INTRODUCTION

Chapter 33: HAPPINESS

iVorth does constitute the supreme good, Kant
\till refuses to admit that happiness, as a prac-
:ical obj ective, can function as a moral prin-
ciple. Though a man can hope to be happy only
if under the moral la\v he does his duty, he
1
10uld not do his duty with the hope of thereby
s . 1 .
becoming happy. "A disposition," le
'\vhich should require the prospect of happt-
ness as its necessary condition, would.. not be
moral, and hence also \vould not be worthy of
complete happiness." The moral law commands
the performance of duty unconditionally. Hap-
piness should be a consequence, but it cannot
be a condition, of moral action.
In other words, happiness fails for Kant to
impose any Inoral obligation or to provide a
standard of right and wrong in human conduct.
No more than pleasure can happiness be used
as a first principle in ethics, if morality must
avoid all calculations of utili ty or expediency
whereby things are done or left undone for the
sake of happiness, or any other end to be
enjoyed.
CHAPTER 33: HAPPINESS 685
whether all who seek happiness look for it or
find it in the same things.
Holding that a definite conception of happi-
ness cannot be formulated, K.ant thinks that
happiness fails even as a pragmatic principle of
conduct. "The notion of happiness' is so in-
definite," he \vrites, "that although every man
wishes to attain it, yet he never can say defi-
nitely and consistently what it is that he really
\vishes." He cannot "determine \vith certainty
what would make him truly happy; because to
do so he \vould need to be omniscient." If this
is true of the individual, how various must. be
the notions of happiness \vhich prevail anlong
men in general.
Locke plainly asserts what is here implied,
namely, the fact that "everyone does not place
his happiness in the same thing, or choose the
same way to it." But admitting this fact does
not prevent Locke from inquiring how "in
matters of happiness and misery ... men come
often to prefer the worse to the better; and to
choose that which, by their own confession, has
made them miserable." Even though he de-
clares that "the same thing is not good to every
man alike," Locke thinks it is possible to ac-
count "for the misery that men often bring on
themselves" by explaining how the individual
may make errors in judgment-"how things
come to be represented to our desires under
deceitful appearances ... by the judgment pro-
nouncing wrongly concerning them."
But this applies to the individual only. Locke
does not think it is possible to show that when
two men differ in their notions of happiness,
one is right and the other wrong. "Though all
men's desires tend to happiness, yet they are
not moved by the same object. Men may choose
different things, and yet all choose right." I-Ie
does not quarrel with the theologians \vho,on
the basis of divine revelation, describe the eter-
nal happiness in the life hereafter which is to be
enjoyed alike by all \vho are saved. But revela-
tion is one thing, and reason another.
With respect to temporal happiness on earth,
reason cannot achieve a definition of the end
that has the certainty of faith concerning sal-
vation. Hence Locke quarrels \vith "the philos-
ophers ofold" who, in his opinion, vainly sought
to define the summum bonum or happiness in
such a v'lay that all men would agree on what
tHIS ISSUE BETIVEEN. an ethics of duty and an
ethics of happiness, as well as the conflict it
involves between law and desire as sources of
Inorality, are considered, from other points of
view, in the chapters on DESIRE and DUTY, and
again in GOOD AND EVIL where the problem 'Of
the summum bonunl is raised. In this chaptef,
we shall be concerned \vith happiness as an
ethical principle, and therefore\vith the prob-
lems to be faced by those who, in one way or
another, accept happiness as the supreme good
and the end of life. They may see no reason to
reject moral principles which work through
desire rather than duty. They Inay find nothing
repugnant in appealing to happiness as the ul-
timate end which justifies the means and de-
termines the order of all other goods. But they
cannot make happiness the first principle of
ethics without having to face many questions
concerning the nature of happiness and its
relation to virtue.
Discussion begins rather than ends with the
fact that happiness is \vhat all men desire. Once
they have asserted that fact, once they have
made happiness the most fundamental of all
ethical terms, vvriters like Aristotle or Locke,
Aquinas or Mill, cannot escape the question
pirical, "for it is only by experience," he sayS
"that I can learn either what inclinations e;is;
which desire satisfaction, or what are the natu-
ral means of satisfying them." Such empirical
knowledge "is available for each individual in
his o\vn way." Hence there can be no universal
solution in tenns of desire of the problem of
how to be happy. To reduce moral philosophy
to "a theory of happiness" must result, there-
fore, in giving up the search for ethical prin-
ciples which are both universal and a priori.
In sharp opposition to the pragmatic rule
t
Kant sets the "nl0ral or ethical law," the mo-
tive of which is not simply to be happy, but
rather to be tvorthy of happiness. In addition to
being a categorical inlperative which imposes
an absolute obligation upon us, this law, he says,
"takes no account of our desires or the means of
satisfying them." Rather it "dictates how we
ought to act in order to deserve happiness." It
is dra"rn from pure reason, not from experience,
and therefore has the universality of an a priori
principle, without which, in Kant's opinion, a
genuine science of ethics-or metaphysic of
morals-is impossible.
With the idea of moral worth-that "rhich
alone deserves happiness-taken away, "happi-
ness alone is," according to K.ant, "far frolu
being the complete good. Reason does not ap"
prove of it (ho\vever much inclination may
desire it) except as united with desert. On the
other hand," Kant admits, "morality alone,
and, with it, mere desert, is likewise far froiu
being the complete good." These two things
must be united to constitute the true summU11Z
bonum which, according to Kant, means both
the supreme and the cOlnplete good. 'The man
"who conducts himself in a n1anner not un-
worthy of happiness, must be able to hope fo
the possession of happiness."
But even if happiness combined with mora
684
T
HE great questions about happiness are
concerned \vith its definition and its attain-
ability. In what does happiness consist? Is it the
same for all men, or do different men seek dif-
ferent things in the name of happiness? Can
happiness be achieved on earth, or only here-
after? And if the pursuit of happiness is not a
futile quest, by \vhat means or steps should it
be undertaken?
On all these questions, the great books set
forth the fundamental inquiries and specula-
tions, as well as the controversies to which they
have given rise, in the tradition of western
thought. There seems to be no question that
men want happiness. "Man wishes to be happy,"
Pascal writes, "and only wishes to be happy,
and cannot wish not to be so." To the ques-
tion, what moves desire? Locke thinks only
one answer is possible: "happiness, and that
alone."
But this fact, even if it goes undisputed, does
not settle the issue whether men are right in
governing their lives with a view to being or
becoming happy. There is therefore one further
question. Should men make happiness their
goal and direct their acts accordingly?
According to !(ant, "the principle of private
happiness" is "the direct opposite of the prin-
ciple of l1l0rality." He understands happiness
to consist in "the satisfaction of all our desires:
extensive, in regard to their inten-
sive, in regard to their degree; protensive, in
regard to their duration. " What Kant calls the
"pragmatic" rule of which aims happi-
ness, "tells us "rhat "re have to do, if we wish to
become possessed of happiness."
Unlike the Illoral la\v, it is a hypothetical,
not a categorical, imperative. Furthermore,
Kant points out that such a pragmatic or utili-
tarian ethics (\vhich is for him the same as an
"ethics of happiness") cannot help being em-
THE GREAT IDEAS
CHAPTER 33: HAPPINESS
686
happiness is; or, if they failed to, some would be
in error and misled in their-pursuit of happiness.
It may be \vondered,therefore,wnatLocke
means by saying that there isa science of what
man ought to do "as a rational and voluntary
agent for the attainment of ... happiness." He
describes ethics as the science of the "rules and
measures of human actions, which lead to hap-
piness" and he places "morality amongst the
sciences capable ofdemonstration, wherein ...
from self-evident propositions, by necessary
consequences, as incontestable as those in mathe-
rnatics, the measures of right dnd wrong might
be made out, to anyone that will applyhim-
selfwith the same indifferencyand attention
to the one, as he does to-the other of these
. -"
SCIences.
THE ANCIENT philosophers with whom Locke
disagrees insist that a'science of ethics depends
on a first principle which is self-evident in- the
sameV\Tay to all men. Happiness is not that
principle if the content of happiness is what
each man thinks it to be; for ifno universally
applicable definition of happiness can be given
'when men differ in their conception: of
what constitutes happiness, one man may be as
right as another-then the fact that all men-
agree upon giving the name "happiness" to
what they ultimately want amounts to no
more than a nominal agreement. Such nominal
agreement, in .. the opinion of Aristotle and
Aquinas, does not suffice to establish a science
of ethics, with rules for the pursuitofhappiness
which shall apply universally to all men.
On their view, what is truly human happi--
ness must be the same for all men. The reason,
in the words of Aquinas, is that "all men agree
in their specific nature." It is in terms of their
specific or common nature that happiness can
be objectively defined. Happiness so conceived
is a common end for all, "since nature tends to
one thing only."
It may be granted that there are in fact many
different opinions about what constitutes hap-
piness, but it cannot be admitted that all are
equally sound without admitting a complete
relativism in moral matters. That men do infact
seek different things under the name of happi-
ness does not, according to Aristotle and Aqui-
nas, alter the truth that the happiness they
should seek must be something appropriate
the humanity which is common to them aU
rather than something determined by tHe"
individually differing needs or temperament
lf
If it were latter, then.Aristotle and
would admIt that about what men
should do to achieve happiness would he a
swerable only by individual opinion or personal
preference, not by scientific analysis or demon...
stration.
With the exception of Locke and perhaps to
a less extent Mill, those who think thatascience
of ethics can be founded on happiness as the
first principle tend to maintain that there can.
be only one right conception of humanhappi-
ness. They regard other notions as misconcep-
tions which may appear to be, but are
the sumntum bonum. The various definitions of
happiness which men have given thus presen.t
the problem of the real and the apparent gooel,
the significance of which is considered in
chapter onGooD AND EVIL.
IN THE EVERYDAY discourse of men there seems
to be a core of agreement about the meaningof
the words "happy" and "happiness." Thiscom-
lllon understanding has been used by philoso-
phers like Aristotle and Mill to test theade-
quacyof any definition of happiness.
When a man says "I feel happy" he is saying
that he feels pleased or satisfied-that he has
what he wants. When men contrast tragedy
and happiness, they havein mind the, quality a
life takes from itsend.A tragedy on the stage,
in fiction, or in life is popularly characterizeel
as "a story without a happy ending." This ex"
presses the general sense that happiness is the
quality of a life which comes out well on the
whole despite difficulties and vicissitudes along'
the way. Only ultimate defeat or frustration
is tragic.
There appears to be some conflict here be":
t\veen feeling happy at a given moment ana
being happy for a lifetime, that is, living
pily. It may be necessary to choose between
having a good time and leading a good life.
Nevertheless, in both uses of the word "happy!'
there is the cannatation of satisfaction. When
men say that what they want is happiness, they
imply that, having it, they would ask for noth...
ing more. If they are asked why they want to De
Ppy, they find it difficul t to give any reason
ept "for its own sake." They can think of
thing beyond happiness for \vhich happiness
yes as a means or a preparation. This aspect
ultimacy or finality appears without quali-
ation in the sense of happiness as belonging
a ,vhole life. There is quiescence, too, in the
omentary feeling of happiness, but precisely
cause it does not last, it leaves another and
other such moment to be desired.
Observing these facts, Aristotle takes .the
rd "happiness" from popular discourse and
es it the technical significance of ultimate
od, last end, or summum bonum. "The chief
ad," he writes, "is evidently something fi-
al. ... Now we call that which is in itself
orthy of pursuit more final than that which is
orthy of pursuit for the sake of something
se, and that which is never desirable for the
sake ofsomething else more final than the things
tnat are desirable both in themselves and for
the sake of that other thing. Therefore, we call
final without qualification that which is always
desirable in itself and never for the sake of
something else. Such a thing happiness, above
all else, is held to be; for this we choose always
for itself and never for the sake of something
else."
The ultimacy of happiness can also be ex-
pressed in terms of its completeness or suffi-
ciency. It would not be true that happiness is
elesired for its own sake and everything else for
the sake of happiness, if the happy man wanted
something more. The most obvious mark of the
happy man, according to Aristotle, is that he
wants for nothing. The happy life leaves noth-
ing to be desired. It is this insight which Boe-
thius later expresses in an oft-repeated char-
acterization of happiness as "a life made perfect
by the possessionin aggregate ofall good things."
So conceived, happiness is not a particular good
itself, but the sum of goods. "If happiness were
to be counted as one good among others,"
A.ristotle argues, "it would clearly be made
more desirable by the addition of even the
least of goods." But then there would be some-
tHing left for the happy man to desire,and
happiness would not be "something final and
self-sufficient and the end of action."
Like Aristotle, Mill appeals to the .common
sense of mankind for the ultimacy of happiness.
687
"The utilitarian doctrine," he \vrites, "is that
happiness is. desirable, and the only thing de-
sirable as an end; aU other things being only
desirable as means." No reason can or need be
given why this is so, "except that each person,
so far as he believes it to be attainable, desires
his own happiness." This is enough to prove
that happiness is a good. To sho\v that it is the
good, it is "necessary to shovv, not only that
people desire happiness, but that they never
desire anything else."
Here Mill's answer, like Aristotle's, pre"
supposes the rightness of the sense
that when a man is happy, he-has everything
he desires. Many things, Mill admits, may be
desired for their own sake, but if the possession
of any one of these leaves something else to be
desired, then it is desired only as a part of hap..
piness. Happiness is "a concrete whole, and
these are some of its parts.... Whatever is
desired otherwise than as a means to some end
beyond itself, and ultimately to happiness, is
desired as itself a part of happiness, and is not
desired for itself until it has become so."
THERE ARE OTHER conceptions of. happiness.
It is not ahvays approached in terms of means
and ends, utility and enjoyment or satisfaction.
Plato, for example, identifies happiness with
spiritual \vell-being-a ... harmony in the soul,
an inner peace which results from the proper
order of all the soul's parts.
Early in the Republic, Socrates is challenged
to show that the just man will be happier than
the unjust man, even if in all externals he seems
to be at a disadvantage. He cannot answer this
question until he prepares Glaucon for the in-
sight that justice is "concerned not with the
outward man, but with the inward." He can
then explain that "the just man does not permit
the several elelnents wi thin him to interfere
with one another.... He sets in order his own
inner life, and is his own master and his o\vn
law, and is at with himself."
