio lvarez de Arenales to promote rebellions among the natives. The Army of the Andes moved north of Lima by sea. San The Numancia battalion, formerly a royalist unit, Martn and Arenales besieged the city from two directions, and joins the forces of San Martn. Cochrane attacked the port of El Callao. Cochrane captured the ship "Esmeralda", and the royalist regiment Numancia. Nearly 700 expeditionary soldiers of New Granada deserted and joined the patriots. Several populations in the north of Peru supported San Martn, and Arenales defeated the royalists at the battle of Pasco. More than 300 royalists joined the patriots, including Andrs de Santa Cruz.[97][98] However, the plans did not fully work as intended. The native populations that joined Arenales could not resist the royalist counter-attacks,[99] and the slaves did not join the army in the expected numbers. The Argentine provinces could not send the supporting army that San Martn had requested earlier, and the Army of the North no longer existed. As a result, he wrote to Simn Bolvar, trying to coordinate actions with him.[100] Pezuela was deposed by a military-liberal coup, and Jos de la Serna e Hinojosa became the new viceroy. De la Serna called San Martn to negotiate an end of hostilities. The result was the same than with Pezuela: De la Serna proposed to enact the 1812 Spanish constitution (Per inside Spain), and San Martn demanded the independence of Peru (with an independent monarchy). The rejection of the Spanish constitution was motivated by the disproportional representation of the Americas in the Constituent Assembly that wrote it. Both armies agreed a temporary armistice. San Martn proposed to establish an constitutional monarchy with a European monarch, with a regency ruling in the interim. The proposal was rejected, on the grounds that they could not accept it without Ferdinand's approval.[101][102] Protector of Peru As hostilities renewed, San Martn organized several guerrilla groups in the countryside, and laid siege to Lima, but did not force his entry, as he did not want to appear as a conqueror to the local population. However, De la Serna suddenly left the city with his army, for unknown reasons. San Martn called for an open cabildo to discuss the independence of the country, which was agreed. With this approval, the authority in Lima, the support of the northern provinces and the port of El Callao under siege, San Martn declared the independence of Peru on 28 July 1821. The war, however, had not ended yet.[103][104]

12

Jos de San Martn's proclamation of the independence of Peru on 28 July 1821 in Lima.

Unlike Chile, Peru had no local politicians of the stature of O'Higgins, so San Martn became the leader of the government, even though he did not want to. He was appointed Protector of Peru. As Peruvian society was highly conservative, San Martn did not take the liberal ideas too far immediately. The provisional statutes contained few changes and ratified several existing laws.[105] All the types of servitude imposed on the natives, such as mita and yanaconazgo, were abolished, and the natives received citizenship. He did not abolish slavery completely, as Peru had 40,000 slaveowners, and declared "freedom of wombs" instead, which

Jos de San Martn emancipated the sons of slaves; he emancipated as well the slaves of the royalists who left Lima. He also abolished the Inquisition and corporal punishment, and enacted freedom of speech.[106] During his stay in Peru, San Martn had a romance with Rosa Campuzano, a woman from Guayaquil.[107] The royalist armies that stayed in the Peruvian countryside headed to Lima, led by Canterac. In a confusing episode, there was no battle, as neither one attacked. Canterac changed his path to El Callao, took resources from it, and returned to his base. There was no battle during their return either. Without resources, El Callao surrendered in a few days.[108] Both armies took unadvisable actions: San Martn allowed Canterac to receive reinforcements, and Canterac left a key military objective incapable to resist. There is no known documentation that provides a reasonable explanation of those events.[109] Cochrane had several disputes with San Martn.[110] He discussed several of his actions and tried to bypass his authority. During the blockade of El Callao, he proposed that O'Higgins take control of the mission and send any spoils of battle to Chile. As San Martn was appointed Protector of Peru, Cochrane reasoned that San Martn was no longer under Chilean command, and took the navy away. In later years Cochrane made accusations against San Martn in Chile.[111] Bolvar took control of Caracas with his victory at the battle of Carabobo, and the Congress of Ccuta issued laws similar to those in Per. Guayaquil declared independence, and Bolivar sent Antonio Jos de Sucre to reinforce them. Sucre's forces were not enough, and requested help from San Martn. Peru sent a military force of 1,300 men. Bolvar entered the city a month later, and claimed that for historical reasons Quito should be part of Colombia.[112] San Martn and Bolvar sought to generate Latin American integration, but disagreed on the type of government: Bolvar proposed a republic, and San Martn a constitutional monarchy, reasoning that it would be easier to receive international recognition for the now-independent South American nations.[113] Peru and Colombia signed a treaty of integration, to be proposed to Chile, the United Provinces of the Ro de la Plata and Paraguay, and at a later point to the United Provinces of Central America and the Empire of Brazil.[114]

