12 Eng Physics Lab Manual

EXPERIMENTS
EXPERIMENT
AIM
To determine resistance per unit length of a given wire by plotting a graph of potential difference versus current.
APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED
A wire of unknown resistance (~10), battery eliminator or an accumulator (0 to 3V) or two dry cells (1.5 V each), voltmeter (0-5 V), milliammeter (0500 mA), rheostat, plug key, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.
RINCIPLE
Ohm's law states that the electric current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference across its ends, provided the physical state of the conductor remains unchanged. If I be the current flowing through the conductor and V the potential difference across its ends, then according to Ohm's law
and hence
where R is the constant of proportionality and is termed as the electrical resistance of the conductor. If V is expressed in volts and I in amperes, then R is expressed in ohms. The resistance R, depends upon the material and dimensions of the conductor. For a wire of uniform cross-section, the resistance depends on the length l and the area of cross-section A. It also depends on the temperature of the conductor. At a given temperature the resistance R=
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l A where is the specific resistance or resistivity and is characteristic of the material of wire.
to N be C E re R pu T bl is he d
V I
V = RI (E 1.1) (E 1.2)
LABORATORY MANUAL
Combining Eqs. (E 1.1) and (E 1.2) we have (E 1.3)
V l I A
Fig. E 1.1
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Fig. E 1.2
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Slope = R=
1 R
A linear relationship is obtained between V and I, i.e. the graph between V and I will be a straight line passing through the origin as shown in Fig. E 1.1. The slope of the graph is 1/R from Eq. (E 1.1) (Equation of straight line passing through origin is y = mx where m is the slope of graph).
1 slope
Graph between current I and potential difference, V
If l is the length of wire then the resistance per unit length of the wire
R. l
ROCEDURE
1. 2.
Clean the ends of the connecting wires with the help of sand paper in order to remove any insulating coating on them.
Connect various components - resistance, rheostat, battery, key, voltmeter and ammeter as shown in Fig. E 1.2. 3. Note whether pointers in milliammeter and voltmeter coincide with the zero mark on the measuring scale. If it is not so, adjust the pointer to coincide with the zero mark by adjusting the screw provided near the base of the needle using a screw driver. Note the range and least count of the given voltmeter and milliammeter. Insert the key K and slide the rheostat contact to one of its extreme ends, so that current passing through the resistance wire is minimum. Note the milliammeter and voltmeter readings.
4. 5.
Circuit to find the relation between current I and potential difference, V for a given wire
6.
EXPERIMENT 1
7. Remove the key K and allow the wire to cool, if heated. Again insert the key. Shift the rheostat contact slightly to increase the applied voltage. Note the milliammeter and voltmeter reading. Repeat step 7 for four different settings of the rheostat. Record your observations in a tabular form.
8.
BSERVATIONS
2. Least count of ammeter = ... mA
3. Range of voltmeter = 0 ... V to ...V 4. Least count of voltmeter = ...V
5. Least count of metre scale = ... m 6. Length of the given wire, l = ...m
Current flowing through the wire Sl. No. Applied potential difference [voltmeter reading V (V)] [milliammeter reading I (mA)]
V I
ALCULATIONS
1. 2.
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3. Error
R R V V I I
Table E 1.1: Voltmeter and milliammeter readings
1 2 -6
1. Range of ammeter = 0 ... mA to ...mA
Plot a graph between the potential difference across the wire (V) and the current (I) flowing through it as shown in Fig. E 1.1.
Determine the slope of the graph. The resistance of the given wire is then equal to the reciprocal of the slope. From the graph R BC AB ...
R = ... m-1 l
Resistance per unit length of given wire =
= ...
(E 1.4)
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LABORATORY MANUAL
Here, R is resistance per unit length and R is estimated error. V and I are the least count of the voltmeter and milliammeter respectively.
R P
ESULT
1. The potential difference across the given wire varies linearly with the current.
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S
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RECAUTIONS
2. The resistance per unit length of the wire is ( R R ) ... m-1). = (...
1. The voltmeter should be connected in parallel and the ammeter in series with the circuit. It should be ensured that current enters at the positive terminal and leaves at the negative terminal. 2. The key should be inserted only while taking observations, as excessive flow of current causes unnecessary heating of the wire. 3. Zero error in measuring instruments (voltmeter, ammeter, metre scale) must be taken cognizance of and should be eliminated in case of ammeter and voltmeter by adjusting the pointer with the help of the screw provided at the base of the needle, using a screw driver.
OURCES OF ERROR
1. The wire used may not be of uniform area of cross-section.
2. The length of the resistance wire measured should be between one terminal of voltmeter and the other. The lengths of ends wound around the terminals of voltmeter, if included, would give error in measured length.
ISCUSSION
A resistor obeys Ohms law. However, not all conducting devices obey Ohm's law e.g. diode, thyristor etc. These are called nonohmic resistances.
ELF ASSESSMENT
1. A voltmeter is always connected in parallel and an ammeter in series with the circuit. Why? Will they record the respective parameters if connected in opposite manner?
EXPERIMENT 1
2. Why are copper wires normally used for connecting different components in an electric circuit? 3. What happens if the current is allowed to flow through the circuit continuously for a long time? Why?
SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES 1. 2. Study the effect of length of wire on its resistance when its diameter is kept constant. Study the effect of diameter of wire on its resistance when its length is kept constant by using different SWG (standard wire gauge) wires available in the market. Study the resistivity of wires made up of different materials. Is the resistivity of all wires same?
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3. 4. Two uniform wires of the same material have the same length. One has circular cross section of area A while the other is not circular but has the same area of cross section A. Will their resistances be equal? 5. Study the voltage current relationship for the filament of a torch bulb. Set up a circuit as shown in Fig. E 1.3. 6.
Fig. E 1.3
Note the ammeter reading I by connecting the crocodile clip at 10, 20, 30 ..... cm length of wire. Plot a graph between 1/I and l . Find its slope and interpret its result. Can you use the graph to check the homogeneity of the resistance wire?
7.
Four resistances R1, R2, R3 and R4 are connected together as shown in Fig. E 1.4. Complete the electric circuit by connecting the combination of resistances to a 6 V source, an ammeter and a voltmeter. Explain, how would you measure current/voltage flowing through each one of the resistors.
Fig. E 1.4
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LABORATORY MANUAL
EXPERIMENT
AIM
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Fig. E 2.1 A metre bridge
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APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS
Metre bridge
To determine the resistance of a given wire using a metre bridge and hence determine the resistivity of the material of the wire.
Metre bridge, a wire about 1m long (of material whose specific resistance is to be determined), a resistance box, a rheostat, galvanometer, a jockey, one-way key, a cell or battery eliminator, thick connecting wires, sand paper, screw gauge.
It consists of one metre long constantan wire AC of uniform cross-sectional area mounted on a wooden board with a scale (Fig. E 2.1). The two ends of the wire are attached to terminals A and C. Thick metal strips bent at right angles are used to provide two gaps E and F to connect resistors forming a Wheatstones
EXPERIMENT 2
bridge (Fig. E 2.2). The terminal B between the gaps is used for connecting galvanometer and other end of the galvanometer is connected to a jockey J.
RINCIPLE
A metre bridge works on the principle of Wheatstones bridge. As shown in Fig. E 2.2, it consists of four resistors P, Q, R and S connected in the form of a network ABCD. The terminals A and C are connected to two terminals of a cell through a key K1. Terminals B and D are connected to a sensitive galvanometer G through a key K2. If there is no deflection in the galvanometer G, then balance condition for Wheatstones bridge is P Q R S
We use this relation (E 2.1) to determine S if P, Q and R are known.
The unknown resistance S is connected in the gap E and a resistance box (R Box) in gap F of the metre bridge. The terminal B is connected to one terminal of the galvanometer G. The other terminal of the galvanometer is connected to a jockey J which slides along the wire AC. A source of dc current is connected between A and C through a key K1 so as to provide a constant potential drop along AC (Fig. E 2.1). A resistor (or wire) of known resistance is inserted in the gap F by taking out corresponding key from the resistance box R Box. The jockey is moved on the wire AC to obtain a condition of no-deflection in the galvanometer. It happens when the jockey is kept at a point D called the null point. In this condition; P Q R S Resistance of wire of length DC Resistance of wire of length AD
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Unknown resistance S of the wire, having uniform cross-sectional area, is then given by S R l 100 l (E 2.3)
(E 2.1)
Fig.E 2.2 The Wheatstones bridge
(E 2.2)
29
LABORATORY MANUAL
Because, for a wire of uniform cross-sectional area, resistance is proportional to length. Thus, knowing l and R , and using Eq. (E 2.3), the unknown resistance S can be determined. Resistivity The specific resistance or resistivity wire is
of the material of the given
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P
ROCEDURE
6. Repeat step 4 for four different values of resistance R.
where S is the resistance of the wire of length L and a = r 2, ( r being the radius) is the area of cross-section.
1. Find the average diameter of the wire with a screw gauge. From this, obtain the value of its radius r. 2. Clean the insulation at the ends of connecting wires with a piece of sand paper. Tighten all plugs of the resistance box (RBOX) by pressing each plug. 3. Set up the circuit as shown in Fig. E 2.1 with unknown resistance wire of known length in gap E. 4. Next, introduce some resistance R in the circuit from the resistance box. Bring the jockey J in contact with terminal A first and then with terminal C. Note the direction in which pointer of the galvanometer gets deflected in each case. Make sure that jockey remains in contact with the wire for a fraction of a second. If the galvanometer shows deflection on both sides of its zero mark for these two points of contact of the jockey, null point will be somewhere on the wire AC. If it is not so, adjust resistance R so that the null point is somewhere in the middle of the wire AC, say, between 30 cm and 70 cm. 5. If there is one-sided deflection, check the circuit again, especially junctions, for their continuity.
7. Interchange the position of the resistances S and R and repeat steps 4 to 6 for the same five values of R . While interchanging S and R, ensure that the same length of wire of resistance S is now in the gap F. The interchange takes care of unaccounted resistance offered by terminals.
EXPERIMENT 2
BSERVATIONS
1. Length of the wire of unknown resistance, L = ...cm 2. Measurement of diameter of wire of unknown resistance Least count of the screw gauge (L.C.) = ... mm Zero error of the screw gauge = ...mm
Sl. No.
1 2 3
Mean diameter (corrected for zero error) = ... mm Radius of wire r = ... mm
Sl. No.
S in the left gap
Position of balance point D
Mean resistance
Position of balance point D
Length D C = 100 l
Balancing length AD =l
Balancing length AD (l)
Length DC = 100 l
Resistance R
S1
S2
S1 R
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(ohm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
(ohm) (cm)
(cm) (cm) (ohm)
S2 R
(ohm)
1 2
-5
Mean
Table E 2.1: Diameter of Wire
Reading along one direction Reading along mutually perpendicular direction Mean Diameter Main Coinciding Diameter Main Coinciding Diameter d= scale circular d2 = d1 = scale circular d1 + d2 reading p + n L . C . reading scale scale p + n L.C. 2 p division n division n p (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
Zero correction of the screw gauge = ...mm
Table E 2.2: Unknown resistance

S in the right gap
l 100 l
S1 S2 2 m S
100 l l
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LABORATORY MANUAL
ALCULATIONS
L = ... cm r = ... mm S = ... r 2 , calculate the value of L
Substituting these values in = S in ohm-m.
(E 2.4)
(E 2.5)
(E 2.6)
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S S 2 r r L L S1 l l l 100 l S1
Error
Errors r, L are the least counts of the measuring instruments and error S is the maximum of the values obtained by following equations :
S2
l 100 l
S2
If it is presumed that resistance offered by the resistance box is the same as that indicated on it, then R = 0 Therefore, maximum error is S = S1 + S2.
ESULT
1. The unknown resistance of the given wire is found to be S + S = ... ...
2. The resistivity of the material of the wire is
= ... ... m
Here S and are mean values. S and are maximum of the five values of error.
RECAUTIONS
1. All the connections and plugs should be tight. 2. Jockey should be moved gently over the metre bridge wire. 3. The plug in the key (K1) should be inserted only at the time of taking observations. 4. Null points should be in the middle of the wire (30 cm to 70 cm).
EXPERIMENT 2
OURCES OF ERROR
1. The metre bridge wire may not be of uniform area of cross-section. 2. Effect of end resistances due to copper strips, connecting screws, may affect the measurement. 3. The length L of the wire should not include the lengths below the terminals when placed in gap E or F.
4. The resistances of end pieces/metal strips may not be negligible. The error introduced by it can be reduced by interchanging the known and unknown resistances in gaps E and F. 5. The length measurements l and l may have error if the metre bridge wire is not taut and along the scale in the metre bridge.
6. Galvanometer pointer is expected to be at zero when no current flows through it. However, many times it is observed that it is not so. In such cases, pointer has to be adjusted to zero by gently moving the screw below the scale with the help of a screw driver. Otherwise null point must be obtained by tapping the jockey on the wire.
ISCUSSION
1. It is generally preferred that R and S combination should be so chosen that the balance point comes near the middle of the metre bridge wire. Why? Is the sensitivity of detecting balance point best when R and S have same order of resistance? 2. The accuracy with which the null point can be detected also depends upon the sensitivity of the galvanometer used. To investigate this, find the distance through which the jockey has to be moved to cause a just perceptible deflection of the galvanometer. How can the error due to this be minimised? Does it have something to do with the potential difference between A and C? 3. The length l, that is, the position of the jockey, may be read upto, 0.1 cm (say). How much uncertainty will be introduced in the result due to this error?
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4. It is advised that key should be unplugged when readings are not being taken to avoid unnecessary heating of the wire. Why? In what way, will the heating affect the null point? Will it be significant?
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LABORATORY MANUAL
ELF ASSESSMENT
1. The bridge wire may not be exactly 100 cm long, so record its exact length and use this in the calculation. 2. If the metre bridge wire is not of uniform area of cross section, how will it affect the observations?
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Fig. E 2.3 Defective scale of a metre bridge
SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES 1. 2. 3.
3. If the metre bridge wire is not made of a material of uniform density, how will it affect the observations? 4. If the same experiment is performed with AC = 50 cm wire instead of 1 m, what changes would be there in the result? 5. The scale attached along the wire may not indicate the exact length as shown in Fig. E 2.3. How would you minimise the error? 6. Why is the metre bridge not suitable for measuring very high/very low resistances? 7. Why is the metre bridge preferred for determining the resistance of a wire over the Ohms law circuit?
Determine the resistance of an electric bulb of given voltage and power. Attach crocodile clips at the end of two copper wires. Use these to connect the bulb in the gap E as shown in Fig. E 2.4. Why does the resistance obtained by you differ from the theoretical value? Making use of your observations plot a graph between (100 l )/l and R. Find the slope of the graph. What does it represent? The resistance of a wire changes with temperature. You may study this by using a metre bridge. You may use a beaker with mustard oil, a suitable thermometer (0- 300C) and resistance wire of known length. The experimental set-up shown in Fig. E 2.5 may be used.
EXPERIMENT 2
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Fig. E 2.4 Fig. E 2.5
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EXPERIMENT
AIM
To determine the internal resistance of a given primary cell using a potentiometer.
APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED PRINCIPLE
Potentiometer, Leclanche cell or dry cell, an ammeter, one resistance box (RBOX 1) (about 0-50 ), 3 one way plug keys, galvanometer, a high resistance box (RBOX 2) (about 0-10 k), a low resistance rheostat of about 20 , jockey, lead accumulator and connecting wires.
When a resistance R is connected across a cell of emf E and internal resistance r, then the current I in the circuit is I E
The potential difference V ( = RI ) across the two terminals of the cell is V E R
Thus
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or
If l0 and l are the distances of the balance null point from end A of the potentiometer for an open and a closed circuit respectively (Fig. E 5.1), then E is proportional to l0 and V is proportional to l.
E V l0 l
R r (E 5.1) R r (E 5.2) E r =1+ V R E r = 1 R V (E 5.3) (E 5.4)
LABORATORY MANUAL
From Eqs. (E 5.3) and (E 5.4) (E 5.5)
r l0 l l R
ROCEDURE
1. Connect different electrical components as shown in the circuit (Fig. E 5.1). After checking the circuit connections, close key K1. 2. With keys K2 and K 3 open and a protective high resistance P from the RBOX 2 , find the position of the balance point. For final reading, short circuit the resistance P by closing the key K3 and find the balance length l0.
Fig. E 5.1 Circuit to measure internal resistance of a primary cell using a potentiometer
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50
4.
3. Take R = 10 (from RBOX 1), close the key K 2 and quickly measure the new balance length l . Open K 2 as soon as this has been done. Keep the readings in the ammeter constant throughout the above observation.
5. Reduce the value of R in equal steps of 1 and for each value of R obtain the balance length l.
6. At the end of the experiment, open key K2 and repeat step 2 to find l0 again.
BSERVATIONS
l0 = ... cm (in the beginning of the experiment)
l0 = ... cm (at the end of the experiment) Mean lo= ... cm.
Table E 5.1: Balance length Sl. No. 1 2 -6 R l cm 1 -1 R 1 cm-1 l
r =
l0 l R l
EXPERIMENT 5
ALCULATIONS
1. Substitute the value of l0, l and corresponding value of R in Eq. (E 5.5) and calculate the value of r, where r =
l0 l l
R.
3. Plot a graph between 1/R and 1/l, taking

1 on the x-axis and 1 on y-axis. l R
4. Draw a straight line as close to the points plotted as you can. The negative intercept on the y-axis gives the value of 1/r. Hence, obtain the value of r (Fig. E 5.2).
R P
ESULT
The internal resistance of the given cell r (i) by calculation ... (ii) by graph ...
RECAUTIONS
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1. The primary cell whose internal resistance is to be determined should not be disturbed during the experiment or else its internal resistance may change.
2. The emf of battery E should be more than the emf of the primary cell, E1. 3. Positive terminals of E and E1 both should be connected at the same point on the potentiometer. 4. Always measure length from point A i.e. the point at which positive terminals of battery are connected and measure this length upto the balance point.
1 R l0 1 1 r l r (E 5.6) It is an equation of a straight line (Fig. E 5.2).
Fig. E 5.2 Graph between 1/R and 1/l
2. Use graphical method also to obtain r. Note that Eq (E 5.5) can be written as
51
LABORATORY MANUAL
5. Insert K1 and K2 only when readings are taken otherwise the wires may get heated up due to continuous flow of current and may also affect the internal resistance of the cell.
OURCES OF ERROR
1. Potentiometer wire may not be of uniform cross - section. 2. Brass strips at the ends may have a finite resistance.
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D
ISCUSSION
3. Emf of the auxiliary battery producing the drop of potential along the wire may not be constant throughout the course of the experiment. 4. Heating of the potentiometer wire by current may introduce some error.
1. The theory of potentiometer assumes that there is a steady current in wire AB during the period of experiment. Therefore, emf of the accumulator should be constant during the course of the experiment. 2. The position of the jockey can be read within the least count of the measuring scale 0.1cm. Moreover, the edge of the jockey may further limit this least count. It is therefore advised to use a sharp edged jockey. 3. There may also be a zero error in the measurement of l, due to the end of the scale not being exactly at the end of the wire.
ELF ASSESSMENT
1. All the positive terminals of sources of emf are joined at point A of potentiometer, but if all the negative terminals of sources of emf are joined at point A then how will the balance length be affected? 2. Find the internal resistance of a freshly prepared Leclanche cell. Does its internal resistance change with R ?
3. State the factors on which the internal resistance of a cell depends.