In the same spirit Plotinus asks us to think
of "tvvo wise men, one of them possessing all
that is supposed to be naturally welcome, while
the other meets only with the very reverse."
He \vants to know whether we would "assert
that they have an equal happiness. " His own
answer is that we should, "if they are equally
THE GREAT IDEAS
CHAPTER 33: HAPPINESS
688
wise ... [even] though the one be favored in
body and in all else that does not help towards
wisdom." 'Ve are likely to misconceive happi-
ness, Plotinus thinks, if we consider the happy
man in terms of our o\vn feebleness. "Vie count
alarnling and grave \vhathis felicity takes
lightly; he wouid be neither \vise nor in the
state of happiness if he had not quitted all
trifling \-vith such things."
According to Plotinus, "Plato rightly taught
that he who is to be wise and to possess happi-
ness draws his good from the Supreme, fixing
his gaze onrhat, becoming like to That, living
by That ... All else he will attend to only as
he might change his residence, not in expecta-
tion of any increase in his settled felicity, but
simply in a reasonable attention to the differing
conditions surrounding him as he lives here or
there." If he "meets some turn of fortune that
he would not have chosen, there is not the
slightest lessening of his happiness for that."
Like ,Plato, Plotinus holds that nothing ex-
ternal can separate a virtuous man from happi-
ness-that no one can injure a man except
himself.
The opposite view is more frequently held.
In his argument with Callicles in the Gorgias,
Socrates meets with the proposition that it is
better to injure others than to be injured by
them. This can be refuted, he thinks, only if
Callicles can be made to understand that the
unjust or vicious man is miserable in himself,
regardless of his external gains. The funda-
mental principle, he says, is that "the happy
are made happy by the possession of justice and
telnperance and the miserable miserable by the
possession of vice." Happiness is one with
justice because justice or virtue in general is
"the health and beauty and well-being of the
soul. "
This association of happiness with health-
the one a harmony in the soul as the other is a
harmony in the body-appears also in Freud's
consideration of human well-being. For Freud,
the ideal of health, not lnerely bodily health
but the heal th of the whole man, seems to iden-
tify happiness \-vith peace of mind. "Anyone
who is born with a specially unfavorable in-
stinctual constitution," he writes, "and whose
libido-components do not go through the trans-
formatioH and modificatioH necessary for suc-
cessful achievement in later life, \vill find it
hard to obtain happiness." The
happiness is not tragedy but neurosis. In
trast to the neurotic, the happy man has found
a ,vay to master his inner conflicts and to be-
COlne ,veIl-adjusted to his environment.
The theory of happiness as mental health or
spiritual peace may be another way of seeing
the self-sufficiency of happiness, in which all
striving comes to rest because all desires are
fulfilled or quieted. 'The suggestion of this point
is found in the fact that the theologians con-
ceive beatitude, or supernatural happiness, in
both ways. For them it is both an ultimate end
which all desires and also a state of
peace or heavenly rest.
"The ultimate good," Augustine \vrites, "is
that for the sake of which other things are to
be desired, while it is to be desired for its own
sake"; and, he adds, it is that by \vhich the good
"is finished, so that it becomes complete"-all-
satisfying. But what is this "final blessedness,
the ul timate consummation, the unending
end"? It is peace. "Indeed," Augustine says,
'\ve are said to be blessed when we have sucb
peace as can be enjoyed in this life; but such
blessedness is mere misery compared to that
final felicity," which can be described as "either
peace in eternal life or eternt'lilife in peace.'?
THERE MAY BE differences of another kind
anlong those \vho regard happiness as their ul-
timate end. Some men identify happiness with
the possession of one particular type good-
wealth or health, pleasure or po\ver, knovvledge
or virtue, honor or friendship-or, if they do
not make one or another of these things the
only component of happiness, they make it
supreme. The question of which is chief arnong
the various goods that constitute the happy life
is the problem of the order of goods, to whic
we shall return presently. But the identification
of happiness with some one good, to the exclu
sion or neglect of the others, seems to violat
the meaning of happiness on which there is su
general agreement. Happiness cannot be t
which leaves nothing to be desired if any go
-anything which is in any \vay desirable
overlooked.
But it may be said that the miser desi
nothing but gold, and considers himself hap
when he possesses a hoard. That may
'def hilDself happy cannot be denIed. Yet thIS
oes not prevent the moralist from considering
im deluded and in reality among the unhappi-
.est ofmen. The difference bet\veen such illusory
happiness and the reality to depend on
the distinction between conSCIOUS and natural
clesire. According to that distinction, considered
in the chapter on DESIRE, the miser may.have
all that he consciously desires, but lack many
of the things to\vard which his nature tends and
which are therefore obj ects of natural desire.
He may be the unhappiest of men if, with all
the wealth in the world, yet self-deprived of
friends or knowledge, virtue or even health,
his exclusive interest in one type of good leads
to the frustration of many other desires. He
may not consciously recognize. these, but they
nevertheless represent needs of his nature
demanding fulfillment.
As suggested in the chapter on DESIRE, the
relation of natural law to natural desire may
i'rovide the at of an to
objectIon to the ethICS of happIness on
the ground that its principles lack universality
or the element of obligation. The natural nl0ral
law may cornmand obedience at the same time
that it directs men to happiness as the satisfac-
tion of all desires which represent the innate
tendencies of man's nature. The theory of natu-
ral desire thus also has a bearing on the issue
whether the cantent of happiness must really
me the same for all men, regardless of how it
may appear to them.
Even if men do not identify happi.ness with
0ne type of good, but see it as the possession of
every sort of good, can there be a reasonable
Clifference of opinion concerning the types of
od which must be included or the order in
lch these several goods should be sought?
. negative ans\ver seems to be required by the
w that real as opposed to apparent goods
the objects of natural desire.
.Aquinas, for example, admits that "happy is
tite man tvho has all he desires, or whose every
evisn is fulfilled, is a good and adequate defi-
nition" only "if it be understood in a certain
ay." It is "an inadequate definition if under-
od in another. For if\ve understand it simply
all that man desires by his natural appetite,
en it is true that he who has all that he desires
689
is happy; since nothing satisfies man's natural
desire, except the perfect good \vhich is Happi-
ness. But if we understand it of those things
that man desires according to the apprehension
of reason," Aquinas continues, then "it does
not belong to Happiness to have certain things
that man desires; rather does it belong to un-
happiness, in so far as the possession of such
things hinders a man froln having all thathe
desires naturally." For this reason, Aquinas
points out, \-vhen Augustine approved the state-
ment that"happy is he who has all he desires,"
he added the words "provided he desires nothing
, "
amIss.
j\.s men have the same complex nature, so
they have the same set of natural desires. As
they have the same natural desires, so the real
goods which can fulfill their needs comprise the
same variety for all. As different natural de-
sires represent different parts of human nature
-lower and higher-so the several kinds of
good are n'ot equally good. And, according to
Aquinas, if the natural object ,of the human
will "is the universal good," it follows that
"naugllt can sacisfyclnan's will ,save the univer-
sal good." This, he holds, "is to be found,not
in any created thing, but in God alone."
We shall return later to the theologian's con-
ception of perfect happiness as consisting in the
vision of God in the life hereafter. The happi-
ness of this earthly life (which the philosopher
considers) may be imperfect by comparison,
but such temporal felicity as men can attain is
no less determined by natural desire. If a man's
undue craving for one type of good can inter-
fere with his possession of another sort of good,
then the various goods lnust be ordered accord-
ing to their worth; and this order, since it re-
flects natural desire, must be the same for all
men. In such tenDS Aristotle seems to think it
possible to argue that the reality of happiness
can be defined by reference to human nature
and that the rules for achieving happiness can
have a certain universality-despite the fact
that the rules must be applied by individuals
differently to the circumstances of their own
lives. No particular good should besought ex-
cessively or out of proportion to others, for the
penalty of having too rnuch of one good thing
is deprivation or disorder with respect to other
goods.
691
DIFFERING FROM the position of both Aristotle
and Mill is the view that happinessis an illusory
goal-that the besetting ills of human life as
well as the frailty of men lead inevitably to
tragedy. The great tragic poems and the great
tragedies of history tnay,of course, be read as if
they dealt with the exceptional case, but an-
other interpretation is possible. Here writ large
in the life of the hero, the great at famous man,
is the tragic pattern of human.life which is the
loto all men.
the leisure necessary for thepolitical or specu-
lative life open to those of auspicious birth.
Even as the man who is asiave. belongs wholly
to another man, so the highest good ofhis life
lies in his contribution to the happiness of that
other.
The questionvvhether happiness can be
achieved by all normal human beings or only by
those gifted with very special talents, depends
for its ans\ver in part on the conception of
happiness itself. Like Aristotle, Spinoza places
happiness in intellectual activity of so high an
order that the happy man is ahnostgodlike;
and, at the very end of his Ethics, he finds it
necessary to say that the way to happiness
"Inust indeed be difficult since it is so seldom
discovered." Nevertheless, "true peace ofsoul"
can be found by the. rare individual. "All noble
things are as difficult as they are rare." In con-
trast, a statement like Tawney's-that"ifa
man has important work to do, and enough
leisureand income to enable him to do it prop-
erly, he is in possession of as much happiness as
is good forany of the children of Adam"-
seems to make happiness available to more' than
the gifted. few.
Whether happiness is attainable by all men,
even on Tawney's definition, may also depend
on the economic system and the political con-
stitution, to the extent that they determine
whetherall'men will be granted the opportunity
and the leisure to use whatever talents they
have for leading a decent human life. There
seems to be a profound connection. between
conceiving happiness in such a way that all
normal men are capable Qfitandinsisting that
all nonnal men deserve political status and eco-
nomic liberty. Mill, for example, differs from
Aristotle on both scores.
CHAPTER 33: HAPPINESS
as an obstacle to happiness. Pierre Bezukhov
War and Peate learned, during his period of
tivity, that "man is created for happiness;
t happiness lies in himself, in the satisfaction
is natural human cravings; that all unhappi-
arises not from privation but from super-
ity."
he vicissitudes of fortune seem to be what
Ion has in mind when, as reported by Herod-
s, he tells Croesus, the king of Lydia, that
,vill not call him happy "until I hear that
u has closed thy life happily .. for often-
es God gives men agleam of happiness, and
en plunges them into ruin." Fat this reason,
judging of happiness, as "in every matter,
behoves us to mark,vell the end."
E-venif it is possible to call a man happy .while
is alive-on the ground that virtue, which
ithin his power, may be able to ,vithstand
ything but the most outrageous fortune-it
is. still necessary to define happiness by refer...
erice to a complete -life. Children cannot be
led happy, Aristotle holds, because their
aracters have not vet matured and their lives
e still too far completion. To call them
appy, or to call happy men of any age \vho
tillinay suffer great misfortune, is merely to
voice the hopes we have for theln. "The most
prosperous," Aristotle writes,. "may fall into
great misfortunes in old age, as is told of Priam
in the l'rojan cycle; and one who has experi-
enced such chances and has ended wretchedly
no one calls happy."
Among the goods of fortune which seem to
have a bearing on the attainment of happiness,
rhosewhich.constitute the individual nature of
a human being at birth-physical traits, tem-
perament,' degree of intelligence-may be un-
alterable in the course of life. If certain in-
fieri ted conditions either limit the capacity for
happiness or make it completely unattainable,
tlien happiness, which is defined as the end of
man, is not the summun'l bonum for-all, or not
tor all in the same way.
In the Aristotelian view, for example, women
cannot be happy to the same degree or in' the
same n1anner as men; and natural slaves, like
beasts, have no capacity for happiness at all,
though they may participate in the happiness
ot the masters they serve. The theory is that
through serving him, the slave gives the master
nition of happiness as "activity in accord
\vith virtue." a
This definition raises difficulties of still
other order. As the chapter on VIRTUE
VICE indicates, there are for Aristotle two k:
of virtue, moral and intellectual, the one c
cerned vvith desire and social conduct, the ot
,vith thought and kno,vledge. There area
two Inodes of life, sOlnetimes called the acti
and the contemplative, differing as a life
voted to political activity or practical ta
differs from a life occupied largely \vith the-o..
retic problems in the pursuit of truth or in
c?nsideration.of what is known. l\re there tW'Q
kInds of happIness then, belonging
to the political and the speculative life? Is 0
a better kind of happiness than another? Doo
s
the practical sort of happiness require intelleo-
tual as well as moral virtue? Does the speOtl-
lative sort reguire bothalso ?
In tr!,ing to ans\ver these questions,.and gen-
erally In shaping his definition of happiness\
Aristotle considers the role of the goods orE '
sucl: things as health, wealth,auspic.i
bIrth, natIve endo\vments of body or mind,antl
length of life. These gifts condition virtuous
activity or may present problems which virtue
is needed to solve. But to the extent that hav-
ing or not having them is a matter of fortune,
they are n?t within a man's control-to get,
keep, or gIve up. If they are
happiness is precarious, or even
by those who are unfortunate. In addition,
the goods of fortune are indispensable, the defi-
nition of happiness must itself be qualified.
More is required for happiness than activity ill.
accordance with virtue.
"Should we not say," Aristotle asks, "thatl1.e
is happy vvho is active in accordance \vith
plete virtue and is sufficiently equippedwitll
external goods, not for some chance period but
throughout a complete life? Or must wea
'and who is destined to live thus and die 'as
befits his life' r. . . If so, we shall call happy
those among living men in whoin these conai..
tions are, and are to be, fulfilled-but happy
men."
-THE GREAT IDEAS 690
THE RELATION OF happiness to particular goods
raises a \vhole series of questions, each peculiar
to the type of good under consideration. Of
these, the most insistent problems concern pleas-
ure, knowledge, virtue, and the goods of
fortune.
With regard to. pleasure, the difliculty seems
to arise from two meanings of the term which
are more fully discussed in the chapter on
PLEASUREAND PAIN. In one of these meanings
pleasure is an obj ect of desire, and in the other
it is the feeling of satisfaction which accom-
panies the possession of objects desired. It is in
the latter meaning that pleasure can be identi-
bed with happiness or, at least, be regarded as
its correlate, for ifhappiness consists in the pos;;.
session of all good things it is also the sum total
of attainable satisfactions -or pleasures. Where
pleasure means. satisfaction, pain means frus-
tration, not the sensed pain of injured flesh.