13

Guayaquil conference
San Martn thought that if he joined forces with Bolvar he would be able to defeat the remnant royalist forces in Peru. Both liberators would meet in Quito, so San Martn appointed Torre Tagle to manage the government during his absence. Bolivar was unable to meet San Martn at the arranged date, so San Martn returned to Lima, but still left Tagle in government. Bolvar moved from Quito to Guayaquil, which secured its independence. There were discussions on the future of the region: some factions wanted to join Colombia, others to join Peru, and others to become a new nation. Bolvar ended the discussion by annexing Guayaquil into Colombia. There was Peruvian pressure on San Martn to do a similar thing, to annex Guayaquil to Peru.[115]
The Guayaquil conference between Simn

The Guayaquil conference took place on July 26, 1822. They had two Bolvar and Jos de San Martn. The real conference took place inside an office, and not in private meetings, on that day and the following one. As there were no the countryside as the portrait suggests. witnesses or minutes, the content of their discussions can only be inferred from their later actions and their letters to other people. Some likely topics of discussion may have been a request of reinforcements, and an offer to combine the armies into a single one, with San Martn ranked second to Bolvar.[116][117] The minister Bernardo Monteagudo was removed from office by a Peruvian rebellion, during San Martn's absence. San Martn resigned as Protector of Peru a few days later and returned to Valparaso, Chile. Several reason influenced him to resign. The military discipline of the Army of the Andes was compromised, but San Martn was

Jos de San Martn reluctant to take drastic action against his officers. The authority of San Martn and Bolvar, and the local rivalry of their respective countries Peru and Colombia, limited their options for joint work: Colombians would not have liked Bolvar to give many of his forces to San Martn, whilst Peruvians would not have liked their Protector to be second in command to Bolvar, and a joint command would complicate the maintenance of military discipline. Unlike Bolvar, backed up by the Colombian government, San Martn did not have more resources than those he already had: Buenos Aires denied him any support, the other Argentine governors (such as Juan Bautista Bustos) supported him but did not have resources to provide, O'Higgins was about to be deposed in Chile, and Coachrane took the navy and left him without naval power. Finally, he felt that only a very strong authority would be able to prevent balkanization, but refused to rule as a dictator himself.[118]