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES 1. 2. Find the internal resistance of dry cells of different makes. Can the internal resistance of a secondary cell be determined by this method? Give reason for your answer.
EXPERIMENT
AIM
To determine the resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection method and to find its figure of merit.
A moving coil galvanometer, a battery or a battery eliminator (0 - 6 V), one resistance box (RBOX 1) of range 0 - 10 k, one resistance box (RBOX 2) of range 0 - 200 , two one way keys, voltmeter, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.
RINCIPLE
Galvanometer
Galvanometer is a sensitive device used to detect very low current. Its working is based on the principle that a coil placed in a uniform magnetic field experiences a torque when an electric current is set up in it. The deflection of the coil is determined by a pointer attached to it, moving on the scale.
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When a coil carrying current I is placed in a radial magnetic field, the coil experiences a deflection Fig. E 6.1 Circuit for finding resistance of galvanometer which is related to I as I = k (E 6.1)
where k is a constant of proportionality and is termed as figure of merit of the galvanometer. The circuit arrangement required for finding the resistance G of the galvanometer by half deflection method is shown in Fig. E 6.1.
LABORATORY MANUAL
When a resistance R is introduced in the circuit, the current Ig flowing through it is given by (E 6.2) Ig = E R+G
In this case, the key K2 is kept open. Here E is the emf of battery, G is the resistance of the galvanometer whose resistance is to be determined.
(E 6.3)
(E 6.4)
(E 6.5)
(E 6.6)
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(E 6.7)
54
Ig = k Combining equations (E 6.2) and (E 6.3) we get E =k R+G R' = R + GS G+S The total current, I due to the emf E in the circuit is given by I= E GS R+ G+S G I g = S (I I g) or,
Ig = IS G+S
If the current Ig produces a deflection in the galvanometer, then from equation (E 6.1) we get
On keeping both the keys K1 and K2 closed and by adjusting the value of shunt resistance S, the deflection of the 1 (half). As G and S are in galvanometer needle becomes 2 parallel combination and R in series with it, the total resistance of the circuit
If I g is the current through the galvanometer of resistance G, then
Substituting the value of I from Equation (E 6.6), in equation (E 6.7) the current I g is given by
EXPERIMENT 6
IS E S . = = Ig G + S R + GS G + S G +S Ig = ES S (E 6.8)
R G
GS
is reduced to half of its initial value
On dividing Eq. (E 6.2) by Eq. (E 6.8), Ig = E R ( G + S ) + GS =2 R +G ES
or, R (G + S) + GS = 2 S (R + G)
RG = RS + GS G (R S) = RS
or, G = RS R S
By knowing the values of R and S, the galvanometer resistance G can be determined. Normally R is chosen very high (~ 10 k) in comparison to S (~ 100 ) for which G S
The figure of merit (k) of the galvanometer is defined as the current required for deflecting the pointer by one division. That is
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For determining the figure of merit of the galvanometer the key K2 is opened in the circuit arrangement. Using Eqs. (E 6.2) and (E 6.3) the figure of merit of the galvanometer is given by k 1 R E G , (E 6.11)
= 2 then
For galvanometer current I g, if the deflection through the galvanometer
ES I' g = k = R (G + S ) + GS 2
I' g
(E 6.9)
(E 6.10)
55
LABORATORY MANUAL
By knowing the values of E, R, G and the figure of merit of the galvanometer can be calculated.
ROCEDURE
1. Clean the connecting wires with sand paper and make neat and tight connections as per the circuit diagram (Fig. E 6.1).
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S, and
2. From the high resistance box (RBOX 1) (1-10 k), remove 5 k key and then close the key K 1. Adjust the resistance R from this resistance box to get full scale deflection on the galvanometer dial. Record the values of resistance, R and deflection . 3. Insert the key K2 and keep R fixed. Adjust the value of shunt resistance S to get the deflection in the galvanometer which is exactly half of . Note down S. Remove plug K2 after noting down the value of shunt resistance, S. 4. Take five sets of observations by repeating steps 2 and 3 so that is even number of divisions and record the observations for R ,
in tabular form. 2 5. Calculate the galvanometer resistance G and figure of merit k of galvanometer using Eqs. (E 6.9) and (E 6.11) respectively.
BSERVATIONS
Emf of the battery E = ... V
Number of divisions on full scale of galvanometer = ...

Table E 6.1: Resistance of galvanometer Shunt Half deflection resistance in the galvanometer S ( )
High Sl. Resistance No.
Deflection in the galvanometer
G=
k=
G .
R .S R S
R ( )
(divisions)
(divisions)
()
A/divisions
1 2
-5
ALCULATIONS
Mean value of G (resistance of galvanometer) = ... Mean value of k (figure of merit of galvanometer) = ... ampere/division.
EXPERIMENT 6
R P
ESULT
1. Resistance of galvanometer by half deflection method, G = ... 2. Figure of merit of galvanometer, k = ...ampere/division
RECAUTIONS
2. Adjust R such that deflection in galvanometer is of even division so that /2 is more conveniently obtained. 3. Emf of the battery should be constant. 4. Use as high values of R as practically possible. This ensures correct value of G.
5. All the connections and plugs in the resistance box should be tight.
OURCES OF ERRORS
1. Plugs in the resistance boxes may be loose or they may not be clean. 2. The emf of the battery may not be constant.
ISCUSSION
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1. By closing the key K2 and adjusting the value of resistance in resistance box R BOX 2, you get the deflection /2 in the galvanometer. Then the resistance S equals G , the resistance of galvanometer, because half of the current passing through R is shared by S and half by galvanometer. It is noteworthy that R is so large compared to S or G that opening or closing the key K2 makes insignificant difference in the current passing through R .
2. We define current sensitivity C of the galvanometer as the deflection produced per unit current. With K2 open, the current passing through it is C C E R E R
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1 . Key K 1 should be inserted only after high value of R has been taken out from resistance box otherwise galvanometer coil may burn.
LABORATORY MANUAL
3. From eq. E 6.9, RS = G (R S) . Galvanometer resistance G can also be determined from the slope of a graph plotted RS against (R S) with RS on y-axis and (R S ) on x-axis.
ELF ASSESSMENT
1. How will you use a galvanometer for measuring current? 2. (a) Out of galvanometer, ammeter and voltmeter which has the highest resistance and which has the lowest? Explain.
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SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES 1. Plot a graph between R and 1 G and k. 2. Plot a graph of against E R G with on y-axis and E R G How will you determine k from the graph? 3. 4.
(b) Which of the two meters has lower resistance a milliammeter or a microammeter?
3. What are the factors on which sensitivity of a galvanometer depends? 4. Internal resistance of the cell is taken to be zero. This implies that we have to use a freshly charged accumulator in the experiment or use a good battery eliminator. If the internal resistance is finite, how will it affect the result? 5. Is it possible to find the galvanometer resistance by taking 1/3 deflection ? If so what changes would be required in the formula for calculation of value of G.
(R along x- axis). Use the graph to determine
on x-axis.
Use the values of G and k to calculate the value of shunt resistance required to convert the given galvanometer into an ammeter of 0 - 3 A range. Calculate the value of series resistance required to convert the given galvanometer into a voltmeter of 0 30 V range.
EXPERIMENT
EXPERIMENT
AIM
To convert the given galvanometer (of known resistance and figure of merit) into (i) an ammeter of a desired range (say 0 to 30 mA) and (ii) a voltmeter of desired range (say 0 to 3 V) and to verify the same.

(i) P
A galvanometer of known resistance and figure of merit, a constantan or manganin wire of 26 or 30 SWG, a battery or a battery eliminator, one way key, a rheostat of range 200 , an ammeter of 0-30 mA range, a voltmeter of 3 V range, connecting wires and sand paper.
RINCIPLE (CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER INTO AN AMMETER)
A galvanometer is a sensitive device which can detect the presence of very small current in a circuit of the order of 100 mA. For measuring current of the order of an ampere, a low resistance called shunt resistance S is connected in parallel across the galvanometer having resistance G. If I 0 is the total current in the circuit for full scale deflection, then the current (I 0 Ig) passes through S, where Ig is current that flows through the galvanometer for full scale deflection. The instrument is calibrated so as to read the current directly in ampere and then it can be used as an ammeter. Since G and S are parallel to each other therefore, the potential difference across both are same, hence,
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IgG I0
or
The figure of merit of the galvanometer is represented by the symbol k which represents the current corresponding to one scale division; thus if N is the total number of divisions (on either side) of the galvanometer scale, the value of current Ig is given by
Ig S (E 7.1) (E 7.2) S IgG I0 Ig
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LABORATORY MANUAL
Ig = kN if n represents the actual deflection in the converted galvanometer, then the total current will be
I= n
IO . N
Fig. E 7.1 Circuit to verify conversion of galvanometer into an ammeter
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ROCEDURE
4. formula S IgG I0 Ig . 5. S [use the formula l = S r 2
1. Determine the galvanometer resistance G and figure of merit k as per the procedure given in experiment 6. 2. Count the total number of divisions N on either side of zero of the galvanometer scale. 3. Calculate the current I g for full scale deflection in the galvanometer by using the relation Ig = Nk, where k is the figure of merit of the galvanometer. Calculate the shunt resistance S using the
Measure the radius r of the wire and from the given value of the specific resistance , calculate the length of the wire l, for resistance
].
6.
Let the calculated length of the wire be 10 cm. Then cut 3-4 cm extra and put it in parallel to the galvanometer and complete the circuit as shown in Fig. E 7.1.
7. Adjust the length of the wire so that when we see full scale deflection in the galvanometer, the current in the ammeter is 30 mA. 8. Thus the galvanometer is now converted to an ammeter whose range is 30 mA. 9. Now measure the exact length of the shunt wire and calculate its resistance by using the previously measured value of radius and the known value of specific resistance. 10.Compare the above value of resistance to the one calculated using l the formula S = . r 2
EXPERIMENT 7
BSERVATIONS
1. 2. 3. Galvanometer resistance, G (given) = ... Figure of merit of the galvanometer, k (given) = ... ampere/division Number of divisions on either side of zero of the galvanometer scale, N = ... division
5. Radius of wire:
(iii)
Mean observed diameter, D = ... cm Radius of the wire r =D/2 = ... cm
ALCULATIONS
1. Shunt resistance = S
2. Given value of specific resistance of the material of the wire = ... m