Happiness, Locke can therefore say, "is the
utmost pleasure we are capable of" ; and 11ill
can define it as "an existence exempt as far
as possible from pain, and. as rich as possible
in enjoyments." Nor does Aristotle object
to saying that the happy life "is also in itself
pleasant."
,But unlike Locke and Mill, Aristotle raises
the question ,vhether all pleasures are good, and
all pains evil. Sensuous pleasure .. as an object
often conflicts with other objects of desire..A.nd
if "pleasure" means satisfaction, there Can be
conflict among pleasures, for the satisfaction of
one desire may lead to the frustration ofanother.
At this point Aristotle finds it necessary to in-
troduce the principle of virtue. The virtuous
man is one who finds. pleasure "in the things
thatare by nature
takes pleasure only in the right things, and is
willing to suffer pain for theright end. If pleas-
ures, or desires and their satisfaction, can be
better or worse, there must be a choice among
themfor the sake of happiness. Mill makes this
choice .depend on a-: discriminationhet\veen
lower and higher pleasures, not on virtue. He
regards virtue merely as one of the parts .. of
happiness, in no way different from the others.
But Aristotle seems to think that virtue is the
principal means to happiness because it regu- THE CONSIDERATION of the goods of fartuneh
lates the choices which must be rightly made in led to diverse views about the attainability
order to obtain all good things; hence hisdefi- happiness in this life. For one thing, they rna
THEGREAT IDEi\S
CHAPTER 33: HAPPINESS
692
Sophocles seems to be saying this, when he
,vrites in Oedipus at C%nus: "Not to be born
is, past all prizing, best; but, ,vhen a man hath
seen the light, this is next best by far, that with
all speed he should go thither, whence he hath
come. For ,vhen he hath seen youth go by, ,vith
its light follies, what troublous affliction is
strange to his lot, what suffering is not therein?
-envy, factions, strife, battles, and slaughters;
and, last of all, age claims him for her o\vn-
age, dispraised, infirm, unsociable, unfriended,
with whom all ,voe of woe abides."
Death is sometimes regarded as the symbol
of tragic frustration. Sometimes it is not death,
but the fear of death \vhich overshadows life,
so that for Nlontaigne, learning how to face
death well SeelTIS indispensable to living well.
"The very felicity of life itself," he wri tes,
"which depends upon the tranquility and con-
tentment of a well-descended spirit, and the
resolution' and assurance of a well-ordered soul,
ought never to be attributed to any man till he
has first been seen to play thelast, and,doubt-
less, the hardest act of his part. There may be
disguise and dissimulation in all the rest ...
but, in this scene of death, there is no lTIOre
counterfeiting: \ve must speak out plain and
discover what there is of good and clean in the
bottom of the pot."
So, too, for Lucretius, \vhat happiness men
can have depends on their being rid of the fear
of death through knowing the causes of things.
But neither death nor the fear of death may be
the crucial flaw. It Inay be the temporal char-
acter of life itself.
It is said that happiness consists in the pos-
session of all good things. It is said that happi-
ness is the quality. of a whole life, not the feeling
of satisfaction for a moment. If this is so, then
Solon's remark to Croesus can be given another
meaning, namely,. that happiness is not some-
thing actually enjoyed by a man at any mo-
Inent of his life. !v1an can come to possess all
good things only in the succession of his days,
not simultaneously; and so happiness is never
actually achieved but is ahvays in the process
of being achieved. When that process is com-
pleted, the man is dead, his life is done.
It may still be true that to live well or vir-
tuously-with the help of fortune-is to live
happily, but so long as life goes on,happiness is
pursued rather than enjoyed. On earth and
time, man does not seen1 able to come to
any final satisfaction, ,vith all his desires quie '
at once and forever by that vision of perfecti
which,vould deserve Faust's "Stay, thou art
fair!"
As ALREADY INTIl\1ATED, the problem of human
happiness takes on another dimension ,vhen it
is treated by the Christian theologians. A.
happiness which men can have on earth and
time is, according to Augustine, "rather
solace of our misery than the positive enjo
ment of felicity.
"Our very righteousness," he goes on to sa
"though true in so far as it has respect to tue
true good, is yet in this life of such a kind that
it consists rather in the remission of sins than
in the perfecting of virtues.... For as reason,
though subjected to God, is yet 'pressed down
by the corruptible body,' so long as it is in this
mortal condition, it has not perfect
over vice.... For though it exercises
the vices do not submit without a struggle.E
ho\vever well one maintains the conflict,a
however thoroughly he has subdued these e
mies, there steals in some evil thing, \vhich,' if
it do not find ready expression in act, slips out
by the lips, or insinuates itself into the thought;
and therefore his peace is not full so long as he
is at war wi th his vices."
Accepting the definition of happiness as the
possession of all good things and the satisfaction
of all desires, the theologians compare the suc-
cessive accumulation of finite goods with tue
unchanging enjoyment of an infinite good. An
endless prolongation of the days of our mortal
life would not increase the chances of becoming
perfectly happy, because tilne and change per"
mit no rest, no finality. Earthly happiness is
therefore intrinsically imperfect.
Perfect happiness belongs to the eternal life
of the immortal soul, completely at rest in tne
beatific vision, for in the vision of God the so
is uni ted to the infinite good by knowledge an
love. In the divine presence and glory all t
natural desires of the human spirit are sim
taneously satisfied-the intellect's search
truth and the will's yearning for the g
"That final peace to which all our righteousn
has reference, and for the sake of which it
aintained," i\ugustine describes as "the feli-
ity of a life which is done \vith bondage"-to
ice or conflict, to time and change. In contrast,
the,best human life on earth is miserable \vith
frustrations and an ennui that human nature
nnot escape.
The doctrine of immortality is obviously pre-
pposed in the of
appiness. For Kant Immortahty IS a
'ondition of the sours infinite progtess to\vard
the moral perfection, the holiness, which alone
deserves perfect happiness. But for theologians
like ,Augustine and l\.quinas, neither change nor
play any part in immortal.life. On
contrary, the immortal soul finds its salvatIon
in eternal rest. The difference between motion
and rest, between time and eternity, belongs to
tue very essence of the theologian's distinction
benveen imperfect happiness on earth and
perfect happiness hereafter.
These matters, of relevance to the theory of
happiness, are discussed in the chapters on
ETERNITY and IMMORTALITY; and in the chap-
ter on SIN we find another religious dogma, that
of original sin, which has an obvious bearing on
earthly happiness as well as on eternal salvation.
fallen human nature, according to Christian
teaching, is incompetent to achieve even the
natural end of imperfect temporal happiness
without God's help. Milton expounds this doc-
trine of indispensable grace in Paradise Lost, in
words which God the Father addresses to I-lis
Son:
Man shall not quite be lost, but sav'd who will,
'Yet not of will in him, but grace in me
Freely voutsaft; once more I will renew
His lapsed powers, though forfeit and enthrall'd
By sin to foul exorbitant desires;
Upheld by me, yet once more he shall stand
On even ground against his mortal foe,
By me upheld, that he may know how frail
His fall'n condition is, and to me owe
All his deliv'rance, and to none but me.
God's grace is needed for ll1en to lead a good
life on earth as ,veIl as for eternal blessedness.
On earth, man's efforts to be virtuous require
the reinforcement of supernatural gifts-faith,
hope, and charity, and the infused moral vir-
tues. The beatific vision in Heaven totally ex-
ceeds the natural po\vers of the soul and comes
with the gift of added supernatural light. It
seems, in short, that there is no purely natural
693
happiness according to the strict tenets of
Christian doctrine.
Aquinas employs the conception of eternal
beatitude not only to measure the imperfection
of earthly life, but also to insist that temporal
happiness is happiness at all only to the extent
that it is a remote participation of true and
perfect happiness. It cannot be saidof temporal
happiness that it "excludes every evil and ful-
fills every desire. In this life -every evil cannot
be excluded. For this present life is subject to
many unavoidable evils: to ignorance on the
part of the intellect; to inordinate affection on
the part of the appetite; and to many penalties
on the part of the body.... Like\vise," Aquinas
continues, "neither can the desire for good be
satiated in this life. For man naturally desires
the good which he has to be abiding. Now the
goods of the present life pass a\vay, since life
itself passes away. . . . Wherefore it is impos-
sible to have true happiness in this life."
If perfect happiness consists in "the vision of
the Divine Essence, \vhich men cannot obtain
in this life," then, according to Aquinas, only
the earthly life ,vhich someho\v partakes of God
has a measure of happiness in it. Earthly happi-
ness, imperfect because of its temporal and
bodily conditions, consists in a life devoted to
God-a kind of inchoate participation here and
no\v of the beatific vision hereafter. On earth
there can be only a beginning "in respect of
that operation whereby man is united to God.
... Inthe present life, in as far as we fall short
of the unity and continuity of that operation,
so do we fall short of perfect happiness. Never-
theless it is a participation of happiness; and so
much the gteater, as the operation can be more
continuous and more one. Consequently the
active life which is busy with many things, has
less of happiness than the contemplative life,
which is busied with one thing, i.e., the con-
templation of truth."
When the theologians consider the Inodes of
life on earth in terms of the fundamental dis-
tinction bet\veen the secular and the religious,
or the active and the contemplative, they seem
to admit the possibility of imperfect happiness
in either mode. In either, a devout Christian
dedicates every act to the glory of God, and
through such dedication embraces the divine in
the passing moments of his earthly pilgrimage.
1. The desire for happiness: its naturalness and universality
2. The understanding of happiness: definitions and myths
2a. The marks of a happy nlan, the quality of a happy life
2b. The content of a happy life: the parts or constituents of happiness
(I) The contri?ution of the goods of fortune to happiness: wealth, health,
longevIty
(2) Pleasure and happiness
(3) Virtue in relation to happiness
(4) The role of honor in happiness
(5) The importance of friendship and love for happiness
(6) The effect ofpolitical power or status on happiness
(7) ,The of and wisdom in the happy life: the place of
speculative aCtiVIty and contemplation
3 The argument concerning happiness as a' first principle of morality: the conflicting
claims of duty and happiness
4. The pursuit of happiness
4
a
. Man's capacity for happiness: differences in human nature \vith respectto
happiness
4
b
.
The
attainability of happiness: the fear of death and the tragic vie"" of human life
5 The social aspects of happiness: the doctrine of the common good
sa. The happiness of the individual in relation to the happiness or good of other men
Sb. The of the individual in relation to the welfare of the state: happiness
In relation to government and diverse forms of government ,
6. The happiness of men in relation to the gods or the after-life
7 'The distinction between temporal and eternal happiness
7
a
. The effectsof original sin: the indispensability, of divine grace for the attainment
of natural happiness
7
b
. The imperfection of temporal happiness: its failure to satisfy natural desire
7c. Eternal beatitude: the perfection of human happiness
(I) .The beatific vision
(2) The joy of the blessed: the communion of saints
(3) The misery of the damned
7d. The beatitude of God
CHAPTER 33: HAPPINESS
REFERENCES
695
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, XVII
[127-129] 79d; XVIII [19-33]80a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 76c-d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 6d-7a; 149b;..d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PARTIV, PROP 19'-21 429d-430b
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 169 203a; 425 243b-244b;
437 251a I Geometrical Demonstration, 440b
35 LOCKE: .Human Understanding, BK I,CH II,
SECT 3, 104c;BK II, CH XXI, SECT 42-73 188c-
199c passim, esp SECT 42 188c, SECT 51 19lh-c,
SECT 55-56 192c-193b, SECT 64 195a-b, SECT
70197a-b
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 235a-b I Fund. Prine Meta-
physic of Morals, 258d-259a; 26Ic;266b-c;
267b-d I Practical Reason, 300a-d; 306a IPref.
Metaphysical Elements of Ethics, 369c-370d I
Judgement, 478a-479a; 584d-585c; 588h [fn 2]
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 461c-464d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PARTII,par 123
44a-b; ADDITIONS, 78 128c-d
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART I [I544-1706J 37b-41a;
PART II [11,559-594] 281b-282a
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dick, 123a
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 316d-317a; 592d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace,BK XIII, 577a-578b;
BK XIV, 605b-d; BK XV, 630c-e31c
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK V,
137c passim
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 772a
To find the passages cited, use the numbers in heavy type, which are the volume and page
numbers of the passages referred to. For example, in 4 HOMER: Iliad, BK II [265:-283112d, the
number 4 is the number of the volume in the set; the number 12d indicates that the pas-
sage is in section d ofpage 12.
PAGE SECTIONS: When the text is printed in one column, the letters a ancf b refer to the
upper and lO'wer halves of the page. For example, in 53 JAMES: Psychology, 116a.:119h,thepassage
begins in the upper half of page 116 and ends in the lower half of page 119. When the text is
printed in t\VO columns, the letters a and b refer to the upper and lo\ver halves of the left-
hand side ofthe page, the letters c and d to the upper and lower halves of the right-handside of
the page. Forexample"in 7 PLATO: Symposium, 163b-164c, the passage beginsin the lower half
of the left-hand side of page 163 and endsin the upper half of the right-hand side of page 164.
AUTHOR'S DIVISIONS: One or more of the main divisions of a work (su,ch as PART, BK,".GH)
SECT) are sometimes included in the reference; line numbers, inbrac.kets, in cer-
tain cases; e.g., Iliad, BKII [265-283] 12d. "
BIBLE REFERENCES: The references are to book, chapter, and verse. When the King James
and Douay versions differ in title of books or in the numbering of chapters or ve'rses, the King
James version is cited first and the Douay, indicated by a (D), follows; e.g., OLD TESTA-
MENT: Nehemiah, 7:45-(D) II Esdra.}-, 7:46.
SYMBOLS: The abbreviation "esp" calls the reader's attention to one or more especially
relevant parts of a whole reference; "passim" signifies that the topic is discussed intermit-
tently rather than continuously in the work or passage cited.
For additional information concerning the style of the references, see the Explanation of
Reference Style; for general guidance in the use of The Great Ideas, consult the Preface.