14

Later life
After his retirement, San Martn intended to live in Cuyo. Although the war of independence had ended in the regions, the Argentine Civil Wars continued. The unitarians wanted to organize the country as a unitary state centered on Buenos Aires, and the federals, who preferred a federation of provinces. San Martn had good relations with the federal caudillos and a personal feud with unitarian leader Bernardino Rivadavia, but tried to stay neutral. San Martn's wife, Mara de los Remedios de Escalada, died in 1823, so he returned to Buenos Aires. He took his daughter Mercedes Tomasa, who was living with her mother's family, and sailed to Europe.[119] After a failed attempt to settle in France, he moved to Britain and then to the General San Martn in Paris, 1848. capital of present day Belgium, Brussels, where he settled. He intended to live there until Mercedes completed her education and then return to Argentina. Rivadavia visited Brussels and San Martn intended to challenge him to a duel, but was dissuaded by Diego Paroissien.[120] Despite his feud with Rivadavia, who was appointed President of Argentina, San Martn offered his military services in the War with Brazil, but received no response. He sailed to the country when Rivadavia was deposed and replaced by the federal Manuel Dorrego, and the war ended in the interim. He intended to return anyway, as a federal government would spare him the persecution he would otherwise have received from the unitarians. He was unable to do as he planned. When his ship docked in Ro de Janeiro he was informed that the unitarian Juan Lavalle had deposed Dorrego, and when he reached Montevideo he was informed that Lavalle had captured and executed Dorrego and begun a campaign of terror against all federals in the country. The ship arrived in Buenos Aires, but San Martn did not leave it, instead returning to Montevideo. Lavalle was unable to put down the federal rebellion against him, and offered San Martn the government. San Martn declined and returned to Brussels.[121] By this time the federal Juan Manuel de Rosas had begun to pacify the civil war started by Lavalle and earned San Martn's admiration. They began to exchange friendly letters. The Belgian Revolution and the cholera epidemic of 1831 made San Martn leave Brussels and move to Paris, where both San Martn and his daughter became ill. They were helped by Mariano Balcarce. Mariano married Mercedes, and they had a daughter, Mara Mercedes.[122] In 1837 France began a blockade of the Rio de la Plata against Rosas. San Martn offered his military services to Rosas, which was declined because of San Martn's advanced age, and condemned the role of the unitarians in that conflict, as they had allied themselves with France against their own nation. San Martn bequeathed his curved saber to Rosas, because of his successful defense of the country. The conflict between France and Argentina renewed in the Anglo-French blockade of the Ro de la Plata, which San Martn condemned as well. During this time he met Florencio Varela and Domingo Faustino Sarmiento.[123]

Jos de San Martn During the 1848 revolution, San Martin left Paris and moved to Boulogne-sur-Mer, a small city in northern France. He was almost blind and had many health problems because of his advanced age, but continued to write letters and keep in touch with the news from South America. Shortly after receiving the news of the Argentine victory against the Anglo-French blockade, he died, three o'clock on 17 August 1850.[124]

15

Remains
Jos de San Martn died on 17 August 1850, in his house at Boulogne-sur-Mer, France. He requested in his will to be taken to the cemetery without any funeral, and to be moved to Buenos Aires thereafter. Balcarce informed Rosas and the foreign minister Felipe Arana of San Martn's death. Balcarce oversaw the embalming of his remains and their temporary stay in a chapel of the city. He also sent San Martin's saber to Rosas.[125] However, the rebellion of Justo Jos de Urquiza against Rosas in 1851, Rosas' defeat at the battle of Caseros and the resulting chaos delayed Mausoleum of San Martn at the Buenos Aires the move of San Martn's remains to Buenos Aires. Still, both Rosas Metropolitan Cathedral. The three statues are national personifications of Argentina, Chile and and Urquiza organized public homages to San Martn, despite the Peru. conflict. Buenos Aires seceded from Argentina as the state of Buenos Aires, dominated by Unitarians who despised San Martn. Thus, the move of his remains was postponed indefinitely. Aware that there were no favorable conditions for the project, Balcarce arranged a creation of a tomb in the Boulogne-sur-Mer cemetery.[126] San Martn's remains were finally repatriated on 29 May 1880, during the presidency of Nicols Avellaneda. The mausoleum was placed inside the Buenos Aires Metropolitan Cathedral. As San Martn was suspected of being a freemason, the mausoleum was placed in an expanded wing of the Cathedral.[127]