2 3. Required length of wire, l = S r = ... cm
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4. Observed length of the shunt wire for the desired range, l = ... cm 5. Shunt resistance from the observed length of the wire, S ' =
l' = ... r 2
ESULT
To convert the given galvanometer into an ammeter of the range, 0 to ... ampere
Least count of the given screw gauge = ... cm Zero error = ... cm Zero correction = ... cm Observed diameter of the wire: (i) ... cm (ii) ... cm ... cm (iv) ... cm IgG I0 Ig = ...
4. Current required for producing full scale deflection of N divisions, Ig = k N = ... ampere
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LABORATORY MANUAL
1. 2. the calculated resistance of the shunt wire, S = ... the observed resistance of the shunt wire, S = ...
RECAUTIONS
1. 2. Use the ammeter for verification which has the same range as the range of conversion. Cut about 3 to 4 cm extra to the calculated length of the wire.
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Fig. E 7.2 Circuit to verify conversion of galvanometer into a voltmeter
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3.
After adjusting the length of the wire, measure the length of the wire between the two plugs carefully.
(ii) P
RINCIPLE (CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER INTO A VOLTMETER)
By connecting a high resistance of suitable value in series with a galvanometer, it is converted into a voltmeter. Voltmeter is always connected in parallel with the electrical component across which potential difference is to be measured.
If a galvanometer (having resistance G) shows a full scale deflection for a maximum current I g, the potential difference across the galvanometer is I gG. If the converted galvanometer is desired to have a range Vo volt, then the resistance to be joined in series with galvanometer, is given by R = V0 G. Ig
ROCEDURE
1. 2.
Calculate the value of the series resistance R for given values of V0, I g and G. Make the connections as shown in Fig. E 7.2 by connecting a cell and converted galvanometer and the voltmeter of nearly the same range in parallel, with a high resistance rheostat Rh. Close the key K and adjust the rheostat so that the voltage shown in the voltmeter is equal to the desired range (say 3 V). Simultaneously, adjust the position of the slider of the rheostat and also the resistance from the resistance box so that when full scale deflection is observed on the galvanometer, the voltmeter shows 3 V. Note the total resistance from the resistance box.
3.
EXPERIMENT 7
BSERVATIONS
1. Resistance of the galvanometer, G (given) = ... 2 . The figure of merit of the galvanometer, k (given) = ... ampere/division 3. Number of divisions on either side of zero of the galvanometer scale, N = ... division 4. Current required for producing full scale deflection of N divisions, Ig = k N = ... ampere 5. Total resistance taken out from the resistance box = ...
ALCULATIONS
Resistance to be connected in series with the galvanometer, R= V0 G =... Ig
ESULT
To convert the given galvanometer into a voltmeter of the range, 0 to ... V
1. The value of the calculated series resistance, R = ... 2. The value of the observed series resistance, R = ... 3. Current for full scale deflection, Ig = ...ampere
RECAUTIONS
1. The resistance box used should be of high resistance.
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OURCES OF ERROR
2. The rheostat should be used as potential divider. 3. High resistance of the order of 10 k from the resistance box should be used first and then the battery key should be closed to avoid any damage to the galvanometer.
The wire may be of non-uniform area of cross section.
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LABORATORY MANUAL
ISCUSSION
1. If the area of cross section of the wire is non-uniform, how will it affect the observation? 2. Use a rheostat as current divider and potential divider. 3. To check if friction in your instrument is small enough, measure in the same setting 5 to 10 times. If each time, the needle comes to exactly the same point on the scale, friction in your instrument is quite small.
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S
ELF ASSESSMENT
4. Why is an ammeter always connected in series with the circuit? 5. Why is a voltmeter always connected in parallel with the circuit?
SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES 1. 2. Calculate the length of the wire of same material if the radius is doubled. 3. 4.
1. How can you increase the range of the converted galvanometer to 0-60 mA? 2. How can you decrease the range of the converted galvanometer to 0-20 mA? 3. If S << G, what is the order of resistance of converted galvanometer?
Calculate the length of the wire if the radius is same but material used is copper. Change the range of ammeter and voltmeter and repeat the same procedure as followed in the above experiment.
Use the converted ammeter/voltmeter for verification which has the same range as the range of conversion.
EXPERIMENT
AIM
To determine the frequency of alternating current using a sonometer and an electromagnet.
A sonometer with a soft iron wire stretched over it, an electromagnet, a step-down transformer, slotted 1/2 kg weights hanger, a physical balance, two sharp edge wedges and a weight box.
RINCIPLE
The frequency n of the fundamental mode of vibration of a stretched string, fixed at two ends, is given by n 1 T 2l m
Here l is the length of the vibrating string, T is the tension in the wire and m is its mass per unit length.
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If an alternating current is passed in the coil of the electromagnet, the magnetisation produced in the core is proportional to instantaneous value of the current. If the electromagnet is held close to the middle of the sonometer wire, the wire will be attracted twice during each cycle towards the electromagnet. The attractive force experienced by the wire will be proportional to the magnetisation produced in the core of the electromagnet. Since in each cycle, the wire will be pulled twice and hence at resonance, it will vibrate with a frequency which is twice the frequency of alternating current. Hence, if f is the frequency of the alternating current, then f n 2 1 4l T m
(E 8.1) (E 8.2) 4 n2 l 2 m = T
LABORATORY MANUAL
l
2
or
1 4n m
2
A graph between T (taken on x-axis), and l2 (taken on y-axis), would be a straight line. The slope of this straight line would be 1 4n m (E 8.3) n2
2
, so that 1 slope
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Fig. E 8.1 Set up for finding frequency of ac mains using a sonometer
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4m
1 1 2 m slope
The frequency of alternating current, f determined using the value of the slope.
n 2
1 1 can be 4 m slope
ROCEDURE
1.
Set up the sonometer and stretch the wire AB by placing a load of kg on the hanger (Fig. E 8.1). Support the electromagnet in a stand and connect it to the secondary of a stepdown transformer. Adjust its position, such that its one pole lies close to the middle of the sonometer wire.
2.
3.
Switch on the alternating current supply and adjust the length of vibrating portion of AB by sliding the wedge W or W. Make this adjustment until the amplitude of the vibrating string is maximum. Measure the vibrating length and note the tension in the string. Increase the load in steps of kg and each time find the vibrating length.
4. 5.
6. Switch off the ac supply. Untie the wire of the sonometer from its peg and find its mass in a physical balance. Calculate mass of 100 cm sonometer wire. Hence find the mass per unit length, m for the wire.
EXPERIMENT 8
BSERVATIONS
1. Length of the wire = ...cm = ... m 2. Mass of the wire = ...g = ...kg 3. Mass per unit length, m = ... g/cm = ...kg/m 4. Acceleration due to gravity, g = ...ms-2
Load (M) Tenincluding sion Sl. mass of T = mg No. hanger (N) (kg)
1 2 3 4
ALCULATIONS
1. For each set, calculate the value of n using the formula given above. Find the mean of these values. 2. Plot a graph of l 2 against T with l 2 on y-axis and T on x-axis. Determine the slope of the graph. Using the value of the slope determine the frequency of alternating current.
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ESULT
1. The graph between T and l2 is a straight line. 1 = ... 4mn 2 n 2
2. Slope of the graph =
3. Frequency of ac supply f = (i) from calculation ...Hz (ii) from graph ...Hz
Table E 8.1: Resonant length Resonant length l Mean l in (m) n 1 T 2l m (Hz) First Second Mean trial trial (cm) (cm) (cm)
Mean
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LABORATORY MANUAL
RECAUTIONS
1. Pulley should be as frictionless as possible. 2. Edges of the wedge should be sharp. 3. Tip of the electromagnetic pole should be close to the middle of the sonometer wire.
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S
OURCES OF ERROR
2. AC frequency may not be stable.
4. After taking each of the observations, circuit should be switched off for a few minutes.
1. Friction of the pulley is the main source of error in the experiment. Due to this, the value of tension acting on the wire is less than that actually applied.
D S
ISCUSSION
1. The frequency of alternating current is half that of the frequency of the vibrating string. 2. Sonometer wire is made of soft iron for better results.
ELF ASSESSMENT
1. How is ac different from dc?
2. What is the meaning of frequency of ac?
3. How does the wire vibrate? Identify and explain the rule with the help of which you can determine the direction of force acting on the wire. 4. What should be the property of the iron for making it a good electromagnet? 5. Is there any relation between frequency and magnetism of the electromagnet, and frequency of the alternating current?
SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES Perform the above experiment using a permanent horse shoe magnet and passing the alternating current in the sonometer wire. In this case the resonant frequency is equal to the frequency of the alternating current. Sonometer wire need not be made of soft iron. You can use constantan or manganin wire for this purpose.
EXPERIMENT
EXPERIMENT
AIM
To find the value of v for different values of u in case of concave mirror and to find the focal length.
An optical bench, two sharp-edged needles (pins), concave mirror of less than 20 cm focal length, three uprights (with clamps), index needle (may be a knitting needle), metre scale and spirit level.
ERMS AND DEFINITIONS
1. Principal axis of a mirror is the line passing through the centre of curvature and pole of the mirror.
2. Principal focus is the point where rays parallel to principal axis, focus after reflection from the surface of the mirror (Fig. E 9.1). 3. Geometrical centre of the mirror is called pole, P. 4. Focal length is the distance between the pole, P and the focus, F.
NDEX CORRECTION
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Usually the distance between concerned points of two elements is not the same as the distance between their uprights as read on the scale. For example, in Fig. E 9.2 the reading of two uprights do not give the actual distance between the tip of the pin and the pole of the mirror. A correction must, therefore, be applied. It is called the index correction.
Fig. E 9.1 Focal length of a concave mirror.
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LABORATORY MANUAL
Fig. E 9.2 Determination of Index correction
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Fig. E 9.3 (a),(b),(c) Locating the position of an image on the optical bench by a pin
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P
ARALLAX
This is employed in the location of image of an object. For example, as shown in the Fig. E 9.3 (a) O and I are the object and image points for a mirror/lens.
(a)
An object point O and its real image I are conjugate points i.e. any of the two may be considered as object and the other as its image. Thus it helps in accurate adjustment to check for no parallax at both the points.
(b)
(c)
If we say there is no parallax between an object O (pin) and its image I, then by moving the eye through which we are observing, to the left and then to the right, object and its image both appear to move together relative to the lens/mirror. It implies that the position of both are same on the optical bench [Figs. E 9.3 (d) and (e)]. If their positions are not same then in one position they may appear to coincide and in another they will appear separate [Figs. E 9.3 (b) and (c)]. This method of locating the position of an image on the optical bench by a pin is called the method of parallax.
EXPERIMENT 9
Fig. E 9.3 (d), (e) Ray diagram for finding focal length of a concave mirror
IGN CONVENTION
1. All the distances are measured from the pole P of the mirror (or the optical centre of a lens). 2. The distance measured in the direction of propagation of incident rays are taken as positive and those measured in the opposite direction are taken as negative. 3. The heights measured upwards (above the principal axis of the mirror/lens) are taken as positive and the heights measured downwards are taken as negative (Fig. E 9.4). Note: In the cartesian sign convention, the object is always placed to the left of the mirror (or the lens).
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(e)
Fig. E 9.4 The cartesian sign convention
(d)
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LABORATORY MANUAL
AY TRACING IN SPHERICAL MIRRORS

To locate the image, we need to trace only a few specific paths or rays (a minimum of two) as shown in Fig. E 9.5. Conveniently, any two rays can be taken to locate the image.
An incident ray passing through the centre of curvature C (concave mirror) Fig. E 9.5 Ray tracing for image formation or appearing to pass through it (convex by a concave mirror mirror), retraces its path i.e. reflected back along its original path. You must note that this ray is incident normal to the mirror. 3. An incident ray passing through the principal focus F (concave mirror) or appearing to pass through it (convex mirror) will be reflected from the mirror parallel to the principal axis.
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Fig. E 9.6 Formation of image by a concave mirror. Object is between the centre of curvature and principal focus F; real, inverted and magnified image is between the centre of curvature and infinity
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2. 4. An incident ray striking the pole P of the mirror is reflected at an angle equal to the angle of incidence with the principal axis.
1.
An incident ray parallel to the principal axis of the mirror either passes through the principal focus F (concave mirror) or appears to be diverging from it (convex mirror).
RINCIPLE
For an object placed at a distance u from the pole of a concave mirror of focal length f , the image is formed at a distance v from the pole. The relation between these distances (for a concave mirror) is
1 1 1 = + f u v uv u +v
or
f=
If an object (say, a pin) is placed in front of the reflecting surface of the concave mirror such that the objects position lies in between the principal focus of the mirror, F and the centre of curvature C, then a real, inverted and magnified image is formed in between the centre of curvature C of the mirror and infinity (Fig. E 9.6).
EXPERIMENT 9
Thus, the image formed in such a case would be clearer and easier to be seen. The focal length of the mirror, using the above relation, can be determined by placing the object in between the point 2F and focus F.
ROCEDURE
1. Obtain approximate value of the focal length of concave mirror by focusing the image of a distant object. Obtain bright and clear image of a distant building or tree on a plane wall or a sheet of paper and measure the distance between the mirror and the image which gives the approximate focal length of the concave mirror. Place the optical bench on a rigid table. Make it horizontal using a spirit level and levelling screws.
2. 3.
4.
5.
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6. 7. 8. 9.
Clamp the concave mirror on an upright and mount it vertically near one end of the optical bench. Move an object pin P1 on the optical bench back and forth so that its image is formed at the same height. Make slight adjustments of the height of the pin or the mirror inclination. This procedure ensures that the principal axis of the mirror is parallel to the optical bench. Place another vertically mounted sharp and bright pin P2 in front of the reflecting surface of the concave mirror. Adjust the pins P1 and P2 so that the height of the tips of these pins become equal to the height of the pole P of the mirror from the base of the optical bench [Fig. E 9.3(e)]. To determine index correction, a thin straight index needle is placed so that its one end A1 touches the tip of the pin and the other end B1 touches the pole P of the mirror. The positions of the uprights are read on the scale. Their difference gives the observed distance between tip of the pin and the pole of the mirror. Length of the needle A1B1 is measured by placing it on the scale which is the actual distance between the points in question. The difference between the two gives the correction to be applied to the observed distance. Find the index correction for both the pins P1 and P2 for all measurements. Move the pin P1 away from the mirror and place it almost at 2F. An inverted image of same size as the pin should be visible. Now place another pin P2 on the bench, adjust its height to be almost the same as the earlier pin. Place a piece of paper on the tip of one pin, take this as the object pin. Place the pin with paper at a distance lying between F and 2F. Locate the image of the pin using the other pin. Remember that parallax has to be removed between the image and the pin.
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LABORATORY MANUAL
10. Note the values of u and v i.e., the distances of the object and image pins from the mirror respectively. 11. Repeat the experiment for at least five different positions of the object and determine the corresponding values of v. Record your observations in tabular form. 12. After doing index correction record the corrected values of u and v . Find the value of focal length, f .
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1. Rough focal length of the concave mirror = ...cm 2. Actual distance of the object from the mirror using index needle, l0 = ... cm = position of mirror upright position of object pin upright on the
scale, l0 ...cm
BSERVATIONS
3. Observed distance of the object from the mirror
4. Index correction for object distance, e = actual distance observed distance. =l0 l0 ...cm
Similarly for image pin

ei l i li
...cm
Table E 9.1: Determination of u, v and f
Sl. No.
Position of
Observed Observed Corrected Corrected u u = u + e v = v + e v i (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
uv f u v (cm) (cm)
Mirror Object Image M pin P 1 pin P2 (cm) (cm) (cm)
1 2 -6
Mean
ALCULATIONS
Calculate the corrected values of u and v and compute the value of f. Tabulate them and find the mean value of the focal length of the given concave mirror.
EXPERIMENT 9
Error Q 1 f = 1 1 u v
f
f
2
u
u
2
v v2
R P
ESULT
The focal length of the given concave (converging) mirror is (f f) = ... ...cm Here f denotes mean value of the focal length and f is maximum of the six values of the error.
RECAUTIONS
1. The uprights supporting the optical elements should be rigid and mounted vertically.
2. The object pin should be kept in between the centre of curvature and the focus of the mirror. 3. The aperture of mirror should be small otherwise the image formed will not be distinct.
4. Eye should be placed at a distance of distinct vision (25 cm) from the image needle. 5. The tip of the inverted image of the object pin must touch the tip of the image pin and must not overlap. It should be ensured while removing the parallax.
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6. The image and the object pins should not be interchanged during the course of the experiment. 7. The corrected values of the distances u and v must be put in the formula for calculating f and then a mean value of f should be taken. Calculations for f must not be made using the mean values of u and v .
8. A white screen or plane background may be used for seeing the clear image of the pin. 9. Image of the Sun should not be seen directly as it may hurt your eyes.
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u v or f = f 2 2 + 2 v u
LABORATORY MANUAL
OURCES OF ERROR
1. An error may arise in the observations if the top of the optical bench is not horizontal and similarly if the tips of pins and pole of the mirror are not at the same horizontal level. 2. The concave mirror should be front-coated, otherwise multiple reflections will come from the reflecting surface of the mirror.
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ISCUSSION
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The image B of the point B (Fig. E 9.6) will be at the point where two such rays either intersect or appear to be intersecting. The image of the bottom of the object A (lying on the principal axis) will lie on the principal axis itself such that the final image is perpendicular to the axis as the object.
ELF ASSESSMENT
1. A dentist uses concave mirror to see the tooth. In what way does it help the dentist? 2. Can you determine the focal length of the concave mirror if u < f ?
SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES 1.
Plot a graph of uv against u + v with uv on y-axis and u+v on x-axis. Determine f from the slope of the graph. Using spherometer, determine the radius of curvature of the concave mirror and calculate its focal length (f = R/2).
2.
EXPERIMENT
AIM
10
To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between u and v or between 1/u and 1/v.
An optical bench, two sharp-edged needle (pins), convex lens of less than 20 cm focal length, three uprights (with clamps), index needle (may be a knitting needle), metre scale and spirit level.
ERMS AND DEFINITIONS
1. Principal axis of a lens is the line joining centre of curvature of the two surfaces. 2. Optical centre is the point, through which a ray passes undeviated through the lens.
3. Principal focus is the point where rays parallel to the principal axis focus after passing through the lens (convex) or appear to come from after passing through the lens (concave). 4 . Focal length is the distance between optical centre of lens and focus.
RAPHICAL METHOD FOR FINDING THE POSITION OF AN IMAGE FORMED BY THIN LENSES
The image formed by a thin lens can be located using graphical method by considering refraction of rays emanating from each point on the object. However, it is convenient to choose any two of the following three rays (Fig. E 10.1).
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5. Intercepts of a graph: If a graph cuts x-axis and y-axis, then lengths between origin and points of interception are intercepts of the graph.
LABORATORY MANUAL
1. A ray from the tip of the object parallel to the principal axis of the lens that passes through the second principal focus F (in a convex lens) or appears to diverge (in a concave lens) from the first principal focus F after refraction. 2. A ray from the tip of the object incident at the optical centre, passes through the lens undeviated. This is because near its centre, the lens behaves like a thin glass slab.
Fig. E 10.1 Ray tracing for locating the image formed by (a) convex lens and (b) concave lens.
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(E 10.1) (E 10.2)
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P
RINCIPLE
1 1 1 = f v u 1 1 1 = + f v u
3. A ray of light from the same point on the object that passes through the first principal focus F (for a convex lens) or appearing to pass through F (for a concave lens) emerges parallel to the principal axis after refraction.
For an object placed at a distance u from the optical centre of a thin convex lens of focal length f , a real and inverted image is formed on the other side of the lens at a distance v from the optical centre. The relation between these distances is:
According to the new cartesian sign convention (see Physics Textbook, NCERT, 2007, Class XII, Part-II p. 311,) u is negative but v is positive [Fig. E 10.2 (a) and (b). Therefore the Eq. (E 10.1) takes the following form for magnitudes of u and v .
EXPERIMENT 1 0
uv u v
or, f
(E 10.3)
In this result the positive values of u and v are substituted.