1. The desire for happiness: its naturalness and
universality
7 PLATO: Euthydemus, 69a I Symposium, 164c-d
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK I, CH 4 [1095aIJ--'"29]
340b-c; CH 7 [I097a24-b22] 342c-343a; BK x,
CH 6 [II76a3o_b8] 430d-431a/ Politics, BK VII,
CH 13 [133Ib39-I332a4] 536c I Rhetoric, BK I,
CH 5 [I36ob4-I3]600d-601a; CH 6 [I362bIO-12]
603b
11 NICOMACHUS: Arithrnetic, BK I, 811d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK III, CH 24, 203c-
204c
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BKX, par 31-34 79c-
80c I City ofGod, BK X, CH I, 298b,d; BK XIX,
CH 12 517b-519a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 2, AI,
REP I IOd-11d; Q 12, A I, ANS SOc-5Ic; A 8,
REP 4 57b-58b; Q19, A3, ANS 110b-l11c; Q26,
A2, ANS and REP 2 150c-151a; Q 62, A I, ANS
317d-318c; Q 63, A 3 327h-328b; Q 82, A I
431d-432c; Q 83, A I, REP 5 436d-438a; A 2,
ANS 438a-d; PART I-II, Q I, AA 4-8 612a-615c;
Q 2, A 2, REP 3 616d-617b; Q 3, A 6, REP 2
627b-628a; Q 5, A I, ANS 636d-637c; A4, ANS
and REP 2 639a-640b; A 8 642d-643d
20 AQUINAS: Sumnza Theologica, PART I-II, Q63,
A I 63a-64a; Q 84, A 4, ANS 176d-178a; PART
II-II, Q 29, A2 531a-d
THE ,GREAT IDEAS
OUTLINE OF TOPICS
694
THE GREAT IDEAS CHAPTER 33: HAPPINESS 696
2. The understanding of happiness: definitions
and myths
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK I, 6e-8a; 48e; HK III,
98b-99a
7 PLATO: Phaedrus, 124a-129d / Symposium,
164e-165a / Republic, BK II, 311e-312b; BK x,
437e-441a,e / Timaeus, 444e-446b / Critias,
479b-485d / Statesman, 586e-58ge / Philebus,
609a-e / Laws, BK II, 656d-658d
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK I 339a-348d esp CH 7
[1097b22-1098aI9] 343a-e; BK IX, CH 9
28-3] 423e; HK X, CH 6-8 430d-434a /
Politics, BK IV, CH II [1295a35-38] 495e; BK
VII, CH 13 536b-537a /
Rhetoric, BK I, CH 5 [I360b4-I8] GOOd-60la /
Poetics, CH 6 [145oaI7-20] 684c
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK II [1-61]
15a-d; [646-651] 23b; BK III [14-24] 30b; BK
V [I-54] 61a-d; BK VI [1-42] 80a-d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK I, CH 4 l08d-
110a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK IV, SECT 3 263b-
264a
13 VIRGIL: Eclogues, IV 14a-15b / Aeneid, BK VIII
[36-336] 267a-268a
14 PLUTARCH: Solon, 74e-75e / Pyrrhus, 320e-
321a
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR IV-V 12b-21a
18 AUGUSTINE: Conftssions, BK X, par 29-34 78d-
80e / City of God, BK XII, CH I 342b,d-343e
/ Christian Doctrine, BK I, CH 4 625b-e
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 2, A
I, REP I 10d-l1d; PART I-II, QQ 2-4 615e-
636e
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 65a-b; 73d;
76e-d
24 RABELAIS : Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK I,
18a-b; 60e-66b esp 6Se-66b
25 MONTAIGNE.:.Essays, 26d-28a; 538a-543a,e
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART IV, PROP 18, scnOL-
PROP 28 429a-431e; APPENDIX, IV 447b-e;
PART V, PROP 39, SCHOL 462b-e
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK II, CH VII,
SECT 2 13le-d; CH XXI, SECT 42-43 188e-d;
SECT 55-56 192e-193b; SECT 64 195a-b
35 BERKELEY: I-lt1man Knowledge, SECT 100
432b-e
37 FIELDING: Tom jones, 283a-b
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 325b-d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 236b-d / Fund. Prine
Metaphysic of Morals, 256a-b; 256d-257d;
267b-d / Practical Reason, 298c-d; 339b-d;
345a-e / judgement, 584d-587a; 594e-596e
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 448a-452b esp 448a;
456a-d; 461eA64d
44 BOSWELL: johnson, 144d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART II, par 123
44a-b; ADDITIONS, 78 128e-d
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART II [9695'-992] 235a-
240b
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 772a-b;
777e-778a; 782d
2 /02
2a. The of a happy man, the quality of
happyhfe
5 AESCHYLUS: Agamemnon [351'-474] SSd-57b '
5 SOPHOCLES: Antigone [.582-624] 136b-c; [Ir-""_
1171] 140d-141a ))
5 EURIPIDES : Bacchantes [878-911J347b-c f
Hecuba [619-628] 358a
7 PLATO: Gorgias, 284a-285a / Philebus, 614b-d'
6l7d-618a; 635b-639a,e '
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK I,CH 7 [1097aI5-r098a
19] 342e-343e; CH 8 [I098b20-29] 344a-b; Cll
9 [1099
b
33]-CH 10 [I 101a20] 345b-346c; BK x
cn 7-8 431d-434a / Politics, BK VII,CH 8
37-
b2
] 532d; CH 13 [133Ib24-1332a27] S36b-
537a / Poetics, CH 6 [145oaI5-20] 684e
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK II [I-6r]
15a-d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK III, CH 24 203c-
210a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK V, SECT 8 269d-
270b; SECT 34 273e; SECT 36 273d; BK IX,
SECT 2 291c-d
15 TACITUS: Annals,. BK VI, 91c
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BKV, PREF 207b;
BK VIII, CH 8 270a-d; BK x, CH 1-3 298b,d-
30la; BK XII, CH I 342b,d-343c; BK XIX, Cft
13-14 519a-520d; CH 20 523d-524a; CH 26
528d-529a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, QQ
2'-5 615e-643d passim, esp Q 2, A 4, ANS
6l8a-'d, Q 5, A 8 642d-643d
20 AQUINAS: Sumlna Theologica, PART I-II, Q84,
A 4, ANS 176d-178a
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Palltagruel, BK I,
65e-66b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 26d-28a; 107d-108c;
146b-c
26 SHAKESPEARE: Richard II, ACT I, SC III [275-
30 31326c-d / Merchant of Venice, ACT I, SC II
[1-10] 408b
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART III, 49d-SOb
32 MILTON: L'Allegro 17b-21a / II Penseroso 21a-
2Sa
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 169-17 203a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 3Slc-352a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 236b-237e
Reason, 298c-d; 345a-e
43 MILL: Liberty, 293d-297b / Representative
Government, 347d-348b / Utilitarianism, 448a;
450b-e; 4S1a-b
44 BOSWELL: johnson, 144d-14Sa; 164d
46 HEGEL: Philosophy ofRight, INTRO, par 20 l7a;
ADDITIONS, 15 118d / Plu'losophy of HiJtory,
INTRO, 16Sa-b
47 GOETHE-: Faust, PART I [3431-3458] 84a-b
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dick, 204b.205a; 2870.
288a; 360a-361a
51.ToLSTOY: War and Peace, BK VI, 259b-260a;
BK XI, 480a-482b
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK v, l30a-
136b;BK VI, 148d-1S0d; 153d-157b; BK VII,
190e-191a,e
to 2b(1)
The' content of a happy life: the parts or
constituents of happiness
5 AESCHYLUS: Agamemnon [351--'474] S5d-S7b
5 SOPHOCLES: Antigone [1155-1171] 140d-141a
5 EURIPIDES: Ion [.585-647] 287d-288b /Bac-
chantes [878-9ii] 347b-e
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK I, 6e-8a
7 PLATO: Euthydemus, 69a-71a; 74b-76b / Gor-
gias, 267e-270a; 275b-276b / Republic, BK I,
BK V, 364e-365d / Timaeus,475d-
476b / Laws, BK I, 643c; BK II,656d-"658d;
BK V, 688c-690e; 694a-d; BK VIII, 737e.;.d; BK
IX, 751c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics,. BK I, CH 4 [1095aI3-27]
340b; CH 5 340d-341b; CH 8 [1099
a
31]-CH 9
[110089] 344d-345e esp CH 9 [1099b25-3I]
345b; BK IX, CH 9 423a-424b passim /Politics,
BK III, CH 9 [1280a31-341477d-478a; BK VII,
CH 13 [133Ib2+-1332a27] 536b-537a / Rhetoric,
BK I, CH S600d-602d; CH9 [1367
b
33-35] 610d
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK II [1-61]
lSa-d; BK V [1-54l61a-d;BK VI [1-42] .80a-d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK IV, CH 4225a-228a;
CH 6-7 230b-23Sa
12 AURELIUS: Meditations,BKIII, SECT 12
262b-e; BK v, SECT 8 269d-270b; BK VIII,
SECT I 285a-b;BKIX, SECT 2291e-d;BK X,
SECT 6 297a--b;BK XII, SECT 3 307b-d
14 PLUTARCH: Solon, 66b-d; 74e-75e /Poplicola-
Solon 86a-87d / Demosthenes, 691b,d
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR V19b-2la ; Second
Ennead, TR IX, CH 9, 70d-71a; CH 1574d-75b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK VI, par 9-10 37e-
38b; par 18-20 40d-41e; BK x, par 33-34 79d-
80e / City of God, BKIV, CH 21 198d-199d;BK
VIII, cn 8 270a-d; BK XIX, CH 1-4 507a-513e;
BK XXII, CH 24 609a-612a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 18,
A 2, REP 2 10Se-106b; Q 26, A 4 151e-152a,e;
PART I-II, Q I, A5, REP I 613a-614a; A7 614e-
61Sa; Q 2 615e-622b; Q 4 62ge-636e
22 CHAUCER: Knight's Tale [1251-1267] 180b /
Wife ofBath's Prologue [5583-6410] 2S6a-269b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 76c-d
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel,BK I,
60e-66b esp 65c-66b; BK III, 133b-140b
25 MONTAIGNB: Essays, 70d-72a; 107a-112d;
l26b-131a; 231d-238d;279d-281a; 312c-314b;
45ge,-462a; 471a-47,2a;: 478c-47ge; '486b-497b
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART II, 379d-380a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 71d-72e
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART IV, PROP 18, SCHOL-
PROP 28 429a-431e; APPENDIX,. IV 447b-c
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 164-172 202b-203b; 174 204a
35 LOCKE: [-{uman Understanding, BK II, CHXXI,
SECT 55-56 192e-193b
37 FIELDING: Tom jones, 311b-312a; 403a-405d
esp 403e-d, 404b
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK xIv,'104e-
105a
39 SMITH: Wealth ofNations, BK v, 336e-d; 343b-c
697
40 GI;BBoN:Decline and Fall, 572a-e; 644d
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 297c-298a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 236b-237c /Fund. Prine
Aletaphysic of Morals, 256a-257e; 258d-259a;
266a-c; 267b-d /PracticaIReason, 345a-e /
Pref. lvfetaphysicalElements of Ethics, 370b-d
/ judgement, 584d-S86a
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 448a-453a passim; 461e-
464d
44 BOS\VELL: johnson, 123b;203b-e;214b; 3S0d-
351h; 50Se
46 HEGEL: Philosophy ofRight,INTRo, par 20 17a;
ADDITIONS, 15 ll8d
47 GOETHE: Faust esp PART I [354-521] lla-
15a, [602-784] 16b-20b, [1064-1125] 26b-28a,
[1544-1571] 37b-38a, [1660-1706] 40a-41a,
[1765---1775] 42b, [3217-3281] 79a-80a, PART
II [93.56-9573] 227a-232a, [9695-9944] 235a-
24lb, [11,441-452] 278b
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dick, 308a-b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK v, 194a-198b
passim; 21Sb-218b; BK VI, 23Sa-238a; HK VII,
275a; BK XIII, 577a-S78b; BK XIV, 605b-d; BK
XV, 630c-634a
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BKII, 25d-
27d; 37e-38a; BK V, 127b-137c passim, esp
135d-136b
53 JAMES: Psychology, 199b-204b passim, esp
199b-202a
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 771a-
779a esp 772a-776b, 777a-b
2b( 1) The contribution of the goods of for-
tune to happiness: wealth, health, lon-
gevity
OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 20:17 / Deuteronomy,
11:13-17 / Psalms, 34:9--10; 91; II2:1-;J; 128;
144:11- 15-(D) Psalms, 33:10- 11 ; 90; 111:1-3;
127; 143:11-15 / Proverbs, 10:27; 15:16-17;
16:8 / Ecclesiastes, 2 :4--1 I; 4:5,-8; 5-6 esp 5:9-
17-(D) Ecclesiastes, 2:4-11 ; 4:5-8; 5-6 esp
5:8- 16
ApOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, 30:14-17-(D) aT,
Ecclesiasticus, 30 :14-17
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 19:16-3 / Philip-
pians, 4:10-23 / I Timothy, 6 / Hebrews, 13:5
5 AESCHYLUS: Persians [155-172] 16d-17a
5 SOPHOCLES: Oedipus at Colonus [1211-1248]
125b-e
5,EuRIPIDES: Suppliants [1080-1113] 267d-268a
/ Trojan [466-510] 274a-b / Electra
[420-431] 331a / Phoenician Maidens [552-558J
382d / Cyclops [316-346] 443b
5 ARISTOPHANES: Birds [592-610] 550a-c / Plutus
629a-642d esp [415-618] 633d-636d
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK I, 7b-8a; BK VII,
224d-225a
7 PLATO: Euthydelnus, 69a-7la; 74b-76b / Re-
public, BK I, 29Sd-297b; BK III, 32Sb-e; BK
III-IV, 341e-343b; BKV, 364c-365d / Critias,
48Sb-e / Laws, BK V, 690a-e; 694a-d; BK IX,
7S1c / Seventh Letter, 805d-806a
THE GREAT IDEAS CHAP'f.ER 33: HAPPINESS 6f}8
(2b.Thecontent oj a happy life: the parts or con-
stituents of happiness. 2b( 1) The contri-
bution oj'thegooas offortune' to happiness:
wealth, health, longevity.)