Legacy
San Martn was first acclaimed as a national hero of Argentina by the Federals, both during his life and immediately after his death. The unitarians still resented his refusal to aid the Supreme Directors with the Army of the Andes and his constant support to Rosas.[128] The unitarian Bartolom Mitre wrote a biography of San Martn, "Historia de San Martn y de la emancipacin sudamericana" (Spanish: History of San Martn and the South American emancipation). By that time, several accounts of San Martn were under way in many countries: Valentn Ledesma from Lima wrote in 1853 about San Martn's campaign in Peru, and Benjamn Vicua Mackenna from Chile wrote in 1856 about the Chilean War of Independence.[129] With Mitre's book, San Martn was universally acclaimed as the Liberator of Argentina, but his work introduced several inaccuracies to make San Martn's campaign support Mitre's political project. These inaccuracies were detected and fixed by later historians.[130]

The Cerro de la Gloria, monument to the Army of the Andes at Mendoza, Argentina.

Jos de San Martn

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Statues of San Martn appear in most cities of Argentina, as well as in Santiago de Chile and Lima.[132] Jos Gil de Castro made the first portrait of San Martn, and several other artists made works about him.[133] The most important films featuring San Martn are the 1970 El Santo de la Espada and the 2010 Revolucin: El cruce de los Andes. General Liberator San Martin Drive roadway in the Ku-ring-gai National Park north of Sydney Australia is named in his honour.

References
[1] Galasso 2000, p.1415. [2] Galasso 2000, pp.1112. [3] Galasso 2000, p.2224. [4] Galasso 2000, p.24. [5] Galasso 2000, p.2426. [6] Galasso 2000, p.2627. [7] Galasso 2000, p.28. [8] Galasso 2000, p.2632. [9] Galasso 2000, p.3350. [10] Galasso 2000, p.5164. [11] Galasso 2000, p.6576. [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] [22] [23] [24] [25] [26] [27] [28] [29] [30] [31] [32] [33] [34] [35] [36] [37] [38] [39] [40] [41] [42] [43] Galasso 2000, p.7785. Abad de Santilln 1965, pp.498500, Vol. I. Galasso 2000, p.8589. Galasso 2000, p.91. Camogli & de Privitellio 2005, p.73. Camogli & de Privitellio 2005, p.74. Galasso 2000, p.92. Camogli & de Privitellio 2005, p.76. Galasso 2000, p.9395. Galasso 2000, p.102. Galasso 2000, p.101104. Galasso 2000, p.104110. Abad de Santilln 1965, pp.506507, Vol. I. Abad de Santilln 1965, p.537, Vol. I. Galasso 2000, p.111121. Abad de Santilln 1965, p.581, Vol. I. Galasso 2000, p.123130. Abad de Santilln 1965, pp.13, Vol. II. Galasso 2000, p.131. Galasso 2000, p.212. Abad de Santilln 1965, Vol. II, p. 7. Galasso 2000, p.133136. Abad de Santilln 1965, p.526, Vol. I. Galasso 2000, p.143156. Galasso 2000, p.157163. Abad de Santilln 1965, pp.548549, Vol. I. Galasso 2000, p.165178. Abad de Santilln 1965, pp.549550, Vol. I. Galasso 2000, p.179189. Galasso 2000, p.191202. Abad de Santilln 1965, pp.910, Vol. II. Galasso 2000, p.203206.

Monument of Jos de San Martn in Sofia, [131] Bulgaria (4240.176N 2318.383E )

[44] Galasso 2000, p.206208. [45] Abad de Santilln 1965, pp.1213, Vol. II. [46] Abad de Santilln 1965, Vol. II, p. 13.