1 1 versus graph is a straight line of negative v u 1 1 1 1 equals zero or equals zero, then respectively = f slope. If v u u 1 1 or = f . The intercepts of v the graph on both axes are 1 f . Graph of u versus v is a hyperbola. When u = v , then each equals 2f. Eq. (E 10.3) shows that values of u and v (a) are interchangeable.
Eq. (E 10.2) shows that
When an object (say, a pin) is placed in front of a thin convex lens at a distance equal to 2f , a real and inverted image of same size as that of the object is formed at a distance equal to 2f on the other side of the lens (b) [Fig. E 10.2(a)]. If the objects position lies in between distance Fig. E 10.2 (a), (b) Formation of image by a convex 2 f and distance f from the lens (a) u = 2f and (b) 2f > u > f. optical centre of the lens then a real, inverted and magnified image is formed at a point beyond 2f from the optical centre on the other side of the lens [Fig. E 10.2(b)]. Thus, by measuring the distances u and v , the focal length of the convex lens can be determined using Eq. (E 10.3). The focal length of the lens may also be determined by plotting graphs between u and v or between 1/u and 1/v.
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ROCEDURE
1 . Obtain approximate value of the focal length of the thin convex lens by focusing the image of a distant object. It can be found by obtaining a sharp image of the Sun or a distant tree on a screen, say a plane wall, or a sheet of paper placed on the other side of the lens and measuring the distance between the lens and the image with a scale. This distance is a rough estimate of the focal length, f of the convex lens. Note: Do not look at the image of Sun directly as it may hurt your eyes.
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LABORATORY MANUAL
2. Place the optical bench on a rigid table or on a platform, and using the spirit level, make it horizontal with the help of levelling screws provided at the base of the bench. 3. Clamp the convex lens on an upright and mount it vertically almost near to the middle of the optical bench such that its principal axis is parallel to the optical bench. In this position, the lens would lie in a plane perpendicular to the optical bench.
5. Place the vertically mounted sharp pins P and P (Fig. E 10.3) on left and right hand sides of the lens respectively. Adjust the pins P and P so that the heights of the tips of these pins become equal to the height of the optical centre O of the lens from the base of the optical bench. Let the pin P (placed on left hand side of the lens ) be the object pin and the pin P (lying on right hand side) be the image pin. Put a small piece of paper Fig. E 10.3 The ray diagram for finding the on one of the pins (say on image pin P ) to focal length of a convex lens. differentiate it from the object pin P . 6. Displace the object pin P (on left side of the lens) to a distance slightly less than 2 f from the optical centre O of the lens (Fig. E 10.3). Locate the position of the real and inverted image on the other side of the lens above the image pin P.
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4. For the determination of the index correction, bring a mounted pin close to the lens. Adjust the index needle (a sharp-edged knitting needle would also serve the purpose) horizontally such that its one end touches one of the curved surfaces of the lens and the other end touches the tip of the pin. Note the positions of the two uprights on the scale provided on the optical bench. The difference of the two would give the observed length of the index needle. The actual length between the tip of the pin and optical centre O would be length of the index needle (as measured by a scale) plus half of the thickness of the lens because optical centre of a double convex lens with surfaces of equal curvature is at its geometrical centre. The difference of the two lengths is the index correction. Find index correction for both the pins.
7. Using the method of parallax, adjust the position of the image pin P such that the image of the object pin P coincides with the image pin P . Note: As the value of u changes from 2f to f, v changes from 2f to infinity. Since the values of u and v are interchangeable, i.e., the object and image are two conjugate points, therefore it is clear that complete range of values for both u and v between f and infinity are obtained for a movement of the object pin over the range 2f to f.
EXPERIMENT 1 0
8. Note the upright position of the object pin, convex lens and image pin on the optical bench and record the readings in an observation table. 9. Move the object pin P closer to the optical centre O of the lens (say by 2 cm or 3 cm). Repeat the experiment and record at least six sets of readings for various distances of object pin between f and 2 f from the lens.
1. Approximate focal length of the convex lens = ... cm
2. Length of the index needle as measured by the metre scale, L0 =... cm 3. Thickness of the thin convex lens (given), t = ... cm 4. Actual length between the optical centre O of the lens and tip of the pin, l0 = L0 + t /2 = ... cm
= Distance between the 5. Observed length of the index needle, l0 centre of convex lens and tip of the object pin
= =
= cm; similarly 6. Index correction for object distance, e o = l0 l 0 for image pin, e i = li li = ...cm
Table E 10.1: Determination of u, v and f
Corrected u = Observed u + eo (cm) Corrected v = Observed v + ei (cm)
Object pin upright b (cm) Image pin upright c (cm)
Observed u = a b (cm) Observed v = a c (cm)
Sl. No.
Lens upright a (cm)
no t
1 2
-6
Mean
f (cm)
Position of lens upright position of object pin upright on the scale. ... cm ... cm =...cm
uv 1 1 f u v u v -1 cm-1 cm cm
BSERVATIONS
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LABORATORY MANUAL
ALCULATIONS
A. Calculate the corrected values of u and v . Compute the value of f . using Eq. (E 10.3). Tabulate them in the table and find the mean value of the focal length of the given convex lens. Error
no t
82
Fig. E 10.4 u versus v graph for convex lens =
or
1 1 1 = + f u v
f u v = + f 2 u 2 v2
u v f = f 2 2 + 2 v u
Maximum of six values of f is to be reported with the result as the experimental error.
ALCULATION OF FOCAL LENGTH BY PLOTTING GRAPHS
(A detailed method of plotting graphs has been illustrated in Chapter 1 Article 1.8 (p. no. 15).
B. u v Graph: Take u along x-axis and v along y-axis. Scales of x- and y-axis should be same. Draw a hyperbola curve for various values of u and v (Fig. E 10.4). Note that six sets of readings for u between f and 2f , give you 12 points on the graph by interchanging values of u and v. The point u = 2 f ; v = 2 f is shown as point Z on u v graph (Fig. E 10.4). The point Z is the point of intersection of a line OZ bisecting the angle XOY with hyperbola. Draw two lines AZ and BZ perpendicular to Y- and X-axis, respectively. The lengths AZ and BZ are both equal to distance 2 f . Thus by plotting the u v graph, the focal length of the lens can be obtained. Distance OA (= 2f ) on y-axis = ... cm Distance OB (= 2f ) on x-axis = ... cm Mean focal length of the convex lens, f OA + OB = ... cm 4
EXPERIMENT 1 0
C. 1/u 1/v graph: Draw a straight line graph by plotting 1/u along the X-axis and 1/v along the Y-axis (Fig. E 10.5). Both the intercepts OA (on y-axis) and OB (on X-axis) will be equal to distance 1/f.
Intercept OB (= 1/f ) on x-axis =...cm1
Mean focal length ( f ) of the convex lens = 2 =...cm. OA ' + OB'
ESULT
(i)
The focal length of the given converging thin convex lens:
(ii) from u v graph =...cm, and
(iii) from 1/u 1/v graph =...cm.
RECAUTIONS
1. The uprights supporting the optical elements should be rigid and mounted vertically.
2. The aperture of the lens should be small otherwise the image formed will not be distinct. 3. Eye should be placed at a distance more than 25 cm from the image needle.
no t
4. An error may arise in the observations if the top of the optical bench is not horizontal and similarly if the tips of pins and optical centre of the lens are not at the same horizontal level. 5 . The image and object needles should not be interchanged during the performance of the experiment, as this may cause change in index corrections for object distance and image distance. 6. The tip of the inverted image of the object needle must touch the
Fig. E 10.5 1/u versus 1/v graph for a convex lens (not to scale).
Intercept OA (= 1/f ) on y-axis =...cm1
from calculations as shown in Observation Table E10.1 f f = ...cm (here f is mean value of the focal length)
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LABORATORY MANUAL
tip of the image needle and must not overlap. This should be ensured while removing the parallax. 7. The general instructions to be followed in all optical bench experiments (as given in the description of optical bench) must be taken care of. 8. The corrected values of the distances u and v must be put in the formula for calculating f and then a mean of f should be taken. Calculations for f must not be made using the mean values of u and v .
no t
84
S
OURCES OF ERROR
1. The uprights may not be vertical. 2. Parallax removal may not be perfect.
3. If the knitting needle or index rod for finding index correction is not sharp like a needle, its length may not be accurately found on scale.
D S
ISCUSSION
In plotting 1/v versus 1/u graph, if scales for the two axes are not same, then the straight line graph may (rather will) not be at 45 to x-axis. This may result in confusions and error in drawing the graph. Keeping the scale same and drawing the best fit graph at 45 to x-axis is the best method. Then, due to inherent errors in measurement 1/f on both axes may be a bit too large or a bit too small.
ELF ASSESSMENT
1. Draw the ray diagram for image formation in case of a convex lens for position of object varying from infinity to optical centre. 2. What are the differences between the image formed by a convex lens and a concave lens? 3. How does the focal length of a thick convex lens differ from that of a thin lens? 4. How can you recognise a convex lens, a circular glass slab and a concave lens, without touching them? 5. Where does the centre of curvature of the plane surface of a plano-convex lens lie? 6. Define the principal axis of a plano-convex lens?
EXPERIMENT 1 0
7. How does the focal length of a convex lens change if it is dipped in water? 8. What is the relation between focal length and radius of curvature of a plano-convex lens? 9. Can a virtual image produced by a lens be inverted?
SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES
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2. EFFECT OF MEDIUM ON FOCAL LENGTH You have an aquarium, an open window at some distance from it, and a magnifying glass of 50 mm diameter. With your 30 cm scale find the rough focal length of the magnifying glass in air. Then dip it in water by left hand and a white plastic bag (folded with a 5 cm 5 cm card in it to make a white screen) by right hand. Focus image of a distant object on the screen by adjusting the position of the screen. Is the rough focal length in water bigger or smaller than that in air? Let a friend measure the focal length in water and find the ratio of the two. 3. MEASURING LENGTH OF THE FILAMENT OF A CLEAR ELECTRIC LAMP You cannot put the scale behind and in contact with the filament to measure its length. Of course you can do this measurement by vernier microscope. But can it be done by a simple convex lens and a scale only? You can also add things like clamp stand etc, as per needs of the experiment. Can you also measure the dark (cool) gap between adjacent segments of the filament of the lamp?
1.
Draw a graph by plotting u v along y-axis and u + v along x-axis. Determine focal length f of the convex lens from the slope.
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LABORATORY MANUAL
EXPERIMENT
AIM
11
no t
86
Fig. E 11.1(a) Object is at infinity. A highly diminished and point image is located at the focus behind the convex mirror
To find the focal length of a convex mirror using a convex lens.
An optical bench with uprights for holding lens, mirror and two needles, two needles (pins), a thin convex lens, a convex mirror, index needle (may be a knitting needle or a pencil sharply pointed at both ends), a metre scale and a spirit level.
RINCIPLE
Fig. E 11.1 illustrates the formation of image of an object AB by a convex mirror MM (having a small aperture) in two different situations. The image formed by a convex mirror is virtual and erect. Therefore, its focal length cannot be determined directly. However, it can be determined by introducing a convex lens in between the object and the convex mirror (Fig. E 11.2).
Fig. E 11.1(b) Object is in front of the mirror. A diminished virtual image is produced between the pole and focus behind the mirror
An object AB is placed at point P in front of a thin convex lens such that its real, inverted and magnified image A B is formed at position
EXPERIMENT 1 1
C on the other side of the lens [Fig. E 11.2(b)]. Now a convex mirror is introduced between the convex lens and point C and so adjusted that the real and inverted image A B coincides with the object AB at point P [Fig. E 11.2 (a)]. This is possible if the light rays starting from the tip of the object, after passing through the lens, fall normally on the reflecting surface of the convex mirror and retrace their path. Any normal ray (perpendicular) to a spherical surface has to be along the radius of that sphere so that point C must be the centre of curvature of the convex mirror. Therefore, the distance P C is the radius of curvature R and half of it would be the focal length of the convex mirror. That is, f = PC R = 2 2
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ROCEDURE
1.
Fig. E 11.2 Image formed by (a) convex mirror and convex lens-image A B coincides with the object A B at P (b) convex lens- image is inverted and magnified
In case, if the focal length of the given thin convex lens is not known then approximate value of its focal length should be estimated first.
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LABORATORY MANUAL
2. Place the optical bench on a rigid table or on a platform. Using the spirit level, make it horizontal with the help of levelling screws provided at the base of the bench. Place the uprights mounted with pin P1 (object pin), convex lens LL , and convex mirror MM on the horizontal optical bench [Fig. E11.2(a)]. Check that the lens, mirror, and pin P1 are vertically placed on the optical bench. Also verify that the tip of the pin, optical centre O of the convex lens LL , and pole P of the convex miror MM lie on the same horizontal straight line, parallel to the optical bench. Determine the index correction between upright holding of the convex mirror and image pin respectively, using an index needle. Place the object pin P1 from the convex lens LL at a distance slightly greater than the focal length of the lens.
3.
4.
no t
88
5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.
Adjust the position of the convex mirror MM till the light rays reflected back from the mirror pass through the lens and form a real and inverted image coinciding with the object pin P1, as shown in Fig.E 11.2 (a). This occurs when the rays starting from the tip of pin P1, after passing through the lens strike the mirror normally and are reflected back along their original paths. Remove the parallax between the image and object pins.
Read the position of uprights holding the object pin P1, convex lens LL, and convex mirror MM and record the observations in the observation table. Remove the convex mirror from its upright and fix image pin P 2 on it. Adjust the height of pin such that the tip of it also lies on the principal axis of the lens. That is, the tips of the pins P1 and P2 and the optical centre O of the convex lens, all lie on a straight horizontal line parallel to the length of the optical bench. You may put a small piece of paper on image pin P2 to differentiate it from the object pin P1.
Using the method of parallax and without changing the position of lens LL and object pin P1, adjust the position of image pin P2 on the other side of the lens so that it coincides with the real and inverted image of the object pin P1 formed by the convex lens [Fig. E 11.2(b)]. Note the position of the image pin. Repeat the experiment by changing the separation between the pin P1 and lens L L and the mirror MM. In this manner, take five sets of observations.
EXPERIMENT 1 1
BSERVATIONS
1. Focal length of the convex lens, f (estimated/given) = ... cm 2. Actual length of the index needle, l = ... cm 3. Observed length of the index needle l = Position of mirror upright position of pin upright on the scale = ... cm
Table E 11.1: Determination of radius of curvature of convex mirror, R