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK I, CH 4 [I095aI3-27J
340b; CH S [I096a5-:-IO] 341R-b;cH7 [1098aI8-
19] 343c ;CH 8 [1099a3I_b8] 344d""345a; CHIO-
II 345c-347a; BK VII, CH 13 [IIS3bI4-:-24] 405a;
BK; x, eH 8 [I 178b33-1179aI6] 433c-d / Politics,
BK VII, CH I 527a-d esp [I323b22-29] S27c-d;
CHI3[133Ib39-I332a27J 536e-537a 1 Rhetoric,
BK I, CH 5 [I360bI4-3oJ 601a-b; [I36Ib27-3S]
602b-c
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature a/Things, BK n[r-6r]
15a-d; BK III [59-78] 30d-31a; [176-194]
44a,e; BK V [1113-1135] 75c-d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses,BKlv,CH 6 230h-232c
14 PLUTARCH: Solon, 74c-:75c 1 Ae.milius Paulus,
224d-225c; 229a-c / Marcus Coto, 285c-:d /
P)!rrhus, 320c-321a / CaiusMarius, 353d-
354a,c /Demosthenes, 691b,d
15 TACITus:Annalj",BKvI, 91e; BK XIV, 154a-c
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR v 19b-21a
18 AUGUSTINE:' Cit}! of God, BK VIII, ca, 8,
270a-b; BKXJX, CH 3, 510a-c;:cHI3-14 519a-
520d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I., Q26,
A 4, ANS and REP 2 151e-152a,c; PART I-II, Q
I, A 7, ANs614e-615a;Q 2, AAI-S 615d-619c
esp A 4, Q4, AA5-7632c-636a;
Q5, A4, ANS 639a-640b; Q12, A3, REP I 670d-
671b . .
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, vn[2S"':96] 9d-
10e; PURGATORY, XV [40-8IJ 75d;'76a
22 CHAUCER: Prologue of Man of Law's Tale
[4519-4546] 235b-236a I Tale ofMelibeus, par
49-SO 422a-423a / Parson's Tale, par 28, 515a
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua andPantagruel, BK III,
133b-140b; BK IV, 234a-235a
25 MONT.t}.IGNE: Essa)!s, 33b-36a; 108e-110e;
122a-124d; 126b-129d; 368d
26 SHA,.KESPEARE: As You Like It, ACT II, so I
[1-20] 603e-d
27 SHAKESPEARE: .Halnlet, ACT I.I,I,SO II [68-::-79]
ACT I, SC III [I99-220]2l1a-b
{Sonnets, CXLVI 608e
30 BACON: >Advancelnent of Learning, 86b-:c
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART VI, 61a""d
36 S'VIFT: Gulliver, PART III, 124a-129a
37 FIELDING: Tom jones, 2b; 263e-d; 283a-b
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 350c; 363a-366d
42 KANT: Fund. Prin. of Morals,
256a- b, / Practical Reason, 330d-331a / Pref.
Metaphysical Elements of Ethics, 370b-d
43 MILL: Utilitarianisra,
44 BOSWELL: johnson, 102d-103a; 124c;l125d;
349a-c; 403a; 491h; 492b-c; 494b; 498d-
499a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace,BK v, 194c-d;BK X,
430a-b; BK XI, 5l4b-d; BK XIII, 577a... 578b;
BK XIV, 60Sb-d; BK XV, 630c-631a
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers
164b-d
53 JAMES: Ps)!cholog)!,189a-b
54 FREUD:, Civlization and Its Discontents, '}fl
779a
2b(2) Pleasure and happiness
OLD TESTAMENT: 13 :19; 21 :17;23:2
21,29-35 / EccleSIastes, 3:12-13,
5:18-,.20; 8:IS-(D) 2 :1-2; 3:
13,22; 5: 18- 19; 8:IS / IsaIah, 22:12-1
(D) Isaias, 22:12-'-13
ApOCRYPHA: Wisdom of Solomoll,
OT, Book of Wisdom, 2 :1-9
NEVI TESTAMENT: Luke, 12:16-21
2:12-14
5 SOPHOCLES: Antigone [II5S-1171] 140d-141
5 EURIPIDES: Alcestis [773-'-802] 243d-244a
C)!clops [163-174] 441d
7 PLATo:Protagoras, 57d-62d { Gorgias, 27
284d / Republic, BKIX, 421a-427b / Phileo
609a""639a,c' esp635c"'639a,c / Laws,
646a; BK V;, 689c-690e; BK VII, 715c.;.716a
Seventh Letter, 801b-c
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics,BK XII, CH 7 [107
I4-24],602d-603a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK I, CII 5 [ro'95bi3-2
340d; cn 8 [IG99a7-'-30] 344c"".d; BK VII,CH I
14403c-406a,c esp OH 13 [IIS3b8-1154a6] 40
405b; BK IX, CH 9 423a-424b; BK X,CHI
426a-430d passim; CH 6 [II76b8]-CH 7 [I178a
eH 7 [II77
a2
4-28] 431d-432a
Politics, BK VIII, eH 3 [I337b27.,.-1338a9] 543a-
CH 5 :[1339
b
32-40] 545b-c 1 Rhetoric, BK r;Jc
S 60la
12.LuCRETlus:Nature of .Things,
15a--c; BK III [Io03-IOIOJ 43a;
1435] 79b-d
14 PLUTARCH: Demetrius, 747b
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR IV, CHI-2 12'0
13e; CH 6-7 15a-16a; CH 12 17d; 'TRV, CH
1ge; CH 8-9 20e-d 1 Second Ennead, a:R IX, CF
15 74d-75b
18 AUGUSTINE: Cit)! of God, 13K VIII,CH
270a-d
19 AQUINAS: Surnma Theologica, PART I, Q26,
4, ANS and REP 2 151c-152a,c; PART I-II, Q I
A6, REP I 614a-e; A 7, ANS 614e-615a;Q2',
6 619d-620d; Q3, A4, ANS 625a-626b; Q 4, A
1-2 629d-631a;Q 5, A 8 642d-643d;Q 34, A
770e-771c; Q 35, A 5 775d-777a
20 AQUINAS: Sumn1a Theologica, PART I-II, Q 8
A 4, ANS :l76d-178a; PART II-II, Q 28 52
S30a; QI80, A 7 614d-616a; PART III SUP
Q 81, A 4, REP 4 966d-967d; Q 90, A 3 101
l016a; Q 9S, A 5, ANS l048a-1049d
21 DANTE: Divine Corned)!, .PURGATORY,
[127-139] 79d; XIX [1-69] 81e-82a; xxx-
99b-l02b
22 CHAUCER: Prologue [331-'-360] 165a
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK
60e-66b esp 65c-66b
) to 2b(4)
5 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 28a-d; 70d-72a; t10c-
112a; 235c-236a;394a-395b; 406a"408b;
431c... 432d; 527b-528a; 538a-543a,c
26 SHAKESPEARE: Love's Labour' sLOSt,AcT I,
,sc Irl-162] 254a-256a'
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PARTI, 193b
90 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 71d-72a
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 139-143 196b-200a
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK II,CHVII,
SECT 2 131e-d; SECT 5132c; CH XXI,SECT 42-
47188c-190b passim, esp S.ECT 42-43 188c-d;
SECT 55-56 192c-193b paSSIm
oGIBBON: Decline and Fall, 192b
1GIBBON: Decline and Fall,234e-d
2 KANT: Fund. Prin. Metaphysic ofMorals, 256c-
257c; 258d-259a 1 Practical Reason, 298c-300d
esp298e-:d 1 judgement,. 478b-d
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, ,447b-455a esp 448a;
461c-464d
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 378a-b
46 HEGEL: Phlosophy of Right, ADDITIONS, 15
118d
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART I [1741-1775] 41b;.42b
48 MELVILLE: Mob)! Dick, 94a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK VI, 259d-260a;
BK VIII, 334d-335a; BK XIII, 577a-578b; 'BK
XIV, 605b-d; BK, XV, 630c-631c
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK III 46a-
82a,e esp 54b-58a; BK IV, 88d; BK XII, 370b-d
54 FREUD: General Introduction, 599b-d 1 Civili-
zation and Its Discontents, 772a-774c esp 772a-c
3) Virtue in relation to happiness
OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 15:26; 20:121 Psalms,
I; 34:11-22; 106:3; 112; 119; I28-(D} Psalms,
I; 33:12-23; 105:3; III; 118; 127/ Proverbs,
3:13-26,33; 10:6-7; 10:27-11:11; 16:8,20,J2;
28:14,16,20; 29:18; 31 :10-31 1 .Ecclesiastes,
7:16- 17-(D) Ecclesiastes, 7:17-18 / Ezekiel,
I8:S-9,-(D) Ezechiel, I8:S-'-9
ApOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, 14:1-10; 25:1- 12-
(D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 14:1-10; 25:1- 16
NEW TESTAMENT: Romans, 4:6-8 1 I Timoth)!, 6
7. PLATO: Euthydemus, 69a-71a; 74b-76b 1 Phae-
drus, 128d-129c / Gorgias, 262a""270a; 275b-
284d / Republic. BK I, 295d-297b; 304a-c; BK
I-II, 306b-315e; BK IX, 418d-421a; BK X, 436e-
437.e; 439b-d 1 Timaeus, 475d-476b 1 Critias,
485b-c / Theaetetus, 528c-531a 1 Laws, BK II,
656d-658c; BK v, 688e-690eesp690b-c /
Seventh Letter, 806b-c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK I, CH 5 [I095b26-1096a
4J 341a; CH t-I3342c.,.348d passim, esp CH 8
344a-345a;BK VI, eH 12 393b-394apassim, esp
[II44aI- 6] 393c; BK X, CH 6 [I I76a3o_b8j 430d-
'431a; CH 6 [I I77BI]-;-CH8 [II79a32] 431c-434a
1 Politics, BK IV, II [1295a35-38] 495c; BK
VII, CH I 527a-d esp [I323b21-1324a4] 527c-d;
CH 8 [I328B37-b21532d;cH 9 [1328b33-1329B2]
533b; [1329BI8-24] 533c; CH 13 [I332a8....27]
536d-537a; CH IS [1334aI2-b7] 539a-b / Rhet-
oric, BK I, CH 5 [I360bI4-27] 601a
699
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK I, cF[3108b-e;!3K
III, CH 24203c-210a;BKIV, CII r213a-22'3cr
12 AURELIUS : Meditations, BK III, SECTI2262b-e;
BK V, SECT 34-36 '273c'-d; BKV't,'SECT 16
275b-d; BK,. 28281d; SECT 68
284e-d
14 PLUTARCH: Numa Pompilius, 60a-b / Aris-
tides, 265e-d 1 Demosthenes,691b,d
17 PLOTINUS: Second Ennead, TR IX, CH'IS74d-
75b
18 AUGUSTINE: Cit)! ofGod, BK VIII, CH 8270a-d;
BK IX, CH 4 287a-288b; BK XIX,cH 1-4 507a-
513e
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 26, A
I, REP 2150b-e; PARTI-II, Q2, A2, REPI 616d-
617b; A 4, ANS 618a-d;A 7620d-621c; Q 4, A
4 631d-632e; Q 5, A 4, ANS 639a-640b; A 7,
ANS 642a-d
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua andPantagruel, BK I,
65c-66b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essa)!s, 28a-d; 70d-72a; 146b-c;
389d-390a
29 CERVANTES : Don Quixote, ,PART II; 222b-c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 71d:.. 72a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART IV, PROP 18, SCHOL-
PROP 28 429a-431e; PART V, PROP 42 463b-d
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK II, CH XXI,
SECT 72 198a-c
36 STERNE: Tristram Shand)!, 538a-539a
37 FIELDING: Tom jones, 316a;.c
39 SMITH: Wealth ofNations, BK v, 336e-d
42 KANT: Fund. Prin. Metaph)!sicofMorals, 282d-
283d {Practical Reason, 306d-307a; 338e-348b
esp 339a-b, 340c-342a, 344e-347d / Pref. Meta-
ph)!slcal Elements of Ethics, 366a-b;374a-c
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 452b-455a; 461d;.464d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK V, 214e-216d
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brotllers Karamazov, BK II, 26a-
27d; BK VI 146b,d-170d esp 164a-165a, 167b-
168c; EPILOGUE, 411b-412d
54 FREUD: Civilization .and Its Discontents, 793a-
794a 1 New Introductory Lectures, 878a-b
2b(4) The role of honor in happiness
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK IX [37-429] 60b-61c;BK
XII [290-328] 85b-e
5 AESCHYLUS: Seven Against Thebes [683-684]
34c
5 EURIPIDES: Andromache [768-789] 321d 1
Hecuba [299-331] 355b-c
6 HERODOTUS: History,.BK I, ,6c-7b; BK IX,
304a
6 THUCYDIDES: PeloponnesianWar, nK II, 397d-
398d
7 PLATO: Euth)!demus, 69a-b 1 Republic,BK II,
310e-315c passim; BK IX, 421a-422b / Seventh
Letter, 805d-806a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK I, CH 5
340d-341a 1 Politics, BK VII, CH 13
536d-537a; CH 14 [133JB30-b25] 538a-c; CH
15 [I334aI2-b8] 539a-b 1 Rhetoric, BK I, CH 5
[1360bI9-27] 601a
(2b. The content of a happy lije:theparts or con-
stituents of happiness. 2b(4) The role oj
honor in happiness.)