Jos de San Martn

[47] [48] [49] [50] [51] [52] [53] [54] [55] [56] [57] [58] [59] [60] [61] [62] [63] [64] [65] [66] [67] [68] Galasso 2000, p.209210. Galasso 2000, p.214217. Abad de Santilln 1965, Vol. II, p. 10. Camogli & de Privitellio 2005, pp.7679. Camogli & de Privitellio 2005, pp.8182. Galasso 2000, p.219220. Camogli & de Privitellio 2005, p.84. Galasso 2000, p.220221. Camogli & de Privitellio 2005, pp.8592. Camogli & de Privitellio 2005, p.92. Camogli & de Privitellio 2005, pp.9192. Abad de Santilln 1965, Vol. II, p. 18. Galasso 2000, p.221222. Abad de Santilln 1965, Vol. II, p. 19. Galasso 2000, p.224. Camogli & de Privitellio 2005, pp.9293. Camogli & de Privitellio 2005, pp.98101. Galasso 2000, p.224226. Camogli & de Privitellio 2005, p.101. Galasso 2000, p.227234. Galasso 2000, p.235246. Galasso 2000, p.247.

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[69] Camogli & de Privitellio 2005, p.102. [70] Galasso 2000, p.247248. [71] Camogli & de Privitellio 2005, pp.102107. [72] Camogli & de Privitellio 2005, pp.107. [73] Galasso 2000, p.248. [74] Galasso 2000, p.250. [75] Galasso 2000, p.250251. [76] Camogli & de Privitellio 2005, pp.108115. [77] Galasso 2000, p.251. [78] Camogli & de Privitellio 2005, p.115118. [79] Camogli & de Privitellio 2005, pp.118119. [80] Galasso 2000, p.251254. [81] Abad de Santilln 1965, Vol. II, p. 32. [82] Galasso 2000, p.265267. [83] Galasso 2000, p.269277. [84] Galasso 2000, p.279286. [85] Galasso 2000, p.287293. [86] Galasso 2000, p.293299. [87] Galasso 2000, p.301308. [88] Abad de Santilln 1965, Vol. II, p. 52. [89] Galasso 2000, p.309320. [90] Abad de Santilln 1965, Vol. II, p. 44. [91] Galasso 2000, p.321327. [92] Galasso 2000, p.334336. [93] Galasso 2000, p.337. [94] Abad de Santilln 1965, Vol. II, p. 50. [95] Galasso 2000, p.338. [96] Abad de Santilln 1965, pp.4953, Vol. II. [97] Galasso 2000, p.339340. [98] Abad de Santilln 1965, pp.5355, Vol. II. [99] Abad de Santilln 1965, Vol. II, p. 55. [100] Galasso 2000, p.341. [101] Galasso 2000, p.342347. [102] Abad de Santilln 1965, pp.5859, Vol. II. [103] Galasso 2000, p.349353. [104] Abad de Santilln 1965, pp.5963, Vol. II. [105] Galasso 2000, p.353358.

Jos de San Martn

[106] [107] [108] [109] [110] [111] [112] [113] [114] [115] [116] [117] [118] [119] [120] [121] [122] [123] [124] [125] [126] [127] Galasso 2000, p.359368. Galasso 2000, p.381383. Abad de Santilln 1965, pp.6466, Vol. II. Galasso 2000, p.369371. Abad de Santilln 1965, Vol. II, p. 67. Galasso 2000, p.372383. Galasso 2000, p.383385. Galasso 2000, p.387395. Galasso 2000, p.397406. Galasso 2000, p.407409. Galasso 2000, p.407421. Abad de Santilln 1965, pp.7374, Vol. II. Galasso 2000, p.423437. Galasso 2000, p.453465. Galasso 2000, p.467476. Galasso 2000, p.477495. Galasso 2000, p.497521. Galasso 2000, p.523558. Galasso 2000, p.559570. Galasso 2000, p.569574. Galasso 2000, p.574577. Galasso 2000, p.584.

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[128] Galasso 2000, p.574576. [129] Galasso 2000, p.579. [130] Galasso 2000, p.582586. [131] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=Jos%C3%A9_de_San_Mart%C3%ADn& params=42_40. 176_N_23_18. 383_E_region:BG_type:landmark [132] Galasso 2000, p.574585. [133] Mayochi.