Sl. No. Upright position of Observed R = c d (cm) Corrected R Observed R + e (cm) Focal length f (cm) f
Object Convex Convex Image pin P 1 lens LL mirror pin P2 MM a (cm) b (cm) c (cm) d (cm) 1 2 -5
ALCULATIONS
Calculate the mean value of radius of curvature of the convex mirror, R, and determine its focal length using the following relation
no t
Error
(cm)
4. Index correction, e = Actual length observed length (l l) = ... cm
Mean
f =
R = ... cm 2
f =
R + l ( c d ) +( l l ) = 2 2
f c d l l = + + + f c d l l
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LABORATORY MANUAL
when c, d, l and l are the least counts of the measuring instruments. Maximum of the five values of f is to be reported with the result as the experimental error.
R P
ESULT
The focal length of the given convex mirror is (f f) ... ... cm. Here f is mean value of the focal length.
no t
S
90
RECAUTIONS
1. The uprights supporting the pins, lens and mirror must be rigid and mounted vertically. 2. The apertures of the given convex lens and convex mirror should be small, otherwise the image formed will be distorted. 3. Eye should be placed at a distance of about 25 cm or more from the image pin. 4. Optical bench should be horizontal. The tips of pins, centre of convex lens and pole of the mirror should be at the same horizontal level.
OURCES OF ERROR
1. The tip of the inverted image of the object pin should just touch the tip of the image pin and must not overlap. This should be ensured while removing the parallax. 2. Personal eye defects may make removal of parallax tedious. 3. The convex mirror should preferably be front-coated. Otherwise multiple reflections may take place.
ISCUSSION
It may not be possible to perform this experiment with just any convex lens. The focal length of the lens used in this experiment should neither be too small nor too large. Why?
ELF ASSESSMENT
1. If focal length of the concave mirror is determined, by using convex lenses of different focal lengths, do you expect any change in the result? If yes, what type of change? If not, why not?
EXPERIMENT 1 1
2. How will the result change if a convex lens of different refractive indices were used? 3. If the convex lens selected for the experiment has focal length less than that of the convex mirror, how would this selection limit the experiment?
SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES 1. 2. Repeat the experiment by using convex lenses of different focal lengths. Compare and analyse the results.
no t
Repeat the experiment by using convex mirrors of different focal lengths with the help of the same convex lens. Discuss the results.
91
LABORATORY MANUAL
EXPERIMENT
AIM
12
no t
Fig. E 12.1 (a),(b),(c), (d) The images formed by a concave lens for different object positions
92
To find the focal length of a concave lens with the help of a convex lens.
An optical bench with uprights for holding the lenses and two needles, a thin concave lens, a convex lens of focal length (~15 cm) smaller than that of the concave lens, index needle (may be a knitting needle), a metre scale and a spirit level.
RINCIPLE
Figs. E 12.1 (a),(b),(c) and (d) illustrate the formation of image A B of an object AB by a concave lens. It is clear that the image formed by a
EXPERIMENT 1 2
Fig. E 12.2 Formation of image (a) by a convex lens; and (b) by a combination of convex lens and concave lens
concave lens is always virtual and erect in these cases. Therefore, its focal length cannot be determined directly. However, it can be determined indirectly by introducing a convex lens in between the object and the concave lens and producing a real image as illustrated in Fig. E12.2.
A convex lens L1 converges the light rays starting from the object AB to form a real and inverted image A B at position I1 [Fig. E 12.2(a)]. If a concave diverging lens L2 is inserted between the lens L1 and point I 1 as shown in Fig. E 12.2 (b), for concave lens L2 image A B behaves as virtual object. A real and inverted image A B is formed at point I 2 by the diverging lens L2. Thus, for the concave lens L2 the distances O I1 and O I2 would be the distances u and v , respectively. It is important to note that the focal length of convex lens L1 must be smaller than the focal length of the concave lens L2. The second image A B is formed only when the distance between lens L 2 and first image A B is less than the focal length of L2. The focal length of the concave lens L 2 can be calculated from the relation 1 1 1 = f f v u or
uv u v
no t
Here for the concave lens both distances u and v are positive and since u will be found to be less than v , f will always be negative.
ROCEDURE
1. In case, if the focal length of the given thin convex lens is not known then rough value of its focal length (f L ) should be estimated first to ensure that its focal length is less than that of the concave lens.
(E 12.1)
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LABORATORY MANUAL
2. Place the optical bench on a rigid platform and using the spirit level, make it horizontal with the help of levelling screws provided at the base of the bench. Place the uprights mounted with pin P1 (object pin), convex lens L1, and another pin P2 (image pin) on the optical bench. You may put a small piece of paper on image pin P2 to differentiate it from the image of object pin P1 [Fig. E 12.2(a)]. Check the collinearity of the tip of pin P1, optical centre O of convex lens L1, and the tip of image pin P2 along a horizontal straight line which is parallel to the length of the optical bench. In this condition the planes of lens and both the pins would be perpendicular to the axis of the lens. For the determination of the index correction, bring a mounted pin close to the concave lens L2. Adjust the index needle (a sharpedged knitting needle would also serve the purpose) horizontally such that its one end touches one of the curved surfaces of the lens and the other end touches the tip of the pin. Note the positions of the two uprights on the scale provided on the optical bench. The difference of the two would give the observed length of the index needle. The actual length between the tip of the pin and optical centre O of the lens L2 would be length of the index needle (as measured by a scale) plus half of the thickness of the lens at its optical centre. The difference of the two lengths is the index correction. (If the concave lens is thin at the centre, its thickness at the centre can be ignored).
3.
4.
no t
94
5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
Separate the object pin P1 from the convex lens by a distance slightly greater than the focal length fL of the lens.
Locate its real and inverted image at point I1 on the other side of the lens by removing the parallax between the image pin P2 and image of the object pin P1 [Fig. E 12.3(a)]. Read the positions of the uprights holding the object pin P1, convex lens L1, and image pin P2 (i.e. point I1). Record these observations in Table E 12.1. From now on, do not change the position of the convex lens L1 and the position of the object pin P1. Insert the concave lens L2 in between the convex lens L1 and image pin P2. Now the image of object pin will shift further from the convex lens L1 to a point I2(say). Adjust the position of the concave lens so that the point I2 is sufficiently away from the point I1.
In case the image formed by the combination of convex and concave lenses is not distinctly visible, try to see it on moving the concave lens nearer to the point I1 and to locate the image by using a pencil
EXPERIMENT 1 2
Image of straight pin P1 I1 Object pin P1 O Image pin P2 L1 (a)
11. Note the position of uprights holding the concave lens and image pin P2, i.e., point I2. Note the readings in the Observation Table.
12. Change the position of upright holding the object pin P1 and repeat the steps 6 to 10. Take five sets of observations.
BSERVATIONS
1. Focal length of the convex lens, f L = ... cm
2. Length of the index needle as measured by the scale, s = ... cm
no t
= ... cm
3. Thickness of the thin concave lens (given) at its optical centre, t = ... cm 4. Actual length between the optical centre O of the lens and tip of the pin, l = s + t /2 = ... cm 5. Observed length of the index needle, l = Distance between the pole of the lens and tip of the pin = Position of lens upright - position of pin upright on the scale
Fig. E 12.3 Focal length of concave lens with the help of convex lens
held in hand, and keeping the image pin P2 at point I1 as a guide to decide which way to shift the concave lens L2. After having seen the clear image at point I2 and ensured that it lies within the range of the optical bench, move image pin P2 to locate the image (or point I2) more accurately using the method of parallax [Fig. E 12.3(b)]. Since the image forming at I2 is quite enlarged, it can be blurred.
95
LABORATORY MANUAL
Table E 12.1: Determination of u, v, and f of concave lens Sl. No.
Object pin upright P1, a (cm)
Position of
Image formed by L1 and L2 , point I2 , g (cm) Corrected u = Observed u + e (cm)
Corrected v = Observed v + e (cm)
Image formed by L1 , point I 1, c (cm)
f = uv/(u v) (cm)
Concave lens L2 upright, d (cm)
Convex lens L1 upright, b (cm)
Observed v = g d (cm)
Observed u = c d (cm)
no t
96
1 2 5 --
Mean
6. Index correction, e = l l = ... cm
ALCULATIONS
f (cm)
Find the focal length of the concave lens using the formula f Error
uv uv
1 1 1 = f v u
f v u + 2 = f v2 u 2 v
f = f 2 2 + 2 u v
where u, v represent least counts of the measuring scale. Values of u, v, f are to be taken from the Observation Table. Maximum of the five values of the error f is to be reported with the result as error.
EXPERIMENT 1 2
R P
ESULT
The focal length of the given concave lens is (f f ) = ... ...cm. Here f is mean value of the focal length.
RECAUTIONS
1. The concave lens must be placed near the convex lens. In fact, the second image I2 is formed only when the distance between concave lens L2 and first image I1 (which acts as virtual object for the concave lens) is less than the focal length of the concave lens.
2. Since the image formed at I 2 is quite enlarged, it can be blurred. Therefore, it would be preferable to use a thin and sharp object pin and shine it with light using a lighted electric bulb. 3. The convex lens and the pin P1 must not be disturbed during the second part of the experiment.
4. A diminished, real and inverted image of the image pin P 2 might also be formed by the light rays reflecting from the concave surface of the lens L 2. It should not be confused with the bold and bright image formed by the combination of convex and concave lenses. 5. Index correction/ bench correction for u and v should be made.
OURCES OF ERROR
1. If tip of object pin and optical centre of the lens are not aligned properly (if not brought at the same horizontal level), image tip and image of object pin tip will not touch each other. There may be some gap between the two or there could be overlap between the two. In such situations, there can be error in removing parallax and it will lead to errors in the result. 2. For greater accuracy we should use sharply pointed object pin.
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ISCUSSION
1. As concave lens diverges the rays, the image formed by a concave lens alone will not be real and cannot be taken on a screen. To converge these diverging rays to form a real image, convex lens is used. 2. Diverging rays from concave lens can be made to fall normally on a concave mirror to get the real image formed at the point where object is placed. Hence, the focal length of the concave lens can be found by using a concave mirror also.
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LABORATORY MANUAL
3. Since the image I2 is quite enlarged, it can get blurred by chromatic aberration of the two lenses. Thus it is better to put a screen behind object pin P1 and thus do the entire experiment with one colour of light instead of with white light. For the same reason, pin P1 should be quite thin and sharp compared to pin P2.
ELF ASSESSMENT
1. In this experimental setup the combination of concave lens and convex lens separated by a distance d behaves as a single lens of 1 1 1 d focal length F. Check the relation F = f + f f f for any one of 1 2 1 2 the observations. 2. Calculate f by interchanging the value of u and v and compare it with the experimentally determined value of f.
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98
SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES 1. 2.
Plot a graph of uv against uv with uv on y-axis and uv on x-axis. Determine f from the slope of the graph. Repeat the experiment by using concave and convex lenses of different focal lengths, compare and analyse the results.
EXPERIMENT
EXPERIMENT
AIM
13
To determine the angle of minimum deviation for a given glass prism by plotting a graph between the angle of incidence and the angle of deviation.
Drawing board, triangular glass prism, metre scale, alpins, cellotape/drawing pins, graph paper, protractor, white paper sheets.
RINCIPLE
no t
A triangular prism has three rectangular lateral surfaces and two triangular bases. The line along which any two faces (refracting surfaces) of the prism meet is the refracting edge of the prism and the angle between them is the angle of the prism. For this experiment, it is convenient to place the prism with its rectangular surfaces vertical. The principal section ABC of the prism is obtained by a horizontal plane perpendicular to the refracting edge (Fig. E 13.1).
A ray of light PQ (from air to glass) incident on the first face AB at an angle i is refracted at an angle r along QR and finally, emerges along RS. The dotted lines in the figure represent the normal to the surfaces. The angle of incidence (from glass to air) at the second face AC is r and the angle of refraction (or emergence) is e . The angle between the direction of incident ray PQ (produced forward) and the direction of emergent ray RS (produced backward) is the angle of deviation .
Fig. E 13.1 Refraction of light through a glass prism
99
LABORATORY MANUAL
From geometrical considerations we have (E 13.1) (E 13.2) r + r = A
= (i r) + (e r) = i + e A
At the position of the prism for minimum deviation m, the light ray passes through the prism symmetrically, i.e. parallel to the base so that when
no t
100
P
ROCEDURE
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
= m , i = e which implies r = r .
The advantage of putting the prism in minimum deviation position is that the image is brightest in this position.
Fix a white sheet of paper on a drawing board with the help of cellotape or drawing pins.
Draw a straight line XY, using a sharp pencil nearly in the middle and parallel to the length of the paper. Mark points O1, O2, O3. ., . . . . on the straight line XY at suitable distances of about 8 to 10 cm and draw normals N1 O1, N2 O 2, N3 O3. . . . on these points (Fig. E 13.2).
Fig. E 13.2 Refraction of light through a glass prism for various angles of incidence
Draw straight lines, P1 O1, P 2 O2, P 3 O3, . . . corresponding to the incident rays making angles of incidence at 35, 40, 45 , 50, ... 60 respectively with the normals, using a protractor. Write the values of the angles P1 O1 N1, P 2 O2 N 2, P 3 O3 N 3,... on the white paper sheet ( Fig. E 13.2). Place the prism with its refracting face AB on the line XY with point O1 in the middle of AB as shown in the figure. Draw the boundary of the prism with a sharp pencil.
EXPERIMENT 1 3
6 . Fix two alpins P l and Q1 with sharp tips vertically about 10 cm apart, on the incident ray line Pl Ql such that pin Q 1 is close to point O1. Close one eye (say left) and looking through the prism, bring your right eye in line with the images of the pins Pl and Ql. Fix alpins Rl and Sl about 10 cm apart vertically on the white paper sheet with their tips in line with the tips of the images of pins Pl and Ql. In this way pins R1 and S1 will become collinear, with the images of pins P1 and Q1.
8. Join the points ( or pin pricks) Rl and Sl with the help of a sharp pencil and scale, to obtain the emergent ray Rl Sl. Produce it backwards to meet the incident ray Pl Ql (produced forward) at T 1. Draw arrowheads on P l Q l and R1 S1 to show the direction of the rays.
9. Measure the angle of deviation l and the angle BAC (angle A) of the prism (Fig. E 13.1) with a protractor and write the values of these angles indicated in the diagram.
10. Repeat steps 5 to 9 for different values of angle of incidence (40 , 45 , 50 ...) and measure the corresponding angles of deviation 2, 3... with the protractor, and indicate them in the respective diagrams. 11. Record observations in tabular form with proper units and significant figures.
BSERVATIONS
Least count of the protractor = ...(degree) Angle of the prism, A = ...(degree)
no t
Sl. No. 1 2 3 -10
Table E 13.1: Measuring the angle of incidence, i and angle of deviation for a prism Angle of incidence, i (degrees) Angle of deviation, (degrees)
7. Remove the pins Rl and Sl and encircle their pin pricks on the white paper sheet with the help of a sharp pencil. Remove the pins P1 and Q1 and encircle their pin pricks also.
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LABORATORY MANUAL
Plotting the graph between i and for the prism Take angle of incidence i along x-axis and angle of deviation along y-axis, using the observed values from Table E 13.1. Choose suitable scales on these axes and plot a graph between i and . Take care that you draw a free hand smooth curve passing practically through all the plotted points on the graph (Fig. E 13.3).
no t
102
Fig. E 13.3 Graph between angle of incidence and angle of deviation
ALCULATIONS
Draw tangent on the lowest point of the graph parallel to x-axis, read the angle of minimum deviation m on the y-axis of the graph. Express the result with proper significant figures.
R P
ESULT
Angle of minimum deviation, m = ... ... degree
RECAUTIONS
1. Alpins should be fixed vertically to the plane of paper. 2. Distance PQ and RS should be about 10 cm in order to locate incident and emergent rays with greater accuracy. 3. Same angle of prism should be used for all observations. 4. Position of the prism should not be disturbed for a given set of observations.
EXPERIMENT 1 3
OURCES OF ERROR
1. If the three angles of refraction between adjacent pairs of faces are not equal, then A + i + e. 2. There may be an error in measuring the values of the angles.
1. It is suggested that the value of angle of incidence be taken more than 35. This is required for angles less than 35 as there is a possibility of total internal reflection inside the prism. 2. You must check your readings by applying the formula i + e = A + .
3. The i curve that is obtained in this experiment is a non-linear curve. In such situations, more readings should be taken in the minimum deviation region to be able to obtain the value of angle of minimum deviation accurately. For example, if readings are taken initially at 35, 40, 45 and 50 and if the i data points are situated as shown in Fig. E 13.3 then a few more readings need to be taken for values of i in the range 45 to 55 say, at a difference of 1 or 2. Taking more readings in this region will help in drawing a smooth curve. This will enable you to locate the position of the lowest point on the graph more accurately.
4. In the condition of minimum deviation, the refracted ray inside the prism becomes parallel to its base so as to satisfy the condition r = r.
5. The graph does not show a sharp minimum. We have same deviation for a range of angle of incidence near minimum deviation. Therefore extra care should be taken in drawing tangential line to the i graph at minimum deviation.
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ELF ASSESSMENT
1. Interpret the graph between i and . 2. If the experiment is performed with angle of emergence taken as angle of incidence, will there be any change in the values? If yes, why? If not, why not? 3. What will happen if you go on decreasing the angle of incidence? If you think there is a minimum, try to find its expression theoretically. What happens when i is less than the minimum angle of incidence?
103
ISCUSSION
LABORATORY MANUAL
SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES 1. Use the following equation to calculate refractive index of the material of the prism from the measured value of the angle A and m determined from the graph. n= 2. Sin i Sin r = Sin [( A+ m )/2] Sin (A/2 )
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104
3. 4. 5.
Measure the angle of emergence e corresponding to the value of each angle of incidence i and angle of deviation you have observed. Compute the values of (i + e) and (A + ) and see how they compare.
Draw parallel horizontal lines cutting the i curve, you have drawn, at various values of i and e. Find out the mid points of these horizontal lines and join these mid points. What is the shape of the curve so obtained? If you find that this shape resembles that of a straight line, find its (i) slope (ii) y-intercept and (iii) x-intercept. Determine the refractive index of different liquids using a hollow prism by plotting i graph.
Measure r and r and e from the figures you have drawn. Find the refractive index of the material of the prism from the values of i and r and e and r .
DATA SECTION
TABLE DS1.1: Some important constants Name Speed of light in vacuum Charge of electron Gravitational constant Planck constant Boltzmann constant Avogadro number Universal gas constant Mass of electron Mass of neutron Mass of proton Electron-charge to mass ratio Faraday constant Rydberg constant Bohr radius Stefan-Boltzmann constant Wiens constant Permittivity of free space Permeability of free space Symbol c e G h k NA R me mn mp e/me F R a0 b 0 Value 2.9979 108 m s1 1.602 1019 C 6.673 1011 N m2 kg 2 6.626 1034 J s 1.381 1023 J K1 6.022 1023 mol1 8.314 J mol1 K1 9.110 1031 kg 1.675 1027 kg 1.673 1027 kg 1.759 1011 C/kg 9.648 104 C/mol 1.097 107 m1 5.292 1011 m 5.670 108 W m2 K4 2.898 103 m K 8.854 1012 C2 N 1 m2 8.987 109 N m 2 C 2 4 107 T m A1
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1/40
1.257 106 Wb A1m1
TABLE DS 1.2: Other useful contstants Symbol
Name
Value
Mechanical equivalent of heat Standard atmospheric pressure Absolute zero Electron volt Unified Atomic mass unit Electron rest energy Energy equivalent of 1 u Volume of ideal gas (0 C and 1 atm) Acceleration due to gravity (sea level, at equator)
J 1 atm 0K 1 eV 1u mc 2 1 uc2 V g
4.186 J cal1 1.013 105 Pa 273.15 C 1.602 1019 J 1.661 1027 kg 0.511 MeV 931.5 MeV 22.4 L mol1 9.78049 m s2
LABORATORY MANUAL
TABLE DS 2: E. M.F. of cells Cell Daniell Grove Lechlanche Voltaic Bunsen E.M.F. (V) 1.08 1.09 1.8 1.9 1.45 1.01 1.95 Cell Cadmium at 20C Lead accumulator Edison cell Clarke Ni-Fe E.M.F. (V) 1.018 54 1.9 2.2 1.45 1.43 1.20
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288
TABLE DS 3: Refractive index of substances : For sodium light = 5896 1010 m Solid Refractive index 2.417 Liquid Refractive Index 1.53 Diamond Canada balsam Water Alcohol (ethyl) Glass (crown) Glass (flint) Glass(soda) Ice 1.48 1.61 1.50 1.333 1.362 1.595 1.501 1.516 1.450 1.350 1.47 1.46 1.53 1.96 Aniline Benzene 1.31 Cedar oil Ether Mica 1.56 1.60 1.54 Chloroform Rock-salt Glycerine Quartz (O - Ray) 1.5443 Olive oil Quartz (E - Ray) 1.5534 Paraffin oil 1.44 Quartz (fused) 1.458 Kerosene oil 1.39 Turpentine oil 1.44 TABLE DS 4: Wavelength of spectral lines : (in , 1 = 10 10 m) [The visible spectrum colours are indicated r , o, y, g , b, i , v ] Helium Mercury 4047 v Neon Sodium Hydrogen 3970 v 3889 v 5765 y (D2) 5890 o 4102 v 4026 v 4078 v 4358 v 4916 b, g 4960 g 5461 g 5770 y 5791 y 6152 o 6322 o 5853 y 5882 o 6597 r 7245 r (D1) 5896 o 4340 b 6563 r 4471 b 5876 y 6678 r 7065 r 4861 gb
DATA SECTION
TABLE DS 5: Electromagnetic spectrum (wavelength)
Range Wireless waves Infra-red Visible Red Visible Orange Visible Yellow Visible Green Visible Blue Ultra Violet 3.0 104 m 7.5 107 m 6.5 107 m 5.9 107 m
7
Wavelength 5 m and above to to to to to to to to to 7.5 107 m 6.5 107 m 5.9 107 m 5.3 107 m 4.9 107 m 4.2 107 m 3.9 107 m 1.8 107 m 1.0 107 m
Visible Indigo Soft X-Rays
Hard X-Rays
Gamma Rays
TABLE DS 6: Standard Wire Gauges (S.W.G.) and resistances for a metre length of constantan and manganin S.W.G. No. Diameter Resistance ()
(mm)
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46
3.25 2.64 2.03 1.63 1.22 0.914 0.711 0.559 0.457 0.374 0.315 0.274 0.234 0.193 0.152 0.122 0.102 0.081 0.061
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5.3 10 m 4.9 107 m 4.2 107 m
7
3.9 107 m m
2.0 10
1.0 1010 m
to
1.0 1011 m
5.0 1011 m
to
5.0 1012 m
Copper
Constantan (60% Cu, 40% Ni) 0.057 0.086 0.146 0.228 0.405 0.722 1.20 1.93 2.89 4.27 6.08 8.02 11.1 16.2 26.0 40.6 58.5 91.4 162.5
Manganin (84% Cu, 4% Ni, 12% Mn) 0.051 0.077 0.131 0.204 0.361 0.645 1.07 1.73 2.58 3.82 5.45 7.18 9.9 14.5 23.2 36.3 53.4 81.7 145.5
0.0021 0.0032 0.0054 0.0083 0.0148 0.0260 0.0435 0.070 0.105 0.155 0.222 0.293 0.404 0.590 0.950 1.48 2.10 3.30 5.90
289
LABORATORY MANUAL
TABLE DS 7: Dielectric Constants of Common Materials Material Temperature (C) Amber Amber Soda glass Fused quartz 20 20 20 20 Frequency (Hz) 106 3 109 106 10 to 10
3 8
Dielectric Constant 2.8 2.6 7.5 3.8 2.2 2.2 8 3 10
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290
Liquid paraffin (Medical Grade) 20 Transformer oil (Class B) Marble Sand (dry) Sandstone 20 20 20 103
3
10 106 106
20
106
Paper (Oil impregnated condenser tissue) Mica Cellulose Acetate
20 20 20
103 103 to 108 106 10