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature o/Things, BK III [59-78]
30d-31a
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses,BK I, CH 21 127b-c;
BK IV,CH 6 230b-232c
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK II, SECT II 258a-b;
BK VI, SECT 51 279b-c; BK VIII,SECT I 285a-b
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK I [441-493] lISa-11Gb; BK
VI [886-892] 234b-235a; BK VIII [608--731]
275a-278b; BK x [276-286] 309b-310a; [656-
688] 320a-321a; BK XI [376-444] 338b-340a
14 PLUTARCH: Poplicola-Solon, 86a-c / Pelopidas,
245c-d. / Lysander,' 354b,d / Agis, 648b,d-
649a / Cicero,717a-b
15 TACITUS: Histories, BK IV, 267c-d
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK X, par 59-64 86b-
87d / City ofGod, BK V, CH 12-20 216d-226a;
BK VIII, CH 8 270a-d
19 AQUINAS: Sun1n'la Theologica, PART I, Q 26, A
4, ANS 151c-152a,c; PART I-II, Q2, AA 2-3
618a; Q 4,,1\8, REP r 636a-c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART II-II, Q
185, A I 639c-641c; PART III SUPPL, Q 96, A 7,
REP 3 1061b-1062a
21 DANTE: Divine Conzedy, HELL, III [22-69] 4b-d;
PARADISE, VI [112-126] 114d-115a
22 CHAUCER: Knight's Tale [341-356] 210a /
Parson's Tale, par 10, 500a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART II, 161c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 112a-d; 125a-c; 300c-
306a passim
26 SHAKESPEARE: Richard II, ACT I, SC I [175-
185] 322b-c / 1st Henry IV, ACT I, sc III [160-
208] 439h-d; ACT V, SC I [127-144] 462a-b /
Henry V, ACT IV, SC III [i6-67] 555d-556b /
Julius Caesar, ACT I, SC II [84-96] 570b
27 SHAKESPEARE: Troilus and Cressida, ACT II,
SC II 113c-115d; ACT V, SC III [23-28] 137b I
Othello, ACT II, SC III [262-27] 219d; ACT III,
sc III [155-161] 223d I Coriolanus, ACT I, SC
III [1-28] 355b-c I Sonnets, xxv 590a
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote esp PART I, 32c-33a,
57d-58a, 145b-147d, PART II, 222b-c, 227c-
228d
31 DESCARTES: Discourse, PART VI, 65c-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART III, PROP 53, COROL
413a; PROP 55, SCHOL 413b-d
32 MILTON: Lycidas 27b-32a esp [64-84] 29a-b
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 147-155 200b-201b; 158-164
202a-b; 400-401 240b'-241a; 404 241a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 360c-361a; 362b-d
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 176c
42 KANT: Fund. Prin. Metaphysic of Morals,
256a-b
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 449a-c
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 124d-125d; 128b; 163d
[fn 4J; 498c-499a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART II, par 124
44b-d; PART III, par 253 79a--c
CHAPTER 33: HAPPINESS 700 THE GREAT IDEAS 2b(4) 'to
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 310c-d;-312
passim, esp 312c; 322a-c; 592d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK II, 82a-6a
III, 146d-147c; BK V, 214C,.215a
53 JAMES: Psychology, 189b-191a; 198b-199
2b(S) The importance of friendship and .1
for happiness
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK XVIII [1-137] 130a431e
7 PLATO: Lysis, l8d /Phaedrus, l26c-129
Synzposium, 155d-157a; 164c-167d / Repu
BK III, 325b-c; BK IX, 417b-418a / utiti
485b-c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK I, CH II 346c-347a;
VIII, CH I [1155
al
-32] 406b,d; CH 3 [lls6b()...13
408a-c; CH 5 [1157
b2
5-38J 409c-d;CH 6[u)
22--28] 410a-b; BK IX, CH 9 423a-424b; CH
425a-d / Politics, BKI, CH2 [1253a25-29]
/ Rhetoric, BK I, CII 5 [1360bI9-27] 601a
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK IV' [I
1191J 57d--59d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK II, CII 22 167
170a; BK III, CH 16 19la-d; BK IV, CH 22:23
224b
14 PLUTARCH: Poplicola-Solon, 86a-b
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK IV, par 7-14 20
23a / City ofGod, BK XIX, CH 3, 510d; CH
513d-516c; CH 13-14 519a-520d; CH 17 5
523a; CH 26 528d-529a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II,Q
A 8 636a-c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, V [7-138]
8b; PURGATORY, XV [40-81] 75d-76a; XVII[
XVIII [75J 79b-80c
22 CHAUCER: Troilus and Cressida, BK II, STANZA
111-112 36a; STANZA 119-128 37a-38a;UK III,
STANZA r--7 54b-55b; STANZA 117-120 690-
70a; STANZA 241--242 86a; STANZA 250-25
87a-b
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel,
6Sc-66b
25 lvfoNTAIGNE: Essays, 87d-88a
26 SHAKESPEARE: Love's Labour's LOJ-t, ACTIV
SC III 268b-272c / Midsutnmer-Night's Dream,
ACT I, SC I [67-78] 353a-b
27 SHAKESPEARE: Othello, ACT IV,S,? II [47-64]
233c-d / King Lear, ACT V, SC III [1'-26] 279a-o
/ Timon of Athens, ACT I, SC II 397a-400
ACT III, SC II [71-94] 404c-d; ACT IV, sc
409c-d; SC III [249-"-305J 413c-414a / Sonnet
XXV 590a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART IVs PROP 37, DEMON
and SCHOL I, 434b-435a; APPENDIX, IX 448
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 100 191a-192b; 155201
211 21lb
38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit ofLaws, BK XIV, l03c-
43 MILL: Representative Government, 367d-368a
Utilitarianism, 451b-c
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 83b-c; 107a; 423c-d; 490
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART I [3125'-3136] 76a-
[3374-3413J 82b-83a; PART II [9356-957
227a-232a
1to 2b(7)
8 MELVILLE: Moby Dick,
1 TOLSTOY: War and Peace,BK III, l16c-l17a;
122b-c; BK V, 2l4c-21Sb; BK XI, 525c-526b;
BK XV, 642c-643b
DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK II,
27c-d; BK VI, 158b-lS9a; l67b-168c; 169c-
170b
FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 774d-
775a; 782d-783b; 792a,.d
6) The effect of political power or status
on happiness
(j HERODOTUS: History, BK I, 6c-8a
'7 PLATO: Euthydemus, 75c-76b / Gorgias,
270a esp 262a-265c / Republic, BK I, 304a-c;
BK II, 311a-313a;BK IX, 416a-421a esp 418d-
421a; BK x, 439b-440c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK X, CH 7-8431d-434a
passim, espcH7 [II77b4':"25J432a-c,cH8 [117
gb
33-1179aI5] 433c-d / Politics,BK VII, CH2-3
528a..,S30a; CH 14 [1333
aI
7]-CH 15' f-I334
b8
]
538a-53gb
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK II [37--"61]
l5c-d; BK III [59-78l30d-31a; [995-1002] 42d-
43a; BK V [1117-1135] 75d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses,BI< IV, CH 4-6 225a-
232c; CH 9--10 237d-240d
14 PLUTARCH: Numa Pompilius, 5lc-52b./ Solon,
74c-75c / Pyrrhus, 320c-32la / Nicias, 425b-c
/ Crassus 438b,d-455a,c I Demosthenes,
702a
-STACITUS: Annals, BK XIV, 154a,.c
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR V, CH 10
18 AUGUSTINE : City ofGod, BK V, CH 24-26 227d-
230a,c; BK XIX, CH 5-] 513d-515c;cH 19
523b:.d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I,Q>26,
A 4, ANS 151c-152a,c; PART I-II, Q 2, A 4
618a-d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I--II, Q 66,
A5, REP 1-2 79b-80c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, XII [100-139]
l7b-d; PURGATORY, XI [73-117] 69c-70a;
PARADISE, VI ll3c..115a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 76c-d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 107a-112d; 126b-13la;
382b-383d; 400b-d; 443d-446a; 486b-489b;
538d-540b
26 SHAKESPEARE: 3rd Henry VI, ACT II, SC V
[I-54] 81d-82a / Richard II, ACT IV, S,C I [162-
334] 343b-345a I 2nd Henry IV, ACT III, SC I
[4-31] 482d-483a I Henry V, ACT IV, SG I [247-
301] 554a-c
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART I, 193a-b;
PART II, 368c-d
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 326b-327a;. 362b-d;
364a-b / Political Economy, 372b-377besp
373c-374a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 157b-d; 572a-c
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 194a-d; 297c-298a
43 MILL: Representative Government, 382b / Utili-
tarial1isl71, 462c-463b paSSilTI
701
46 HEGEL: Philosophy ofHistory, INTRO, l67b-c
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace,'BK v, 215d-216d
54 FREUD: Civilization andIts Discontents, 799c
2b(7) function of knowledge and wisdom
in the happy life: the place of speculative
activity and .contemplation
OLD TESTAMENT: I Kings, IO:I-IO-(D) III
Kings, 10:1-10 I II Chronicles, 9:1--9-(D) II
Paralipomenon, 9:1-:-9 I Proverbs, 1-:-4; 8-9;
16:16; 17:16; 19:8; 20:15; 22:17-18;24:13-14
I Ecclesiastes, 1:13-18; 2:12-26; 6:8,11; 7:11-
12,16-19; 9:13-18-(D) Ecclesiastes, 1:13-18 ;
2:12-26; 6:8,11; 7:12-13,17-20; 9:13-18
ApOCRYPHA: Wisdom ofSolornon, 6-II-(D) OT,
Book of Wisdom, 6-11 I Ecclesiasticus, 4:11-19;
6:18-37; 14:19-15:8; 24:13-21;
OT, Ecclesiasticus, 4:12-22; 6:18-37; 14 :20-
15:8; 24:17-29; 37:27
5 SOPHQCLEs:Antigone[1348-1353] 142d
5 E URIPIDE'S: AIedea,cf292-305J 214c-d
5 ARISTOPHANES : Clouds 488a-506d
7 PLATO: Charmides, 12a-13c / Lysis, 16c-18a I
Euthydemus, 69a-7Ia; 74b-76b./ Symposium,
l67a-d / Men0 , 183d-184c I Apology 200a-
212a,c / Phaedo 220a-251d I Republic, BK VI,
380d-38Ia; BK VII 388a-401d / Timaeus, 475d-
476b / Theaetetus, 528c-531a / Statesman,
S87d-588c I Philebus 609a-639a,c esp635c-
639a,c / Laws, BK V, 688c I Seventh Letter,
806b-c; 808c-809a
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK I, CH 1-2 499a-
501c; BK XII, CH 7 [107.2bI4-29] 602d-603a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK I, CH 7 f1097b22-
1098aI9] 343a-c; BK VI, CH 12 393b..394a esp
[rI43bI7-1144a6] 393J:>-c; DR: X, CH 7-8 431d-
434a I Politics, BK VII,CH 2 [1324a23-35]
528b
11 NICOMACHUS: Arithmetic, BK I, 811d
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK II
l5a-d; BK V [1-54J 6la-d; [IIIJ-1135] 75c-d;
BK VI [1-42] 80a-d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK I,CH 29 134d-
138a; BK III, CH 10 185d-187a; CH 15 190a-
191a; CH 22 195a-201a; BK IV, CH 4 225a-
228a; CH 6 230b-232c
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK III, SECT 6 261a-c;
SECT 9 261d; SECT 12 262b-c; BK IV, SECT 16
264d; BK V, SECT 9 270b-c; BK VI, SECT 12
274c; BK X, SECT 12 298c-d
13 VIRGIL: Georgics, n[490-493] 65b
14 PLUTARCH: Pericles, 121a-122b / Caius Marius,
353d-354a,c
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK XIV, 154a-c
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR IV 12b-19b esp
CH 3-4 13c-14c, CH 9-10 16c-17c;TR V, CH 10
20d-21a / Sixth Ennead, TR VII, CH34'--35 338b-
339c; TR IX, CH9-11 358d-360d
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK v, par 7'-9 28c-
2gb I City ofGod, BK VIII, CH 8 270a-d; BK x,
CH 2 299d-300a; BK XIX, CHI-3 507a-511a;
CH 14 520a-d; CH 19 523b-d
THE GREAT IDEAS
CHAPTER 33: HAPPINESS
702
(2b! The cOl1tel1tof a happy life: the parts ()r'COl1-
stituents.ojhappiness. 2b(7) The junction
oj knowledge and wisdom in the happy
life: the plate f{fspeculativeactivityanil
contemplation.)
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 26
lS0a-1S2a,e' passim, esp A 2150e-151a; PART
I-II, Q I, A6, REP 1-2 614a-e; QJ, AA 3-8 624b-
62ge; Q 5, A 4, ANS 639a-640b; Q35,A5 775d-
777a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART Q66,
A 5 esp REP 279b-80e;PART II-II',Q 180607d-
616d; Q 182 620b-624d
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL,
6e-7a; PURGATORY, xxx,,:,xXXI99b-102b
22 CHAUCER: Prologue [285-'-38] 164a-b;
23 HOBBES: Let/iathan, PART I,63a; 6Sa.;.b;' 76e
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 6d-7a;28a-29c; 70d-
72a; 231dc-238d; 399d-401a; S02c;..S04e;508a-
512a; S41d-543a;c,
26 SHAKESPEARE: Love's Labour's Lost, ACT I,
SC I [1-,-162] 254a-256a
27 SHAKESPEARE: Pericles,AcrIII,sc' n[26-42]
:434d-43Sa
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote; PART I,' 145d-146a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, /18a-b;
27e-d; 71a... e
31 DESCARTES: Rules, r, Id I Discourse, PART I,
41d-42a; PART III, 49d-SObl Meditations, III,
88d-89a
31 SPINOZA: ,Ethics, PART IVt,PROP 26-28 431a-e;
APPENDIX,IV 447b-e;xxxII 4S0e-d; PART v,
PROP 31-,-:33 459d... 460e; PROP 37 461e
32 MILTON: It Penseroso 21a-25a
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 73-'-74 185a-b
35 LOCKE: Human BK II,CH XXI,
SECT 44 188d-189b; SECT 55-56 192c-193b
passim
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 345a I Political Econ-
omy, 373c-374a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall,645e-d
42 KANT: Fund. Prine Metaphysic ofMoraIs, 256e-
257d; 267b-d
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 448d-44ge; 451e.. 452a
44 BOSWELL: fohnson, 118a; 29gb-d,
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, INTRO, par' 20
17a; ADDITIONS, I5118d
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART I [354-521] l1a-15a;
[3217-3246] 79a-b
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dick, 255a
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 77Sb-
774e
3. The argument concerning happiness as a
first principle of morality: the conflicting
claims of duty and happiness
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK I 339a-348d passim,
esp CH 4 340b-d, CH 7 342e..344a, .CH 12
347a-b
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BKI, CH22127e-128e;
BK H, CH II 150a-151b; CH 19 162e-164b; BK
III, CH2 177e-178d; CH 10 185d-187a;cll
189c-190a'; CH24 2'03e-210a
12 AURELIUS : Meditations, BK II, SECT II
2S8a-e; BK III, SECT 6 261a-e; BK VII, SE
55 283b-e; BK VIII, SECT I 285a-b; SEcor
287d-288a; SECT 39 288e; BK IX, SECT
291a-e; SECT 7 292b
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK IX, CH 4"'-5 287
289a; BK XIV, CH 8-9 381e-385b
19 AQUINAS: Theologica, PART I-II
609a-615e passim; Q 5, A 8 642d-643d '
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 9
A 2, ANS 206b-207a; Q 91, A 4, ANS 210c-211
Q 94, A 2, ANS 221d-223a
23 HOBBES : Leviathan, PART I, 76e-d
24- RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel,
65e-66b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning,' 71dJ720
33 PASCAL: Provincial Letters, 62b-,68b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BKI; CR II
SECT 3, 104e; BK II, CH XXI, SECT 42__71188c
19ge passim
39 SMITH:' Wealth of Nations, BK Vt 336e-d
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 235a-b;236b-239aIFun
Prine Metaphysic of Morals 253a-287d e
256a-257d, 258d-259a, 261e-264a, 206a-
267b-d, 274d-275b, 282b-283d, 286a-c
Practical'Reason 291a-361d esp 3040-307
325a-"327d, 330e-331a,338e-355d lPref.Met
physical Elements of Ethics,' 365b-366d; 367
36ge-373b / Intro.