Bibliography
Abad de Santilln, Diego (1965). Historia Argentina (in Spanish). Buenos Aires: TEA (Tipogrfica Editora Argentina). Camogli, Pablo; de Privitellio, Luciano (2005). Batallas por la Libertad (in Spanish). Buenos Aires: Aguilar. ISBN978-987-04-0105-6. Galasso, Norberto (2000). Seamos libres y lo dems no importa nada [Let us be free and nothing else matters] (in Spanish). Buenos Aires: Colihue. ISBN978-950-581-779-5. Mayochi, Enrique Mario. "San Martn visto por los artistas" [San Martn saw by artists] (http://www. sanmartiniano.gov.ar/textos/parte3/texto097.php) (in Spanish). San Martn National Institute. Retrieved July 14, 2012.

Further reading
Documentos para la historia del Libertador General San Martn [Documents for the history of Liberator General San Martn] (in Spanish). Buenos Aires: Instituto Nacional Sanmartiniano and Museo Histrico Nacional. 1953. Crow, John (17 January 1992). The Epic of Latin America. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. ISBN978-0-520-07723-2. Dellepiane, Carlos (1965). Historia militar del Per [Military history of Peru] (in Spanish). Buenos Aires: Crculo Militar. Espndola, Adolfo (1962). San Martn en el Ejrcito Espaol en la pennsula [San Martn in the Spanish Army in the peninsula] (in Spanish). Buenos Aires: Comisin Nacional Ejecutiva del 150 Aniversario de la Revolucin de Mayo.

Jos de San Martn Harvey, Robert (2000). Liberators: Latin America's Struggle For Independence. New York: The Overlook Press, Peter Mayer Publishers. ISBN978-1-58567-072-7. Levene, Ricardo (1936). Historia de la Nacin Argentina [History of the Argentine Nation] (in Spanish). Buenos Aires: Editorial El Ateneo. Montes i Bradley, Ricardo Ernesto (1952). El agricultor Jos de San Martn [The farmer Jos de San Martn] (in Spanish). Mexico: Editorial Perspectivas.
Precededby None Precededby Jos Miguel Carrera Precededby Marcos Gonzlez de Balcarce President of Peru 18211822 Commander-in-Chief of the Army of Chile 18171819 Governor of Cuyo 18141816 Succeededby Francisco Xavier de Luna Pizarro Succeededby Bernardo O'Higgins Succeededby Toribio Luzuriaga

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Article Sources and Contributors

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Article Sources and Contributors