6
2.3 5.4 to 7 3.3 3.5 4 4 3
Epoxy resin (e.g. Araldite) Vinyl Acetate (Plasticised) Vinyl Chloride (P.V.C.) Ebonite (Pure) Rubber, Synthetic Paraffin wax
20
106
20
20 20
106 106
6
Rubber (Vulcanised soft)
20
106 106
3.2 2.5 2.2 3.4 2.0 5
20
10
20
Sulphur Walnut wood (dry) Vacuum Air
20 20 20
3 10 107 107 any

6
Walnut (17% moisture)
NA 20
1.00000 1.00054 5.5 1200 80 64
Upto 3 109
Porcelain Barium titanate Rutile group Water Water
20 20 20 20 20
10 106 109 10
106 to 109
10
40 to 80
DATA SECTION
TABLE DS 8: Typical objects with electrostatic charge 1 2
Object 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Balloon of 20cm diameter rubbed all round by nylon cloth Metal sphere on insulated stand rubbed by silk (dia 9 cm) Metal sphere charged by a school type Van-de-Graaff generator Boy on an insulated stool repeatedly charged by electrophorus 30 cm 30 cm improvised capacitor with wax soaked tissue paper dielectric (K = 2.7, A = 700 cm and d = 0.4 mm) and charged by a 9 V battery. -do- plates separated to 2 cm apart. Flash gun capacitors (professional type)
Energy E =
C V2
11 pF 5 pF 5 pF
200 V 500 V 0.25 MV 3000 V
2.2 nC 2.5 nC 1.25 C
0.22 J* 0.62 J* 0.16 J
6. 7. 8.
Average lighting between earth and cloud (h = 1 to 5 km)
9.
(a) Earth and ionised air of high conductivity at top of stratosphere ( h = 50 km) (b) Ionisation current between earth and ionosphere in fair weather.
10. Charged plate of good electrophorous (diameter 20 to 30 cm) in dry weather, after lifting it up.
*These bodies in your school laboratory are not dangerous to touch.
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50 pF 150 nC 225 J* 4 nF 9V 36 nC 162 nJ* 80 pF 450 V 36 nC 8.1 J* 40 J 500 pF 400 V 0.2 nC 10 8 V to 109 V 20 C 10 9 to 1010 J 0.4 MV 5.7 105 C 1011 J 0.4 MV 1800 C/s 7 10 8 J/s 10 pF 3000 V 30 nC 45 J*
291
LABORATORY MANUAL
TABLE DS 9: Electrical resistivities of typical metals and alloys Resistivity (108 ohm metre) Material 0C 100C 300C 700C Temperature coefficient at 0C (over range 0C-100C (104 ) 45 43
Aluminium Chromium Copper Iron Lead
2.45 12.7 1.56
3.55 16.1 2.24
5.9 25.2 3.6 50
24.7 47.2 6.7
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292
8.9 14.7 27.0 31.5 85.5 65 40 19.0 107.6 42 Gold 2.04 2.84 Mercury Nickel 94.0766* 6.14 103.5 10.33 128 22.5 21.0 10 68 Platinum 9.81 13.65 34.3 39.2 PlatinumRhodium (87/13) PlatinumRhodium (90/10) 19.0 22.0 15.6 18.7 21.8 16.6 PlatinumIridium (90/10) Silver Tin 24.8 1.51 4.9 28.0 13 2.13 7.3 3.42 50 6.5 24 41 11.5(20C) 15.8 7.8 60 46 Tungsten 12.4 48 Zinc 5.5 13.0 37(500C) 42 Mercury at 0C is used as a secondary standard to realise the standard unit of resistance, ohm.
DATA SECTION
TABLE DS 10: Electrical resistivities of common insulators and semiconductors
Substance
Resistivity (ohm metre) 10 10 to 1011 1014 5 5 109 10

6
Substance
(Resistivity (ohm metre) 3.5 2.7 2.1 1.1 0.9 10 5 10 5 10 5 10 5 10 5
Diamond Ebonite Glass (Soda lime) Glass (Pyrex) Mica Glass (conducting) Paper (dry) Porcelain
Carbon 0C Carbon 500C Carbon 1000C Carbon 2000C Carbon 2500C Silicon 0C
Paraffin wax
Sulphur (rhombic)
Material
Semiconductors Germanium Silicon
Doped Si with P with Insulators Diamond
*Values are approximate, they give an idea about order of magnitude only.
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1012 10 11 1015
14
Germanium 0C
0.46
1010 10
2300
10 10 to 1013 10 2 1
TABLE DS : 11 Data for intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors No. density per m3 * electronhole pairs at 300 K Mobility Electrons (m2 V 1 s 1) Mobility holes (m2 V 1 s 1)
Energy Gap (eV)
Conductivity (S m1)
Density (kg m3)
0.76
10 1 9
15
0.39
0.19
2.18 4.4 2.5
5320
1.12
10
0.135 0.135
0.048 ...
10 10
2300
0.045
2.5
10
21
2300
6 to 12
107
293
LABORATORY MANUAL
TABLE D S 12: Alloys of high resistance Alloy Resistivity 20 C (10 Constantan (58.8% Cu, 40% Ni,1.2% Mn) German Silver (65% Cu, 20% Zn, 15% Ni)
8
Temperature coefficient in range 0-100C (10 )