388e; 389a-390a,el Judgement, 478a-479
584d-587a;' 588b [En 2]; 591b-592e; 59Sa-
596c-597d; 604d-606d esp 604d-60Se, r605
606b [En 2]
43 MILL: Utilitarianism 445a-476a,e
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART H,'"par I
44b-d; par 134:""135 47b-d; PART III, par I
57e; par 261 83a-d; ADDITIONS, 76-81128
129a; 85-87 129b-d
49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 316a-317a; 592d
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, UK v,12'
137e passim
54 FREUD: Origin and Development of Psych
Analysis,20e-d / Civilization and Its Disco
tents, 772a-b; 800e-80lb
4. The pursuit of happiness
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK I, 6e-8a; BKII,77a4>
BK III, 98b-99a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK I, CH 10 345c-346e
11 NICOMACHUS: Arithmetic, BK I, 811d
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK III [10
I094J 44a,c
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK III, CH 24 2
210a
14 PLUTARCH: Solon, 66b-d; 74e-75b / Cai
Marius, 353d-354a,e
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR IV 12b-19b I
Ennead, TR II, CH 4-5 84e-85e
18 AUGUSTINE: Conftssions, BK x, par 29-34 7
80e
19 AQUIN.A.S: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 23, A
I, ANS and REP 2-3 132e-133b; PART I-II, Q 5
636d-643d
21 DANTE: Divine Comedyesp PURGATORY,
XXVII-XXXIII 94e-105d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 76c-d; PART IV,
247e-d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 6d-:-7a; 149b-d; 541b..c
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK II, CH XXI,
SECT 44188d-189b; SECT 52191d; SECT 63-64
194d-195b passim
42 KANT: Practical Reason, 300a-d; 304d-307d;
34Sa-347a / Judgement, 584d... 587a esp 584d-
586a
43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: [7-15] la-b
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 448a-453a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART Il, par 123
44a-b; par 124, 44e; par 134 47b; PART III, par
207 69b-e; ADDITIONS, 78 128e-d
48 MELVILLE: lvloby Dick, 267a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK VI, 235a-238a;
BK XIV, 605b-d
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK II, 25d-
27d
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 771d-
776b esp 772a-d, 775e; 79ge
. Man's capacIty for happiness: differences in
human nature with respect to happiness
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, UK I, CH 9 [I099b33-I100a9J
345b-e; BK VII, CH 14 [I I54b20--30] 406e; BK x,
CH 6 [II77al-l1] 431e; CH 7 [II77b26-1178a8]
432c; CH 8 432d-434a passim, esp [II78b23-32J
433e / Politics, BK VII, CH 8 [I328a37-b2] 532d;
CH 13 [1331b24-I332a321536b.. 537a
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK III, CH 24 203e-
210a
14 PLUTARCH: Caius Marius, 353d-354a,e
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TRIV 12b-19b I Third
Ennead, TR II, CH 4-5 84e-85e
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I,Q 23, A
I, ANS and REP 2-3 132c-133b; Q 62, A 2,ANS
and REP 2 318d-31ge; PART I-II, Q I,A 7 614e-
615a; Q 5, AA 1-2 636d-638a; A 5 640b-641a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, XXVIII
[91-148] 97a-e
22 CHAUCER: Wife ofBath's Prologue [5583-6410]
2S6a-269b
26 SHAKESPEARE: As You Like It, ACT IV, SC I
[1-41] 617a-c; ACT V, SC IV [176-'-202] 62Se-d
30 BACON: Advancement ofLearning, 70b-d; 73d-
74a
1 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART V, PROP 42 463b-d
5 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK II, CH XXI,
SECT 42 188e; SECT 55-56 192e-193b; SECT 61
194b-e
37 FIELDING: Tom fones, 283a-b
38RouSSEAU: Inequality, 338b-e; 342e-343b;
363a-366d passim
42 KANT: Fund. Prine Metaphysic ofMorals, 2S6d-
257d; 267b-d / Practical Reason, 300a-e; 304d-
305d / Judgement, 584d-586a
703
43 MILL: Liberty, 293b-302e esp 299b-e / Repre-
sentative Government, 367d-368a / '. Utilitarian-
ism, 448d-450a; 450c-453a; 461e-464d
44 BOSWELL: fohnsqn, 144d-145a; 214b; 391d-
392a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy ofRight, PART III, par 166
59d-60a I Philosophy ofHistory, INTRO, 166b-
168a
48 !\1ELVILLE:Moby Dick, 54b-55a; 122b-123a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK III, 117d; BK V,
21Sb-d; BK VI, 235a-238a; 262d-263a; BK VIII,
303a-30Sb; BK XI, 480a-482b; BK XIII, 577a-
578b; BK XIV, 605b-d; BK XV, 630e-631e
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK V, 127b-
137e passim; BK XI, 307c-310e
53 JAMES: Psychology, 201a-202a
54 FREUD: General Introduction, 633d-634a; 635e
/ Civilization and Its Discontents, 772b-e; 775e-
776e
4b. The attainability of happiness: the fear of
death and the tragic view of human life
4 HOl\iER: Iliad, BK VI [144-151] 41e; [440-493]
44c-4Sa; BK XII [290-328] 8Sb-e; BK XVII [420-
455] 126b-d
5 SOPHOCLES: Oedipus the King [1186-1221]
110b-e; [1524-153] 113c / Oedipus at Colo-
nus [1211-1248] 125b-c ! Antigone (582-624]
136b-e; [1155-,-1171] 140d-141a / Trachiniae
[1--48] 170a-e; [121-140] 171b
5 EURIPIDES: Alcestis [773-802] 243d-244a /
Trojan Women [466-510] 274a-b/ Andromache
[91-102] 3l6a / Hecuba [619-628] 358a; [952-
961] 360d-361a / Heracles Mad [497-513]
369a-b I lphigenia at Aulis [16-33] 425h
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK I, 2b;6e-l0a esp 6e-
8a, ge-l0a; 20b-21a; BK II, 64d-65a; BK III,
98b-99a; BK v, 160e-d; BK VII, 224e-225a
7 PLATO: Apology, 205d-206d; 211b-212a,e I
Crito 213a-219a,e / Phaedo 220a-251d I Re-
public, BK I, 29Sd-297e; BK VI, 374a-d
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK I, CH 9-11 345a-347a;
BK VII, CH 14 [II54b20-30] 406c; BK x, CH 7
[II77b26""71178a8] 432e; CH 8 432d-434a passim,
esp [1 I78b23-32] 433e / Politics, BKIV, CH I I
[I295a25-bl] 49Sb-e; BK VII, CH 13 [133Ib24-
1332a32] 536b-537a
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK II [1,.--6IJ
15a-d; BK III [31-93] 30b-31b; [830-1094] 40e-
44a,e; BK VI [1-42} 80a-d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK I, CH 4 10Bd-110a;
CH 24 129a-d; BK II, CH 16 156b-158d; BK III,
CH 24 203e-210a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK II, SECT 11-12
2S8a-c; BK IV, SECT 50 268e; BK V, SECT 16-18
271e-d; SECT 34 273e; BK VII, SECT 35 282a;
SECT 44-45 282b-c; BK IX,SECT 3291d-292a
14 PLUTARCH: Solon, 66b-d; 74e-75e / Aemilius
Paulus, 224d-22Se; 229a-e / Pelopidas, 245e-d
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK VI, 91b-d
17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR IV, CH 4 14a-e I
Third Ennead, TR II, CH 4-5 84e-85e
705
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, XV [40-
81] 75d-76a; XVI [91-138] 77d-78b
35 LocKE: Toleration, 15d-16a
37 FIELDING: Tom jones, 291d-292a; 305d;
330b-c
38 Spirit of Laws, BK XXIV,
203a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 343d-345c; 363a-366d
esp 363b-364a
42 KANT: Fund. Prn. Metaphysicoflvforals, 272d-
273a I Practical Reason, 304b-305c I Pref.
Metaphysical Elements ofEthics, 369c-373b esp
372a-b; 373d; 375d-376b
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 450b; 452b-454a; 460a-
461c; 461d; 463a-b; 469b-470c
44 BOSWELL: johnson, 221d-224a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy ofRight, PART II, par 125-
126 44d-45b; par 134 47b;PART III, par ISS
57c; par 182-18.3 64a; par 189 65d-66a; par 192
66b-e; par 249 78c; ADDITIONS, 116 135c-d;
I27137b
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART II [II,559-'-572J 281b
49 DARWIN: Descent ofMan, 310a-319a esp 312a.
3l3a, 314b-315d, 316c-317c; 592d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK III, 116c-117a;
127d-128d; BK V, 197b-c; 214c-216d; BK X
430a-b; EPILOGUE I, 670d-671c
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karatnazoz.I , HK II, 25d-
27d; 37c-38a; BK V, 121d-127b; BK VI, 154d-
159a; 165b-167b
5b. The happiness of the individualiri relation
to the welfare of the state: happiness in
relation to government and diverse forms
of government
OLD TESTAMENT: Proverbs, II :10-11
5 AESCHYLUS: Seven Against Thebes 27a-39a,c
esp [1011--1084] 38b-39a,c
5 SOPHOCLES: Antigone 131a-142d esp [162-210]
132c-d I Philoctetes 182a-195a,e
5 EURIPIDES: Phoenician Maidens [8.34- 1018]
385c-387b; [1582-1684] 391d-392d / Iphige-
nia at Aulis: 425a-439d esp [1255-1275] 436c,
[1368-1401] 437c-d
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK I, 6c-7a
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK II,397d-
398e; 402b-e; BK VI, 511c-d
7 PLATO: Crito 213a-219a,c esp 216d-219a,c /
Republic, BK I, 302e-306a; BK II, 311b-c; BK
IV, 342a-d; BK v,364c-365d; BK VI, 379d-
380b; BK VII, 390b-391b; 401a-b; BK IX, 416a-
421a esp 418d-421a / LauJs, BK V, 692c-693a;
BK VI, 707e-708a; BK IX, 754a-b / Seventh
Letter, 814b-c
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK I, CH 2 [1094b8-IO]
33ge-d IPolidcs, BK I, CH I [I252al-6] 445a;
BK II, CH S [1264bI6-25] 459d-460a; BK III, ClI
6 [I278bI5-29] 475d-476a; BK VII, CH 1-3
527a-530a; CH 8 [1328a3S_b2] 532c-d; CH 9
[1.328b33-I329a2] 533b; [I329a2I-24] 533c; CH
13-14 536b-538d; BK VIII, CH I [1337a28-30]
542b
CHAPTER 33: HAPPINESS
24Oc; Q 99, A 3, ANS 247a-248a; Q 100, A 2,
ANS 252b-253a; A8, ANS and REP3 259d-261a;
A II, REP 3 263c-264d; Q 105, A I, REP 3 307d-
309d; A 2, ANS and REP 1,4 309d-316a; A 3,
ANS and REP' 5 316a-318b; PART II-II, Q 39, A
2, REP 3 575b-576b; Q 187, A3, REP 1,3 666a-
669b; PART III SUPPL, Q96, A6, REP II 1058a-
1061b; A 7, REP .3 1061b-1062a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 84c-86b
30 BACON: Advancement ofLearning, 69d-76a esp
71 b-c, 72b-c
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART IV, PROP 18, SCHOL
429a-d
35 LOCKE: HU1nan Understanding, BK I, CH II,
SECT 6 10Sb-e
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART IV, 180b-184a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 323a-328a,c; 333b-e;
342c-343b; 351c-352a; 363a-366dl Political
Econotny, 372b-377b I Social Contract, BK II,
400c-401a; 401d
2 KANT: Pure Reason, 114b-d I Pref. Metaphysi-
cal Elements of Ethics, 369c-373b I Science of
Right, 438d-439a
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 45, 147c-148a
43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 453a-454a; 460a-461c;
461d; 475a-476a
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 211b-c
49 DAR\VIN: Descent of Man, 316a-317a; 592d
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK V, 127b-
137c -passim
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 799a-
802a,c esp 799c-800a
he happiness of the individual in relation
to the happiness or good of other men
SOPHOCLES: L1jax 145c
HERODOTUS: History, BK III, 99a
7 PLATO: GorgiaJ, 262a-270c; 284a;"285a
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK IX, CH 6 [1167b5-15J
420d-421a; CH 8 [II68b28-II69aII] 422b-d;
CH 9 423a-424b; CH I I 425a-d
LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK II [I-I3J
15a
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK I, CHI9125b-126c;
BK II, CH 5 142c-144a; CH 10 148e-150a
2 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK III, SECT 4 260b-
261a; BK v, SECT 6 269b-d; BK VI, SECT 14
274d-275a; BK VIII, SECT 12 286b-e; SECT 56
290e; BK IX, SECT I 291a-c; SECT 2.3 293e;
SECT 42 295c-296a,c; BK x, SECT 6 297a-b
AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK IV, par 7-14 20d-
23a I City ofGod, BK XIX, CH 8 515c-S16a; Cll
12-14 517b-520d
9 AQUINAS: Sumn1a Theologica, PART I-II, Q I,
A 5, ANS 613a-614a; A 7 614e-615a; Q 4, A 8
636a-e; Q 32, AA 5-6 762a-763e
AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 94,
A 2, ANS 221d-223a; PART II--II, Q 17, A3 458c-
459a; Q26 510b-520d passitu; Q39, A2" REP 3
575b-576b; PART III SUPPL, Q 71 900d-917b;
Q 94 1040d-1042c; Q 96, A 7, REP 3 1061b-
1062a
5. The social aspects of happiness: the doctrine
of the COlumon good
7 PLATO: Euthydemus, 75c-76b I Republic, BK
IV, 342a-d; BK V, 365e; BK VII, 390b-3910 t
Statesman, 59ge-603d
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK I, CH 1-2 339a-d; BK'V,
CH I [II29bII-II3oaI3] 377a-e / Politics, BK III,
CH 9 [I280
a
3I-34] 477d-478a; BK IV, CH II
[I295a25-bIJ 495b-e; BK VII, CH 1-3 527a-
530a; CH IJ-15 536b-539d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK I, CH 19 125h-126c;
BK II, CH 10 148c-150a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK II, SECT J,2S7a,;;b;
BK III, SECT 4 260b-261a; BK IV, SECT 4 264a;
BK V, SECT I 268b,d; SECT 6 269b-d; SECT
271e-d; SECT 22 272b; BK VI, SECT 14 274
275a; SECT 45 278e; SECT 54 279c; BK VI
SECT 44'-46 282b-e; BK VIII, SECT 12 2860-
SECT 23 287b; BK IX, SECT I 291a-e; SECT
293c; SECT 42 295e-296a,c; BK x, SECT 6
297a-c; SECT 20 299b '
18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK XIX, CH I
507a-516a; CH 12--17 517b-523a; CH 26528
529a
19 AQUINAS: SU111ma Theologica, PART I, Q21,
I, ANS and REP 1,J 124b-125b; Q 60, A 5, A
313h-314c; Q 92, A I, REP 3 488d-489d; Q9
A 4 512d-513c; PART I-II, Q I, A S, ANS 61
614a; A 7 614e-615a; Q 19, A 10, ANS 710
711d; Q 21, A 3 718d-71ge; A 4, REP 3 719
720a,e
20 AQUINAS: Sumn1a Theologica, PART I-II, Q
AA 4-5 48e-49d; Q 60, A 2 50d-51b; Q 90,
206b-207a; A 3, ANS and REP 3 207a-e;
ANS 207d-208b; Q 91, A 6, REP 3 212c:.2
Q 92, A I, ANS and REP I,J--4 213e-214e; Q
A I, REP I 215b,d-216e; Q 94, A 2, ANS 22
223a; A3, REP I 223a-e; Q 95, A 4, ANS22
230e; Q 96, A3, ANS and REP 3 232b-233a
ANS 233a-d; A 6, ANS 235a-d; Q 97, AI,
and REP 3 236a-d; A 2, ANS and REP 223
237b; A 4- 238b-239b; Q 98, A I, ANS 23
THE GREAT IDEAS 4b t
[1699--176] 41a, [1765-1815] 42b-43a, [J21
3250] 79a-b, PART II [9695-9944] 235a'-241 ,
[II,43J-452 1278a-b, '[1:1,559-586] 281b,.282a;