Jos de San Martn Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=592661580 Contributors: 28421u2232nfenfcenc, 2much, 4twenty42o, Acather96, AdjustShift, AgainErick, Alexf, Andres rojas22, Ann Stouter, Antarcticwik, AntonioMartin, Apreemptivestrike, Argentino, Ariobarzan, Avono, Baa, Baloo rch, Barticus88, Baseballbaker23, BeadleB, Bender235, Betacommand, Bhadani, Biruitorul, Bjf, Bleff, Bleh999, Bobblewik, Bongwarrior, Borgx, Br'er Rabbit, BrokenSphere, Bsp29, CALR, CWii, Cachorrito11, Cambalachero, Camkohl, Camw, Carter, Cbayly, Chairman S., Charley sf, Chenopodiaceous, Chicheley, Choess, Choster, Chris857, Clerks, Colonies Chris, CommonsDelinker, Connormah, Contrakultura, CosineKitty, Courcelles, Cpl Syx, Cyrius, DAFMM, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Da Wenis, DagosNavy, Danga, Dangarcia, Daniel dj87, Darz Mol, Davejohnsan, David Kernow, Davidcannon, Deeplogic, Dekisugi, Denisarona, Dentren, DerHexer, Deville, Dewritech, Dger, Diazleonardo, Diego Grez, Discospinster, Dmitri Lytov, Dtremenak, Dynamax, ESkog, Ebraminio, Edhu9, El C, Eldamorie, Elpincha, EstherLois, Excirial, Fastily, Fpga, Francisco81a, G.-M. Cupertino, Gabucho43, Gaius Cornelius, General San Martin, Genusaus, Giraffedata, Glane23, Glb253, GoingBatty, Granduque, GringoInChile, Gro-Tsen, Gusreed, Gustavobernhardt, Habeouscorpus, Hajor, Hamtechperson, Harfarhs, Hburg, Herman Downs, Hires an editor, Hmains, Howcheng, IANVS, Ief, Indeterminate, Infrogmation, Ingolfson, Inluminetuovidebimuslumen, J.delanoy, JCCO, JCO312, Jaredwiltshire, Jebba, Jenks24, Jeo444, Jersey Devil, Jespinos, JoelleJ, John.St, JonathonReinhart, Jondel, Jor70, JorgeGG, Joseph Solis in Australia, Joshua L. O'Brien, Jsonitsac, Jtorresgon, Juancarlos2004, Jusdafax, JustAGal, Jwillbur, Katieh5584, Kevin12xd, Kewp, King of the North East, Koavf, Kungfuadam, Kwertii, Kww, Kyle sb, Kyle29, L Kensington, LaMenta3, Lancini87, Lecen, Lfstevens, Lightmouse, LilHelpa, Little Savage, Lkinkade, Luboogers25, M-le-mot-dit, MER-C, MSpinelli, Madhero88, Margin1522, Marianocecowski, Martin451, Matracia, Melromero, Mentifisto, Mesnenor, Messhermit, Mikeo, Minimac's Clone, Mjroots, Mmartinezk, Mogism, Motekov, Ms2ger, Mxcatania, NERIC-Security, NawlinWiki, NekoDaemon, Nemesis, NielsenGW, Niteowlneils, NuclearWarfare, Numbo3, Ohconfucius, Orenburg1, Oreo Priest, OwenBlacker, Oxymoron83, PRousselot, Pablo-flores, Pacolovesu, Pavel Vozenilek, Pitchka, Polylerus, Possum, Prodego, Pyrotec, Qxz, R'n'B, RUL3R, Raymond Cruise, Rbraunwa, Rcallen7, RedWolf, Rettetast, RexNL, Ridesisapis, RobertG, Rror, Rstinejr, S. Fight, Sam ware, Sanmartin, SantiRacing, Santos30, Saranghae honey, Scafloc, Scottmsg, Secretlondon, Severo, Shadowdrak, Shanes, Snigbrook, Snortyman, Somerwind, Soz0490, SpiceMan, Squids and Chips, Squidskater, Squire of the Infernal Knight-Lord of Penguins, Srich32977, Steventity, Sun Creator, Superslum, Surge79uwf, Swedenman, TJRC, TShilo12, Tainter, Tassedethe, Tbhotch, TeaDrinker, Technopat, The Parting Glass, The Thing That Should Not Be, Thelmadatter, Tide rolls, Titodutta, Tobias Conradi, Tony360X, Torimar, TriniMuoz, Trusilver, Ugur Basak, Updatehelper, Vanush94, Vervin, Victor12, Vlastimil Svoboda, Vokoder, Vrenator, Weedwhacker128, Widr, William Avery, Windroff, Wireless Keyboard, Woohookitty, Wtmitchell, Xiglofre, Xirkan, Zawed, 651 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