4
Max. Operating temperature (C)
ohm metre)
44 to 52
0.4 to + 0.1
500
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294
28 to 35 + 0.4 150 to 200 Manganin (85% Cu, 12% Mn, 3% Ni) Nickeline (54% Cu, 20% Zn, 26% Ni) 42 to 48 0.3 100 39 to 45 0.2 150 - 200 Nichrome (67.5% Ni, 15% Cr, 16% Fe, 1.5% Mn) 100 to 110 2.0 1000 TABLE DS 13: Transition temperature to the superconducting state Transition Substance Transition Substance temperature (K) temperature (K) Metals: Zinc Compounds: NiBi PbSe Cadmium 0.6 4.2 0.8 5.0 9.2 Aluminium Uranium 1.2 NbB 6.0 1.3 Nb2C Tin 3.7 4.7 7.3 nBC 10.1 to 10.5 15 to 16 18 Mercury Lead nBN Nb3Sn Niobium 9.2 YBa2Cu3 O7 90
DATA SECTION
LOGARITHMS
TABLE I
N 10 11 0 1 2 0086 0492 3 0128 0531 4 0170 0212 0414 0453 0569 0607 12 13 14 0792 0828 0864 0899 0934 0645 0682 0719 0755 0253 0294 0334 0374 5 6 7 8 9 1 5 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 9 8 8 7 7 7 6 7 6 6 3 13 12 12 11 11 10 10 10 9 9 4 17 16 16 15 14 14 13 13 5 6 7 30 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 8 9
0000 0043
21 26 2O 24 20 23 18 22 18 21 17 20 16 19 16 19
34 38 32 36 31 35 29 33 28 32 27 31 26 29 25 29
15 16
17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49
no t
0969 1303 1614 1903 1004 1038 1072 1106 1335 1367 1399 1430 1644 1673 1703 1732 1931 1959 1987 2014 2201 2227 2253 1139 1173 1461 1492 1206 1523 1239 1553 1271 1584 12 12 15 19 14 17 22 20 25 28 23 26 1761 1790 1818 1847 1875 3 3 6 6 9 8 11 11 14 17 14 17 20 19 23 26 22 25 2041 2068 2304 2330 2553 2577 2788 2810 3032 3243 3444 3636 3820 3997 4166 4330 4487 4639 4786 4928 5065 5198 5328 5453 5575 5694 5809 5922 6031 6138 6243 6345 6444 6542 6637 6730 6821 6911 2095 2122 2148 2175 2430 2672 2900 2279 3 3 6 5 8 8 11 10 14 16 13 16 19 18 22 24 21 23 2355 2601 2833 2380 2625 2856 2405 2648 2878 2455 2480 2504 2529 2695 2718 2742 2765 2923 2945 2967 2989 3160 3365 3560 3747 3927 4099 4265 4425 4579 4728 3181 3385 3579 3766 3945 4116 4281 4440 4594 4742 3 3 2 2 2 2 5 5 5 4 4 4 8 8 7 7 7 6 10 10 9 9 9 8 13 15 12 15 18 17 20 23 20 22 12 14 11 14 17 16 19 21 18 21 11 13 11 13 16 15 18 20 17 19 17 16 15 15 14 14 13 13 12 12 11 11 11 10 10 3010 3222 3424 3617 3802 3979 4150 4314 4472 4624 4771 4914 5051 5185 5315 5441 5563 5682 5798 5911 6021 6128 6232 6335 6435 6532 6628 6721 6812 6902 3054 3263 3464 3655 3838 4014 4183 4346 4502 4654 3075 3284 3483 3674 3856 4031 4200 4362 4518 4669 3096 3304 3502 3692 3874 4048 4216 4378 4533 4683 3118 3324 3522 3711 3892 4065 4232 4393 4548 4698 3139 3345 3541 3729 3909 4082 4249 4409 4564 4713 3201 3404 3598 3784 3962 4133 4298 4456 4609 4757 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 5 4 8 8 8 7 7 7 7 6 6 6 11 13 10 12 10 12 9 11 9 11 9 10 8 10 8 9 8 9 7 9 9 8 8 8 8 7 7 7 7 7 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 15 14 14 13 12 12 11 11 11 10 10 10 9 9 9 9 8 8 8 8 8 7 7 7 7 7 7 6 6 6 19 18 17 17 16 15 15 14 14 13 13 12 12 12 11 4800 4942 5079 5211 5340 5465 5587 5705 5821 5933 6042 6149 6253 6355 6454 6551 6646 6739 6830 6920 4814 4955 5092 5224 5353 5478 5599 5717 5832 5944 6053 6160 6263 6365 6464 6561 6656 6749 6839 6928 4829 4969 5105 5237 5366 5490 5611 5729 5843 5955 6064 6170 6274 6375 6474 6471 6665 6758 6848 6937 4843 4983 5119 5250 5378 5502 5623 5740 5855 5966 6075 6180 6284 6385 6484 6580 6675 6767 6857 6946 4857 4997 5132 5263 5391 5514 5635 5752 5866 5977 6085 6191 6294 6395 6493 6590 6684 6776 6866 6955 4871 5011 5145 5276 5403 5527 5647 5763 5877 5988 6096 6201 6304 6405 6503 6599 6693 6785 6875 6964 4886 5024 5159 5289 5416 5539 5658 5775 5888 5999 6107 6212 6314 6415 6513 6609 6702 6794 6884 6972 4900 5038 5172 5302 5428 5551 5670 5786 5899 6010 6117 6222 6325 6425 6522 6618 6712 6803 6893 6981 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 6 6 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 7 7 7 6 6 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 10 10 9 9 9 9 8 8 8 8 8 7 7 7 7 11 11 10 10 10 10 9 9 9 9 9 8 8 8 8
295
LABORATORY MANUAL
LOGARITHMS
TABLE 1 (Continued)
N 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 0 6990 7076 7160 7243 7324 7404 7482 7559 7634 7709 7782 7853 7924 7993 8062 8129 8195 8261 8325 8388 8451 8513 8573 8633 8692 8751 8808 8865 8921 8976 9031 9085 9138 9191 9243 9294 9345 9395 9445 9494 9542 9590 9638 9685 9731 9777 9823 9868 9912 9956 1 6998 7084 7168 7251 7332 7412 7490 7566 7642 7716 7789 7860 7931 8000 8069 8136 8202 8267 8331 8395 8457 8519 8579 8639 8698 8756 8814 8871 8927 8982 9036 9090 9143 9196 9248 9299 9350 9400 9450 9499 2 7007 7093 7177 7259 7340 7419 7497 7574 7649 7723 7796 7768 7938 8007 8075 8142 8209 8274 8338 8401 8463 8525 8585 8645 8704 8762 8820 8876 8932 8987 9042 9096 9149 9201 9253 9304 9355 9405 9455 9504 3 7016 7101 7185 7267 7348 7427 7505 7582 7657 7731 7803 7875 7945 8014 8082 8149 8215 8280 8344 8407 4 7024 7110 7193 7275 7356 7435 7513 7589 7664 7738 7810 7882 7952 8021 8089 8156 8222 8287 8351 8414 5 7033 7118 7202 7284 7364 7443 7520 7597 7672 7745 7818 7889 7959 8028 8096 8162 8228 8293 8357 8420 6 7042 7126 7210 7292 7372 7451 7528 7604 7679 7752 7825 7896 7966 8035 8102 8169 8235 8299 8363 8426 7 7050 7135 7218 7300 7380 7459 7536 7612 7686 7760 7832 7903 7973 8041 8109 8176 8241 8306 8370 8432 8 7059 7143 7226 7308 7388 7466 7543 7619 7694 7767 7839 7910 7980 8048 8116 8182 8248 8312 8376 8439 9 7067 7152 7235 7316 7396 7474 7551 7627 7701 7774 7846 7917 7987 8055 8122 8189 8254 8319 8382 8445 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 6 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 7 6 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 8 7 7 7 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 9 8 8 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7
no t
296
6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 8470 8531 8591 8651 8710 8768 8825 8882 8938 8993 9047 9101 9154 9206 9258 9309 9360 9410 9460 9509 8476 8537 8597 8657 8716 8774 8831 8887 8943 8998 9053 9106 9159 9212 9263 9315 9365 9415 9465 9513 8482 8543 8603 8663 8722 8779 8837 8893 8949 9004 9058 9112 9165 9217 9269 9320 9370 9420 9469 9518 8488 8549 8609 8669 8727 8785 8842 8899 8954 9009 9063 9117 9170 9222 9274 9325 9375 9425 9474 9523 8494 8555 8615 8675 8733 8791 8848 8904 8960 9015 9069 9122 9175 9227 9279 9330 9380 9430 9479 9528 8500 8561 8621 8681 8739 8797 8854 8910 8965 9020 9074 9128 9180 9232 9284 9335 9385 9435 9484 9533 8506 8567 8627 8686 8745 8802 8859 8915 8971 9025 9079 9133 9186 9238 9289 9340 9390 9440 9489 9538 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 6 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 9547 9595 9643 9689 9736 9782 9827 9872 9917 9961 9552 9600 9647 9694 9741 9786 9832 9877 9921 9965 9557 9605 9652 9699 9745 9791 9836 9881 9926 9969 9562 9609 9657 9703 9750 9795 9841 9886 9930 9974 9566 9614 9661 9708 9754 9800 9845 9890 9934 9978 9571 9619 9666 9713 9759 9805 9850 9894 9939 9983 9576 9624 9671 9717 9763 9809 9854 9899 9943 9987 9581 9628 9675 9722 9768 9814 9859 9903 9948 9997 9586 9633 9680 9727 9773 9818 9863 9908 9952 9996 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
DATA SECTION
ANTILOGARITHMS
TABLE II
N 00 .01 .02 .03 .04 .05 .06 .07 .08 .09 .10 .11 .12 .13 .14 .15 .16 .17 .18 .19 .20 .21 .22 .23 .24 0 1000 1023 1047 1072 1096 1122 1148 1175 1202 1230 1259 1288 1318 1349 1380 1413 1445 1479 1514 1549 1 1002 1026 1050 1074 1099 1125 1151 1178 1205 1233 1262 1291 1321 1352 1384 1416 1449 1483 1517 1552 2 1005 1028 1052 1076 1102 1127 1153 1180 1208 1236 1265 1294 1324 1355 1387 1419 1452 1486 1521 1556 3 1007 1030 1054 1079 1104 1130 1156 1183 1211 1239 1268 1297 1327 1358 1390 1422 1455 1489 1524 1560 4 1009 1033 1057 1081 1107 1132 1159 1186 1213 1242 1271 1300 1330 1361 1393 1426 1459 1493 1528 1563 5 1012 1035 1059 1084 1109 1135 1161 1189 1216 1245 1274 1303 1334 1365 1396 1429 1462 1496 1531 1567 6 1014 1038 1062 1086 1112 1138 1164 1191 1219 1247 1276 1306 1337 1368 1400 1432 1466 1500 1535 1570 7 1016 1040 1064 1089 1114 1140 1167 1194 1222 1250 1279 1309 1340 1371 1403 1435 1469 1503 1538 1574 8 1019 1042 1067 1091 1117 1143 1169 1197 1225 1253 1282 1312 1343 1374 1406 1439 1472 1507 1542 1578 9 1021 1045 1069 1094 1119 1146 1172 1199 1227 1256 1285 1315 1346 1377 1409 1442 1476 1510 1545 1581 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 7 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 8 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 9 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3
.25 .26 .27 .28 .29 .30 .31 .32 .33 .34 .35 .36 .37 .38 .39 .40 .41 .42 .43 .44 .45 .46 .47 .48
no t
.49 3090 3097
1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 1585 1622 1660 1698 1738 1778 1820 1862 1905 1950 1995 2042 2089 2138 2188 2239 2291 2344 2399 2455 2512 2570 2630 2692 2754 2818 2884 2951 3020 1589 1626 1663 1702 1742 1782 1824 1866 1910 1954 2000 2046 2094 2143 2193 2244 2296 2350 2404 2460 2518 2576 2636 2698 2761 2825 2891 2958 3027 1592 1629 1667 1706 1746 1786 1828 1871 1914 1959 2004 2051 2099 2148 2198 2249 2301 2355 2410 2466 2523 2582 2642 2704 2767 2831 2897 2965 3034 3105 1596 1633 1671 1710 1750 1791 1832 1875 1919 1963 2009 2056 2104 2153 2203 2254 2307 2360 2415 2472 2529 2588 2649 2710 2773 2838 2904 2972 3041 3112 1600 1637 1675 1714 1754 1795 1837 1879 1923 1968 2014 2061 2109 2158 2208 2259 2312 2366 2421 2477 2535 2594 2655 2716 2780 2844 2911 2979 3048 3119 1603 1641 1679 1718 1758 1799 1841 1884 1928 1972 2018 2065 2113 2163 2213 2265 2317 2371 2427 2483 2541 2600 2661 2723 2786 2851 2917 2985 3055 3126 1607 1644 1683 1722 1762 1803 1845 1888 1932 1977 2023 2070 2118 2168 2218 2270 2323 2377 2432 2489 2547 2606 2667 2729 2793 2858 2924 2992 3062 1611 1648 1687 1726 1766 1807 1849 1892 1936 1982 2028 2075 2123 2173 2223 2275 2328 2382 2438 2495 2553 2612 2673 2735 2799 2864 2931 2999 3069 1614 1652 1690 1730 1770 1811 1854 1897 1941 1986 2032 2080 2128 2178 2228 2280 2333 2388 2443 2500 2559 2618 2679 2742 2805 2871 2938 3006 3076 1618 1656 1694 1734 1774 1816 1858 1901 1945 1991 2037 2084 2133 2183 2234 2286 2339 2393 2449 2506 2564 2624 2685 2748 2812 2877 2944 3013 3083 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 3133 3141 3148 3155
297
LABORATORY MANUAL
ANTILOGARITHMS
TABLE II (Continued)
N .50 .51 .52 .53 .54 .55 .56 0 3162 3236 3311 3388 3467 3548 3631 1 3170 3243 3319 3396 3475 3556 3639 2 3177 3251 3327 3404 3483 3565 3648 3733 3819 3908 3 3184 3258 3334 3412 3491 3573 3656 3741 3828 3917 4 3192 3266 3342 3420 3499 3581 3664 3750 3837 3926 5 3199 3273 3350 3428 3508 3589 3673 3758 3846 3936 6 3206 3281 3357 3436 3516 3597 3681 7 3214 3289 3365 3443 3524 3606 3690 8 3221 3296 3373 3451 3532 3614 3698 9 3228 3304 3381 3459 3540 3622 3707 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 6 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 7 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 8 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 7 9 7 7 7 7 7 7 8 8 8 8
no t
298
.57 3715 3724 .58 3802 3811 .59 3890 3899 .60 .61 .62 .63 .64 .65 .66 .67 .68 .69 .70 .71 .72 .73 .74 .75 .76 .77 .78 .79 .80 .81 .82 .83 .84 .85 .86 .87 .88 .89 3981 4074 4169 4266 4365 4467 4571 4677 4786 4898 3767 3776 3784 3793 3855 3864 3873 3882 3945 3954 3963 3972 4046 4140 4236 4335 4436 4539 4645 4753 4864 4977 4055 4150 4246 4345 4446 4550 4656 4764 4875 4989 4064 4159 42S6 4355 4457 4560 4667 4775 4887 5000 3990 4083 4178 4276 4375 4477 4581 4688 4797 4909 3999 4093 4188 4285 4385 4487 4592 4699 4808 4920 4009 4102 4198 4295 4395 4498 4603 4710 4819 4932 4018 4111 4207 4305 4406 4508 4613 4721 4831 4943 5058 5176 5297 5420 5546 5675 5808 5943 6081 6223 6368 6516 6668 6823 6982 4027 4121 4217 4315 4416 4519 4624 4732 4842 4955 4036 4130 4227 4325 4426 4529 4634 4742 4853 4966 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 6 7 7 7 7 7 7 8 8 8 7 8 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 9 8 9 9 9 9 9 10 10 10 10 5012 5129 5248 5370 5495 5623 5754 5888 6026 6166 6310 6457 6607 6761 6918 7079 7244 7413 7586 7762 5023 5140 5260 5383 5508 5636 5768 5902 6039 6180 6324 6471 6622 6776 6934 7096 7261 7430 7603 7780 5035 5152 5272 5395 5521 5649 5781 5916 6053 6194 6339 6486 6637 6792 6950 5047 5164 5284 5408 5534 5662 5794 5929 6067 6209 6353 6501 6653 6808 6966 5070 5188 5309 5433 5559 5689 5821 5957 6095 6237 6383 6531 6683 6839 6998 5082 5200 5321 5445 5572 5702 5834 5970 6109 6252 6397 6546 6699 6855 7015 5093 5212 5333 5458 5585 5715 5848 5984 6124 6266 6412 6561 6714 6871 7031 5105 5224 5346 5470 5598 5728 5861 5998 6138 6281 6427 6577 6730 6887 7047 5117 5236 5358 5483 5610 5741 5875 6012 6152 6295 6442 6592 6745 6902 7063 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 7 7 8 8 8 8 7 7 7 8 8 8 8 8 8 9 8 8 9 9 9 9 9 10 10 10 10 11 11 11 11 9 11 10 11 10 11 10 11 10 12 10 12 11 12 11 12 11 13 11 13 12 13 12 14 12 14 1314 13 15 9 9 9 9 10 7112 7278 7447 7621 7798 7980 8166 8356 8551 8750 7129 7295 7464 7638 7816 7145 7311 7482 7656 7834 7161 7328 7499 7674 7852 7178 7345 7516 7691 7870 7194 7362 7534 7709 7889 7211 7379 7551 7727 7907 7228 7396 7568 7745 7925 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 7 7 7 7 7 8 8 9 9 9 10 10 10 11 11 12 12 12 12 13 13 15 13 15 14 16 14 16 14 16 .90 .91 .92 .93 .94 7943 8128 8318 8511 8710 7962 8147 8337 8531 8730 7998 8185 8375 8570 8770 8017 8204 8395 8590 8790 8035 8222 8414 8610 8810 8054 8241 8433 8630 8831 8072 8260 8453 8650 8851 8091 8279 8472 8670 8872 8110 8299 8492 8690 8892 9099 9311 9528 9750 9977 2 2 2 2 2 4 4 4 4 4 6 6 6 6 6 7 8 8 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 9 9 10 10 10 10 11 11 11 11 11 11 12 12 12 12 13 13 13 14 13 13 14 14 14 15 15 15 16 16 15 17 15 17 15 17 16 18 16 18 17 19 17 19 17 20 18 20 18 20 .95 .96 .97 .98 .99 8913 9120 9333 9550 9772 8933 9141 9354 9572 9795 8954 9162 9376 9594 9817 8974 9183 9397 9616 9840 8995 9204 9419 9638 9863 9016 9226 9441 9661 9886 9036 9247 9462 9683 9908 9057 9268 9484 9705 9931 9078 9290 9506 9727 9954 2 2 2 2 2 4 4 4 4 5 6 6 7 7 7
DATA SECTION
NATURAL SINES
TABLE I
0' 0.0 6' 0.1 12' 0.2 18' 0.3 24' 0.4 30' 0.5 36' 0.6 42' 0.7 48' 0.8 54' 0.9 1' 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 .0000 .0175 .0349 .0523 .0698 .0872 .1045 .1219 .1392 0017 0192 0366 0541 0715 0889 1063 1236 1409 0035 0209 0384 0558 0732 0906 1080 1253 1426 0052 0227 0401 0576 0750 0924 1097 1271 1444 0070 0244 0419 0593 0767 0941 1115 1288 1461 0087 0262 0436 0610 0785 0958 1132 1305 1478 0105 0279 0454 0628 0802 0976 1149 1323 1495 0122 0297 0471 0645 0819 0993 1167 1340 1513 0140 0314 0488 0663 0837 1011 1184 1357 1530 0157 0332 0506 0680 0854 1028 1201 1374 1547 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 Mean Differences 2' 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 3' 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 4' 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 5' 15 15 15 15 15 14 14 14 14
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44
no t
.1564 .1736 .1908 .2079 .2250 .2419 .2588 .2756 .2924 .3090 .3256 .3420 .3584 .3746 .3907 .4067 .4226 1582 1754 1925 2096 2267 2436 2605 2773 2940 3107 3272 3437 3600 3762 3923 4083 4242 1599 1771 1942 2113 2284 2453 2622 2790 2957 3123 3289 3453 3616 3778 3939 4099 4258 1616 1788 1959 2130 2300 2470 2639 2807 2974 3140 3305 3469 3633 3795 3955 4115 4274 1633 1805 1977 2147 2317 2487 2656 2823 2990 3156 3322 3486 3649 3811 3971 4131 4289 1650 1822 1994 2164 2334 2504 2672 2840 3007 3173 3338 3502 3665 3827 3987 4147 4305 1668 1840 2011 2181 2351 2521 2689 2857 3024 3190 3355 3518 3681 3843 4003 4163 4321 1685 1857 2028 2198 2368 2538 2706 2874 3040 3206 3371 3535 3697 3859 4019 4179 4337 1702 1874 2045 2215 2385 2554 2723 2890 3057 3223 3387 3551 3714 3875 4035 4195 4352 1719 1891 2062 2232 2402 2571 2740 2907 3074 3239 3404 3567 3730 3891 4051 4210 4368 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 9 9 9 9 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 12 12 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 13 13 13 13 13 13 12 12 12 12 12 .4384 .4540 .4695 .4848 .5000 .5150 .5299 .5446 .5592 .5736 .5878 .6018 .6157 .6293 .6428 .6561 .6691 .6820 .6947 4399 4555 4710 4863 5015 5165 5314 5461 5606 5750 5892 6032 6170 6307 6441 6574 6704 6833 6959 4415 4571 4726 4879 5030 5180 5329 5476 5621 5764 5906 6046 6184 6320 6455 6587 6717 6845 6972 4431 4586 4741 4894 5045 5195 5344 5490 5635 5779 5920 6060 6198 6334 6468 6600 6730 6858 6984 4446 4602 4756 4909 5060 5210 5358 5505 5650 5793 5934 6074 6211 6347 6481 6613 6743 6871 6997 4462 4617 4772 4924 5075 5225 5373 5519 5664 5807 5948 6088 6225 6361 6494 6626 6756 6884 7009 4478 4633 4787 4939 5090 5240 5388 5534 5678 5821 5962 6101 6239 6374 6508 6639 6769 6896 7022 4493 4648 4802 4955 5105 5255 5402 5548 5693 5835 5976 6115 6252 6388 6521 6652 6782 6909 7034 4509 4664 4818 4970 5120 5270 5417 5563 5707 5850 5990 6129 6266 6401 6534 6665 6794 6921 7046 4524 4679 4833 4985 5135 5284 5432 5577 5721 5864 6004 6143 6280 6414 6547 6678 6807 6934 7059 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 8 8 8 8 8 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 6 6 6 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 8 8 13 12 12 11 11 11 11 11 11 10
299
LABORATORY MANUAL
NATURAL SINES
TABLE I (Continued)
0' 0.0 6' 0.1 12' 0.2 18' 0.3 24' 0.4 30' 0.5 36' 0.6 42' 0.7 48' 0.8 54' 0.9 1' 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 .7071 .7193 .7314 .7431 .7547 .7660 .7771 .7880 .7986 .8090 .8192 .8290 .8387 .8480 .8572 .8660 .8746 .8829 .8910 .8988 .9063 .9135 .9205 .9272 .9336 .9397 .9455 .9511 .9563 .9613 .9659 .9703 .9744 .9781 .9816 .9848 .9877 .9903 .9925 :9945 .9962 .9976 .9986 .9994 7083 7206 7325 7443 7558 7672 7782 7891 7997 8100 8202 8300 8396 8490 8581 8669 8755 8838 8918 8996 9070 9143 9212 9278 9342 9403 9461 9516 9568 9617 9664 9707 9748 9785 9820 9851 9880 9905 9928 9947 9963 9977 9987 9995 7096 7218 7337 7455 7570 7683 7793 7902 8007 8111 8211 8310 8406 8499 8590 8678 8763 8846 8926 9003 9078 9150 9219 9285 9348 9409 9466 9521 9573 9622 9668 9711 9751 9789 9823 9854 9882 9907 9930 9949 9965 9978 9988 9995 9999 7108 7230 7349 7466 7581 7694 7804 7912 8018 8121 8221 8320 8415 8508 8599 8686 8771 8854 8934 9011 9085 9157 9225 9291 9354 9415 9472 9527 9578 9627 9673 9715 9755 9792 9826 9857 9885 9910 9932 9951 9966 9979 9989 9996 9999 7120 7242 7361 7478 7593 7705 7815 7923 8028 8131 8231 8329 8425 8517 8607 8695 8780 8862 8942 9018 9092 9164 9232 9298 9361 9421 9478 9532 9583 9632 9677 9720 9759 9796 9829 9860 9888 9912 9934 9952 9968 9980 9990 9996 9999 7133 7254 7373 7490 7604 7716 7826 7934 8039 8141 8241 8339 8434 8526 8616 8704 8788 8870 8949 9026 9100 9171 9239 9304 9367 9426 9483 9537 9588 9636 9681 9724 9763 9799 9833 9863 9890 9914 9936 9954 9969 9981 9990 9997 1.000 7145 7266 7385 7501 7615 7727 7837 7944 8049 8151 8251 8348 8443 8536 8625 8712 8796 8878 8957 9033 9107 9178 9245 9311 9373 9432 9489 9542 9593 9641 9686 9728 9767 9803 9836 9866 9893 9917 9938 9956 9971 9982 9991 9997 1.000 7157 7278 7396 7513 7627 7738 7848 7955 8059 8161 8261 8358 8453 8545 8634 8721 8805 8886 8965 9041 9114 9184 9252 9317 9379 9438 9494 9548 9598 9646 9690 9732 9770 9806 9839 9869 9895 9919 9940 9957 9972 9983 9992 9997 1.000 7169 7290 7408 7524 7638 7749 7859 7965 8070 8171 8271 8368 8462 8554 8643 8729 8813 8894 8973 9048 9121 9191 9259 9323 9385 9444 9500 9553 9603 9650 9694 9736 9774 9810 9842 9871 9898 9921 9942 9959 9973 9984 9993 9998 1.000 7181 7302 7420 7536 7649 7760 7869 7976 8080 8181 8281 8377 8471 8563 8652 8738 8821 8902 8980 9056 9128 9198 9265 9330 9391 9449 9505 9558 9608 9655 9699 9740 9778 9813 9845 9874 9900 9923 9943 9960 9974 9985 9993 9998 1.000 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Mean Differences 2' 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 3' 6 6 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 4' 8 8 8 8 8 7 7 7 7 7 7 6 6 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 5' 10 10 10 10 9 9 9 9 9 8 8 8 8 8 7 7 7 7 6 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 0 0
no t
.9998 1.000 9999
300
DATA SECTION
NATURAL COSINES
TABLE II
0' 0.0 6' 0.1 12' 0.2 18' 0.3 24' 0.4 30' 0.5 36' 0.6 42' 0.7 48' 0.8 54' 0.9 1' 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1.000 .9998 .9994 .9986 .9976 .9962 .9945 .9925 .9903 .9877 1.000 9998 9993 9985 9974 9960 9943 9923 9900 9874 1.000 9998 9993 9984 9973 9959 9942 9921 9898 9871 1.000 9997 9992 9983 9972 9957 9940 9919 9895 9869 1.000 9997 9991 9982 9971 9956 9938 9917 9893 9866 1.000 9997 9990 9981 9969 9954 9936 9914 9890 9863 .9999 9996 9990 9980 9968 9952 9934 9912 9888 9860 9999 9996 9989 9979 9966 9951 9932 9910 9885 9857 9999 9995 9988 9978 9965 9949 9930 9907 9882 9854 9999 9995 9987 9977 9963 9947 9928 9905 9880 9851 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Mean Differences 2' 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 3' 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4' 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 5' 0 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 3S 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44
no t
.9848 .9816 .9781 .9744 .9703 .9659 .9613 .9563 .9511 .9455 .9397 .9336 .9272 .9205 .9135 .9063 .8988 .8910 .8829 .8746 .8660 .8572 .8480 .8387 9845 9813 9778 9740 9699 9655 9608 9558 9505 9449 9391 9330 9265 9198 9128 9056 8980 8902 8821 8738 8652 8563 8471 8377 9842 9810 9774 9736 9694 9650 9603 9553 9500 9444 9385 9323 9259 9191 9121 9048 8973 8894 8813 8729 8643 8554 8462 8368 9839 9806 9770 9732 9690 9646 9598 9548 9494 9438 9379 9317 9252 9184 9114 9041 8965 8886 8805 8721 8634 8545 8453 8358 9836 9803 9767 9728 9686 9641 9593 9542 9489 9432 9573 9311 9245 9178 9107 9033 8957 8878 8796 8712 8625 8536 8443 8348 9833 9799 9763 9724 9681 9636 9588 9537 9483 9426 9367 9304 9239 9171 9100 9026 8949 8870 8788 8704 8616 8526 8434 8339 9829 9796 9759 9720 9677 9632 9583 9532 9478 9421 9361 9298 9232 9164 9092 9018 8942 8862 8780 8695 8607 8517 8425 8329 9826 9792 9755 9715 9673 9627 9578 9527 9472 9415 9354 9291 9225 9157 9085 9011 8934 8854 8771 8686 8599 8508 8415 8320 9823 9789 9751 9711 9668 9622 9573 9521 9466 9409 9348 9285 9219 9150 9078 9003 8926 8763 8678 8590 8499 8406 8310 9820 9785 9748 9707 9664 9617 9568 9516 9461 9403 9342 9278 9212 9143 9070 8996 8918 8755 8669 8581 8490 8396 8300 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 8 8 8 8838 1 3 4 5 7 .8290 .8192 .8090 .7986 .7880 .7771 .7660 .7547 .7431 .7314 .7193 8281 8181 8080 7976 7869 7760 7649 7536 7420 7302 7181 8271 8171 8070 7965 7859 7749 7638 7524 7408 7290 7169 8261 8161 8059 7955 7848 7738 7627 7513 7396 7278 7157 8251 8151 8049 7944 7837 7727 7615 7501 7385 7266 7145 8241 8141 8039 7934 7826 7716 7604 7490 7373 7254 7133 8231 8131 8028 7923 7815 7705 7593 7478 7361 7242 7120 8221 8121 8018 7912 7804 7694 7581 7466 7349 7230 7108 8211 8111 8007 7902 7793 7683 7570 7455 7337 7218 7096 8202 8100 7997 7891 7782 7672 7559 7443 7325 7206 7083 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 7 7 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 9 10 10 10 10
301
LABORATORY MANUAL
NATURAL COSINES
TABLE II (Continued)
0' 0.0 6' 0.1 12' 0.2 18' 0.3 24' 0.4 30' 0.5 36' 0.6 42' 0.7 48' 0.8 54' 0.9 1' 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 .7071 .6947 .6820 .6691 .6561 .6428 .6293 7059 6934 6807 6678 6547 6414 6280 7046 6921 6794 6665 6534 6401 6266 7034 6909 6782 6652 6521 6388 6252 7022 6896 6769 6639 6508 6374 6239 7009 6884 6756 6626 6494 6361 6225 6997 6871 6743 6613 6481 6347 6211 6984 6858 6730 6600 6468 6334 6198 6972 6845 6717 6587 6455 6320 6184 6959 6833 6704 6574 6441 6307 6170 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 Mean Differences 2' 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 3' 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 4' 8 8 9 9 9 9 9 5' 10 11 11 11 11 11 11
no t
302
.6157 .6018 .5878 .5736 .5592 .5446 .5299 .5150 .5000 .4848 .4695 .4540 .4384 .4226 .4067 .3907 .3746 .3584 .3420 .3256 .3090 .2924 .2756 .2588 .2419 .2250 .2079 .1908 .1736 .1564 .1392 .1219 .1045 .0872 .0698 .0523 .0349 6143 6004 5864 5721 5577 5432 5284 5135 4985 4833 4679 4524 4368 4210 4051 3891 3730 3567 3404 3239 3074 2907 2740 2571 2402 2233 2062 1891 1719 1547 1374 1201 1028 0854 0680 0506 0332 0157 6129 5990 5850 5707 5563 5417 5270 5120 4970 4818 4664 4509 4352 4195 4035 3875 3714 3551 3387 3223 3057 2890 2723 2554 2385 2215 2045 1874 1702 1530 1357 1184 1011 0837 0663 0488 0314 0140 6115 5976 5835 5693 5548 5402 5255 5105 4955 4802 4648 4493 4337 4179 4019 3859 3697 3535 3371 3206 3040 2874 2706 2538 2368 2198 2028 1857 1685 1513 1340 1167 0993 0819 0645 0471 0297 0122 6]01 5962 5821 5678 5534 5388 5240 5090 4939 4787 4633 4478 4321 4163 4003 3843 3681 3518 3355 3190 3024 2857 2689 2521 2351 2181 2011 1840 1668 1495 1323 1149 0976 0802 0628 0454 0279 0105 6088 5948 5807 6074 5934 5793 5650 5505 5358 5210 5060 4909 4756 4602 4446 4289 4131 3971 3811 3649 3486 3322 3156 2990 2823 2656 2487 2317 2147 1977 1805 1633 1461 1288 1115 0941 0767 0593 0419 0244 0070 6060 5920 5779 5635 5490 5344 5195 5045 4894 4741 4586 4431 4274 4115 3955 3795 3633 3469 3305 3140 2974 2807 2639 2470 2300 2130 1959 1788 1616 1444 1271 1097 0924 0750 0576 0401 0227 0052 6046 5906 5764 5621 5476 5329 5180 5030 4879 4726 4571 4415 4258 4099 3939 3778 3616 3453 3289 3123 2957 2790 2622 2453 2284 2113 1942 1771 1599 1426 1253 1080 0906 0732 0558 0384 0209 0035 6032 5892 5750 5606 5461 5314 5165 5015 4863 4710 4555 4399 4242 4083 3923 3762 3600 3437 3272 3107 2940 2773 2605 2436 2267 2096 1925 1754 1582 1409 1236 1063 0889 0715 0541 0366 0192 0017 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 11 12 12 5664 55]9 5373 5225 5075 4924 4772 4617 4462 4305 4147 3987 3827 3665 3502 3338 3173 3007 2840 2672 2504 2334 2164 1994 1822 1650 1478 1305 1132 0958 0785 0610 0436 0262 0087 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 15 15 15 15 15 .0175 .0000
DATA SECTION
NATURAL TANGENTS
TABLE III
0' 0.0 6' 0.1 12' 0.2 18' 0.3 24' 0.4 30' 0.5 36' 0.6 42' 0.7 48' 0.8 54' 0.9 1' 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 .0000 .0175 .0349 .0524 .0699 .0875 .1051 .1228 .1405 .1584 0017 0192 0367 0542 0717 0892 1069 1246 1423 1602 0035 0209 0384 0559 0734 0910 1086 1263 1441 1620 0052 0227 0402 0577 0752 0928 1104 1281 1459 1638 0070 0244 0419 0594 0769 0945 1122 1299 1477 1655 0087 0262 0437 0612 0787 0963 1139 1317 1495 1673 0105 0279 0454 0629 0805 0981 1157 1334 1512 1691 0122 0297 0472 0647 0822 0998 1175 1352 1530 1709 0140 0314 0489 0664 0840 1016 1192 1370 1548 1727 0157 0332 0507 0682 0857 1033 1210 1388 1566 1745 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 Mean Differences 2' 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 3' 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 4' 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 5' 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44
no t
.1763 .1944 .2126 .2309 .2493 .2679 .3057 .3249 .3443 .3640 .3839 .4040 .4245 .4452 .4663 .4877 .5095 .5317 .5543 .5774 .6009 .6249 .6494 .6745 .7002 .7265 .7536 .7813 .8008 .8391 .8693 .9004 .9325 1781 1962 2144 2327 2512 2698 3076 3269 3463 3659 3859 4061 4265 4473 4684 4899 5117 5340 5566 5797 6032 6273 6519 6771 7028 7292 7563 7841 8127 8421 8724 9036 9358 1799 1980 2162 2345 2530 2717 3096 3288 3482 3679 3879 4081 4286 4494 4706 4921 5139 5362 5589 5820 6056 6297 6544 6796 7054 7319 7590 7869 8156 8451 8754 9067 9391 1817 1998 2180 2364 2549 2736 3115 3307 3502 3699 3899 4101 4307 4515 4727 4942 5161 5384 5612 5844 6080 6322 6569 6822 7080 7346 7618 7898 8185 8481 8785 9099 9424 9759 1835 2016 2199 2382 2568 2754 3134 3327 3522 3719 3919 4122 4327 4536 4748 4964 5184 5407 5635 5867 6104 6346 6594 6847 7107 7373 7646 7926 8214 8511 8816 9131 9457 9793 1853 2035 2217 2401 2586 2773 3153 3346 3541 3739 3939 4142 4348 4557 4770 4986 5206 5430 5658 5890 6128 6371 6619 6873 7133 7400 7673 7954 8243 8541 8847 9163 9490 9827 1871 2053 2235 2419 2605 2792 3172 3365 3561 3759 3959 4163 4369 4578 4791 5008 5228 5452 5681 5914 6152 6395 6644 699 7159 7427 7701 7983 8273 8571 8878 9195 9523 9861 1890 2071 2254 2438 2623 2811 3191 3385 3581 3779 3979 4183 4390 4599 4813 5029 5250 5475 5704 5938 6176 6420 6669 1908 2089 2272 2456 2642 2830 3211 3404 3600 3799 4000 4204 4411 4621 4834 5051 5272 5498 5727 5961 6200 6445 6694 1926 2107 2290 2475 2661 2849 3230 3424 3620 3819 4020 4224 4431 4642 4856 5073 5295 5520 5750 5985 6224 6469 6720 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 8 8 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 9 9 9 12 12 12 12 12 13 15 15 15 15 16 16 .2867 2886 2905 2924 2943 2962 2981 3000 3019 3038 3 6 9 13 16 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 11 11 11 11 11 12 12 12 12 13 13 13 13 13 13 14 14 14 14 15 15 15 15 16 16 16 17 16 16 16 17 17 17 17 18 18 18 18 19 19 20 20 20 21 6924 7186 7454 7729 8012 8302 8601 8910 9228 9556 9896 6950 7212 7481 7757 8040 8332 8632 8941 9260 9590 9930 6976 7239 7508 7785 8069 8361 8662 8972 9293 9623 9965 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 9 9 9 9 9 10 10 10 11 11 11 13 13 14 14 14 15 15 16 16 17 17 17 18 18 18 19 20 20 21 21 22 23 21 22 23 23 24 24 25 26 27 28 29 .9657 9691 9725
303
LABORATORY MANUAL
NATURAL TANGENTS
TABLE III (Continued)
0' 0.0 6' 0.1 12' 0.2 18' 0.3 24' 0.4 30' 0.5 36' 0.6 42' 0.7 48' 0.8 54' 0.9 1' 45 1.0000 0035 46 47 1.0355 0392 1-0724 0761 0070 0428 0799 1184 1585 2002 2437 2892 3367 3865 4388 4938 5517 6128 6775 8190 8967 9797 0686 1642 2673 3789 5002 6325 7776 9375 1146 3122 5339 0105 0464 0837 1224 1626 2045 2482 2938 3416 3916 4442 4994 5577 6191 6842 8265 9047 9883 0778 1742 2781 3906 5129 6464 7929 9544 1334 3332 5576 0141 0501 0875 1263 1667 2088 2527 2985 3465 3968 4496 5051 5637 6255 6909 8341 9128 9970 0872 1842 2889 4023 5257 6605 8083 9714 1524 3544 5816 0176 0538 0913 1303 1708 2131 2572 3032 3514 4019 4550 5108 5697 6319 6977 8418 9210 0965 1943 2998 4142 5386 6746 8239 9887 1716 3759 6059 0212 0575 0951 1343 1750 2174 2617 3079 3564 4071 4605 5166 5757 6383 7045 8495 9292 1060 2045 3109 4262 5517 6889 8397 0247 0612 0990 1383 1792 2218 2662 3127 3613 4124 4659 5224 5818 6447 7113 8572 9375 1155 2148 3220 4383 5649 7034 8556 0283 0649 1028 1423 1833 2261 2708 3175 3663 4176 4715 5282 5880 6512 7182 8650 9458 1251 2251 3332 4504 5782 7179 8716 0319 0686 1067 1463 1875 2305 2753 3222 3713 4229 4770 5340 5941 6577 7251 8728 9542 1348 2355 3445 4627 5916 7326 8878 6 6 6 7 7 7 8 8 8 9 9 Mean Differences 2' 12 12 13 13 14 14 15 16 16 17 18 3' 18 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 4' 24 25 25 27 28 29 30 31 33 34 36 5' 30 31 32 33 34 35 38 39 41 43 45
no t
304
48 1-1106 1145 49 1.1504 1544 50 51 52 53 1-1918 1960 1.2349 2393 1.2799 2846 1.3270 3319 54 1.3764 3814 55 1-4281 4335 56 57 58 59 61 62 63 1-4826 4882 1.5399 5458 1.6003 6066 1.6643 6709 1-7321 1.8040 8115 1.8807 8887 1.9626 9711 10 10 11 11 13 14 16 17 18 20 22 24 26 19 20 21 23 26 27 31 34 37 40 43 47 52 29 30 32 34 38 41 47 51 55 60 65 71 78 38 40 43 45 51 55 63 68 73 79 87 95 48 50 53 56 64 68 78 85 92 99 60 7391 7461 7532 7603 7.675 7747 7820 7893 7966 12 24 36 48 60 2.0057 2.0145 2.0233 2.0323 2.0413 15 29 44 58 73 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 2.0503 0594 2.1445 1543 2.2460 2566 2.3559 3673 2.4751 4876 2.6051 6187 2.7475 7625 2.9042 9208 3.0777 0961 3.2709 2914 3.4874 5105 3.7321 7583 4.0108 0408 4.3315 3662 4.7046 7453 5.1446 1929 108 119 104 131 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 3.0061 3.0237 3.0415 3.0595 29 1910 2106 2305 2500 32 3977 6305 4197 6554 4420 6806 4646 7062 36 41 46 53 58 64 72 87 96 116 129 163 145 161 180 204 108 144 811 22 7848 0713 4015 7867 2422 8118 1022 4374 8288 2924 8391 1335 4737 8716 3435 8667 i653 5107 9152 3955 9758 8947 1976 5483 9594 4486 9232 2303 5864 9520 2635 6252 9812 2972 6646 93 139 186 107 160 213 232 267 5.0045 5.0504 5.0970 Mean differences cease 5026 5578 6140 to be sufficiently accurate. 8548 8062 9395 9158 7.0264 8.0285 11-20 13.95 18.46 27.27 52.08 573.0 80 81 82 83 84 5.6713 7297 6.3138 3859 7.1154 2066 8.1443 2636 7894 4596 3002 3863 9.845 11.91 15.06 20.45 31.82 71.62 8502 5350 3%2 5126 10.02 12.16 15.46 21.20 33.69 81.85 9124 6.0405 6.1066 6.1742 6.2432 7720 6996 9152 10.58 13.00 16.83 23.86 40.92 143.2 6122 4947 6427 10.20 12.43 15.89 22.02 35.80 95.49 6912 5958 7769 10.39 12.71 16.35 22.90 38.19 114.6 9.0579 9.2052 9.3572 10.78 13.30 17.34 24.90 44.07 191.0 10.99 13.62 17.89 26.03 47.74 286.5 9.5144 9.677 85 86 87 88 89 1143 14.30 19.08 28.64 57.29 11.66 14.67 19.74 30.14 63.66 90 not defined
no t
Notes
DATA SECTION
305
LABORATORY MANUAL
306
no t
Notes