File:Smartin.JPG Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Smartin.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: The exact author is disputed. Some sources attribute it to Jean Baptiste Madou, others to the art teacher of San Martin's daughter, and others suspect it to be the work of many different people. File:Firma Jos de San Martn.svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Firma_Jos_de_San_Martn.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Rec79 File:Flag of Spain (1785-1873 and 1875-1931).svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Spain_(1785-1873_and_1875-1931).svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: previous version User:Ignaciogavira ; current version HansenBCN, designs from SanchoPanzaXXI File:Flag of Argentina (alternative).svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Argentina_(alternative).svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Manuel Belgrano (1770-1820) File:BANDERA PATRIA NUEVA O TRANSICION.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BANDERA_PATRIA_NUEVA_O_TRANSICION.jpg License: Creative Commons Zero Contributors: Samxx File:Flag of Peru (1821 - 1822).svg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Peru_(1821_-_1822).svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Cycn, Fry1989, Homo lupus, Huhsunqu, Pumbaa80, 2 anonymous edits File:La Rendicin de Bailn (Casado del Alisal).jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:La_Rendicin_de_Bailn_(Casado_del_Alisal).jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Barbe-Noire, CommonsDelinker, Jimmy44, Kilom691, Kordas, Labattblueboy, Outisnn, Xapis, 1 anonymous edits File:Fragata George Canning.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fragata_George_Canning.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Franz Van Riel File:Cabral, soldado heroico.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cabral,_soldado_heroico.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Franz Van Riel File:Belgrano y San Martn.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Belgrano_y_San_Martn.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Augusto Ballerini (1857 - 1897) File:Ejercito de los Andes.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ejercito_de_los_Andes.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Jos Bouchet (Pontevedra, Espaa, 1848 - Argentina, 1919) File:Ejercito Libertador cruce de Cordillera de los andes.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ejercito_Libertador_cruce_de_Cordillera_de_los_andes.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Julio Vila y Prades (1873 - 1930) File:Battle of Chacabuco.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Battle_of_Chacabuco.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: 1970gemini, ALE!, Adam Faanes, B1mbo, Cambalachero, Cookie, Createaccount, Dornicke, Ecemaml, Kirill Lokshin, Labattblueboy, Mozgulek, Olivier, Patstuart, Peng, 2 anonymous edits File:Ohiggins.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Ohiggins.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: ADGE, Dodo, Ecummenic, Jorgebarrios, Pierpao, Rec79, Shakko, SunOfErat, , 3 anonymous edits File:JuraIndependencia.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:JuraIndependencia.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Carlos yo, Createaccount, Ecemaml, FishInWater, Kaldari, Man vyi, Patstuart, Peng, Rec79, Yakoo, 1 anonymous edits File:Abrazo de Maip Pedro Subercaseaux.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Abrazo_de_Maip_Pedro_Subercaseaux.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Cambalachero, Rec79 File:San Martn en Buenos Aires.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:San_Martn_en_Buenos_Aires.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Reynaldo Gidice (1853-1921) File:Revista de Rancagua Blanes.JPG Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Revista_de_Rancagua_Blanes.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Juan Manuel Blanes (1830-1901) File:Desembarco en Pisco.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Desembarco_en_Pisco.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Carlos Wood (1792-1856) File:El Batalln Numancia recibe la Bandera del Ejrcito Libertador.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:El_Batalln_Numancia_recibe_la_Bandera_del_Ejrcito_Libertador.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Bernardo OHiggins File:La Independencia del Per.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:La_Independencia_del_Per.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Discjockey File:Entrevista de Guayaquil.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Entrevista_de_Guayaquil.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: J. Collignon (1776-1863) File:Jose de San Martin.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jose_de_San_Martin.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: ALE!, Barcex, Cambalachero, Ecummenic, Elsapucai, Ezarate, JMCC1, Leyo, Martin Rizzo, Materialscientist, Patricio.lorente, Rd232, Scewing, Yomangani, 2 anonymous edits File:SanMartinMausoleum.JPG Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:SanMartinMausoleum.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Fulviusbsas File:Mendoza - Cerro de la Gloria - Monumento.jpg Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mendoza_-_Cerro_de_la_Gloria_-_Monumento.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Barcex, Cambalachero, FSII, FlickreviewR, Foroa, Pablo-flores, Pertile, Sefer File:Monument of Jose de San Martin in Sofia, Bulgaria.JPG Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Monument_of_Jose_de_San_Martin_in_Sofia,_Bulgaria.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Motekov

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