12 Eng Physics Lab Manual

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12 Eng Physics Lab Manual

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EXPERIMENTS

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

Graph between current I and potential difference, V

3. Range of voltmeter = 0 ... V to ...V 4. Least count of voltmeter = ...V

1. Range of ammeter = 0 ... mA to ...mA

Resistance per unit length of given wire =

1. The wire used may not be of uniform area of cross-section.

We use this relation (E 2.1) to determine S if P, Q and R are known.

of the material of the given

S in the left gap

Position of balance point D

Position of balance point D

Balancing length AD (l)

(ohm) (cm) (cm) (cm)

(cm) (cm) (ohm)

Zero correction of the screw gauge = ...mm

Table E 2.2: Unknown resistance

Substituting these values in = S in ohm-m.

1. The unknown resistance of the given wire is found to be S + S = ... ...

2. The resistivity of the material of the wire is

To determine the internal resistance of a given primary cell using a potentiometer.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED PRINCIPLE

The potential difference V ( = RI ) across the two terminals of the cell is V E R

l0 = ... cm (in the beginning of the experiment)

Table E 5.1: Balance length Sl. No. 1 2 -6 R l cm 1 -1 R 1 cm-1 l

3. Plot a graph between 1/R and 1/l, taking

3. State the factors on which the internal resistance of a cell depends.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

If I g is the current through the galvanometer of resistance G, then

is reduced to half of its initial value

On dividing Eq. (E 6.2) by Eq. (E 6.8), Ig = E R ( G + S ) + GS =2 R +G ES

For galvanometer current I g, if the deflection through the galvanometer

Emf of the battery E = ... V

Number of divisions on full scale of galvanometer = ...

High Sl. Resistance No.

Deflection in the galvanometer

(R along x- axis). Use the graph to determine

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

Fig. E 7.1 Circuit to verify conversion of galvanometer into an ammeter

Mean observed diameter, D = ... cm Radius of the wire r =D/2 = ... cm

2. Given value of specific resistance of the material of the wire = ... m

RINCIPLE (CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER INTO A VOLTMETER)

Resistance to be connected in series with the galvanometer, R= V0 G =... Ig

To convert the given galvanometer into a voltmeter of the range, 0 to ... V

1. The resistance box used should be of high resistance.

The wire may be of non-uniform area of cross section.

To determine the frequency of alternating current using a sonometer and an electromagnet.

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

Fig. E 8.1 Set up for finding frequency of ac mains using a sonometer

1. The graph between T and l2 is a straight line. 1 = ... 4mn 2 n 2

2. Slope of the graph =

1. How is ac different from dc?

2. What is the meaning of frequency of ac?

APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED

ERMS AND DEFINITIONS

Fig. E 9.2 Determination of Index correction

AY TRACING IN SPHERICAL MIRRORS

3. Observed distance of the object from the mirror

Similarly for image pin

Table E 9.1: Determination of u, v and f

Observed Observed Corrected Corrected u u = u + e v = v + e v i (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)

Mirror Object Image M pin P 1 pin P2 (cm) (cm) (cm)

SUGGESTED ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS/ACTIVITIES 1.