[II,934--12,IIIJ 290b-294b
48 MELVILLE: Aloby Dick esp 175b-176a, 3131:>..
314a, 316a-b,319a-b,341b-342a, 357a,3601:>:
361a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK II, 80d-81a;B1(
III, 117d; BK VI, 235a-238a; 262d-263a; B1(
VII, 294b-296a; BK VIII, 303a-305b; BK IX
357d-358b; 373b-374d; BK XII, 560a-562a:
BK XIII, 577a-578b; BK XIV, 605b-d; BK xv'
630e-631e; EPILOGUE I, 659c-d; 671c-672a '
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Kara1nazov, BK II, 25d-
27d; BK III, 53b-54b; BK v, 121d-127b; 1270-
137e passim; BK XI, 345a-c
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 771a-
802a,e esp 772b-c, 776b-777c, 778d-779a,
788d-789b, 793d-794a, 796b-c, 799c-800a
(4. The pursuit of happiness. 4b. Theattainabil-
ity of happiness: the fear of death arId the
tragic view of human life.)
18 AUGUSTINE: City ofGod, BK VIII, CH 8 270a-d;
BK XIX, CH 4-8 511a-516a; BK XXII, CH 22-24
606d-612a
19 AQUINAS: SUlnn1a Theologica, PART I-II, Q 5
636d-643d
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, XI [1-12]
122a
22 CHAUCER: Troilus and Cressida, BK I, STANZA
31.-.35 5a-b; BK III, STANZA 117-,-120 69b-70a;
BK IV, STANZA 72-74 98a; BK V, STANZA 262-
26.., 154b I Knight's Tale [133-1324] 181b;
[2837-2852] 206b-207a I Alerchant's Tale
332a-b I Alonk's Tale 434a-448b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 65a-b; 76c-d;
79b-d; PART II, 163d-164a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 6d-10a; 26d-36b; 70d-
72a; 115b-119d; 124c-125a; 149h-d; 231d-
233c; 312c-314b; 326b-327b; 339a-d; 402c-
403c; 478c-47ge; 509b-512a; 528c-529b;
541b-e
26 SHAKESPEARE: Richard II, ACT III, SC II [144-
185] 337a-b; ACT IV, SC I [162-318] 343b-344d;
ACT V, SC V [1-41] 349d-350a
27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT I, SC II (129-137]
32d-33a; sc IV [13-38] ACT II, SC II
[30J-322] 43d; ACT III, SC I [56-157] 47c-48c
I Measure for Measure, ACT III, SC I [1-43]
186d-187a I Timon of Athens, ACT IV, SC I
409c-d; ACT IV, SC III-ACT V, SC I 410c-419b /
Henry ,VIII, ACT III, SC II 572c-d
30 BACON: Advancement of LearnIng, 26a-c;
70b-d; 73d-74a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART iV, PROP 67 444d-445a;
PART V, PROP 42 463b-d
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK II [496-55] 122a;
BK x [782-844] 291b-292b
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 19--110 193b-194a; 126-147
195b-201a; 156-157 201b-202a; 164-183 202b-
204b; 199 210b; 386 239a
35 LOCKE: HU171an Understanding, BK II, CH VII,
SECT 5 132e; CH XXI, SECT 45 189b-d
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 383a-384a; 38Ba-
399b; 459a-460a
37 FIELDING: Tom jones, 283a-b
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequalt'ty, 338b-e;363a-366d pas-
sim, esp 363a-b, 366b-d
42 KANT: Fund. Prine Metaphysic of Morals,
256d-257d; 258b; 267b-d I Practical Reason,
345a-347a I ] udgelnent, 584d-586a
43 MILL: Utilitarianis1n, 450c-453a
44 BOSWELL: johnson, 95e-d; 102d-l03b; 104b;
254b-e; 312b; 350d-351b; 362e-363a; 376c-
377a; 540b-542a
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 162a-
170b; PART I, 245b-d; PART III, 285a-b
47 GOETHE: Faust esp PART I [.354-517] 11a-
14b, [614-736] 17a-19b, [1064-1125] 26b-28a,
[1544-1571] 37b-38a, [1583-1638] 38b-39b,
704
THE .GREAT IDEAS
CHAPTER 33: HAPPINESS
706
(5. The social aspects of happiness: the doctrine
of the common good. 5b. The happiness of
the individual in relation to the welfare of
the state: happiness in relation to govern-
ment and diverse forms of government.)
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK I, CH19 125b-
126c; BK II, CH 10 148c-150a; BK III, CH22
195a-201a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK III, SECT 4 260b-
261a; BK v, SECT 16 271c-d; SECT 22272b;
BK VI, SECT 54 279c; BK VII, SECT 5 280a-b;
BK XI, SECT 21 305d-30oa
14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus32a-48d esp 44d.;45c,
48b-c / NUlna Pompilius,. 51c-:-52b; 59d-60b /
Poplicola-Solon 86a-87d esp 87a-b /Nicias,
425b-c / Demosthenes, 691b,d; 699c-700a
1STACITUS : Histories, .BK II, 22Gd-228a
18 AUGUSTINE: City ofGod, BK XIX, CH I7S22b-
523a; .CH 26 528d-529a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PARTT,Q 60, A
5, ANS 313b-314c; Q 96, A 4 512d-513c; PART
I-II,Q 19, A 10, ANS 710b-711d; Q21, A3718d-
719c; A 4, REP 3 719d-720a,c
20 AQUINAS : Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q90,
A 2206b-207a; A3,;. REP 3207a-c; Q92, A I,
ANS and REP 1,3-4 213c-214c; Q 94, A 2, ANS
221d-223a; Q 95, A 4,ANS 229b-230c;Q 96, A
3, ANS and REP 3232b-233a;A 4, ANS 233a-d;
A6, ANS 235a-d; Q97, A4238b-239b; Q 98, A
I, ANS 239b-240c; Q99, A 3, ANS 247a-248a;
Q 100, A2, ANS 252b-253a; AS, ANsandREP3
259d-261a; A II, REP 3 263c":264d; Q 105, A2,
ANS and REPI,4 309d-316a;A 3,'ANs'and REP
5 316a-318b; Q III, AS', REP l355d-356c;
PART III SUPPL, Q96, A6, REPII 1058a-1061b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PARTd, 84c-86b; PART II,
99a; 104b-d; 105c-d;J12b-c; 153a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 381a-388c; 480b-482b;
486b-489b; 490c-491d
27 SHAKESPEARE: Coriolanus, ACT I, SC I [67-,167J
352a-353a
30 BACON: Advancement ofLearning, 74b-76a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART IV, PROP 37, SCHOL 2
435b-436a
32 .MILTON: Samson Agonistes [843-902J 358a-
359a
35 LOCKE: Toleration., 16dJ7b I Civil Govern-
ment, CH VI, SECTS7 36d-37b; CHIX 53c-54d;
CH XI 55b-:58b passim; ca: XV,SECT 171 65a-b
36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART III, 112a-115bespJ12a-
113a
38 MONTESQUIEu:SpiritofLaws, BK IV, 16c; BK
V, 19a-c; 26c; BK VI, 38a-b
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 323a-328a,c; 359a-b
/ Political Economy, 368c; 3720-377b esp
374a-d / Social Contract, BK I,393b-c; BK
III, 415d; 421d
39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v,350d-351a
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 31d-34a,cpassim,
esp32c-33a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 176c; 320d;.321a
42 KANT: Pure Reason, 114b-d I Science 'of
438d-439a
43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: [7-J5J 1
43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: PREAMBLE.l
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 14, 62a-d; NUMBER.
147c-148a
43 MILL: Representative GOlJernrnent, 33
338b-c / Utilitarianism, 460a-461c
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 221d-224a; 304c; 393
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART III, pal\
68d; par 261 83a-d; par 29498b-d; par
107d; par 337 l09d-110a; ADDITIONS, 116
135c-136a; 127 137b; 154-156 142a-b;
142d / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 1
192c-193a; PART I, 213b; PART III, 285a-
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK. VI, 2380-2
260a-262a; BK XI, 475b-476c; 480a-4
50Sa-511b esp 509d-510a; 514b-515a;Bk
537b-538a; BK XIII, 577b-c; BK XV, 634a-6
54 FREUD: Civilization andlts Discontents, 7.
80la / New Introductory Lectures, 852d-85
6. The happiness of men in relation to the g
or the after-life
4 HOMER: Iliad, BK xv [47-771104c-d;BK
[843-861] 121c.. d
5 AESCHYLUS: Agamen1non [351-474J 55d-
Eumenides 81a-9Id
5 SOPHOCLES: Oedipus the King [1186--
110b-c; [1524-153] 113c / Antigone [582-
136b-c; [1348-1353] 142d / Trachiniae [a:
140] 171b / Philoctetes[1314-1347]193d:"1
5 EURIPIDES: Helen [1687-1692J 314c / L1ndn
ache [91---I02J 316a; [I284-128SJ326c /
chantes [818-911] j.l-Iecuba [952 -
360d-361a / Iphigenia at Aulis [16-331 425
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK I, 6c-10a esp 6c.
9c-10a; 20b-21a; BK II, 77a-b; BK III, 98
7 PLATO: Apology, 211c-d /Phaedo, 223a-2
249c-250b / Republic, BK VII, 4Qla-b;B
437c-438c / Laws, BI< II,658c-d; BK v,6
9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK I, CH 10---1I 345c-3
BK VII, CH 14 [1154b20-30] 406c; BK x,
431d;.432c esp [1177bI6-I178a81 432b-c; ell
[I 433b-c
12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK I
1d-2d; BK III 30a-31b; [978-1023] 42
43b; BK BX VI [43"-7
BOd-81b
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses,.BK IV, en I 213a-22
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK II, SECT II 258a
13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK VI [264-678] 218a-22
[724-751] 230b-231a
15 TACITUS: Annals, BK VI, 91b-d I Hist
BK I, 190a
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK VI, par 26 4
43a
7. The distinction between temporal and et
nalhappiness
18 AUGUSTINE: City ofGod,BK X, CH 183100
BK XIX, CH 4-11 511a-517b
to 7e
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-Ii, QQ
2-5 615c-643d passim
22 CHAUCER: Merchant's Tale [95 IL-95581325b-
326a
3 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 65a-b
8 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK IV, 437d-438b
9SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK v, 336c-d
2 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK V, 127b-
137c passim
. The effects of original sin: the indispensa-
bility of divine grace for the attainment
of natural happiness
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 3
NEW TESTAMENT: Ronzans, 5:14-21 / I Corin-
thians, 15:21- 22
;18 AUGUSTINE: Conftssions,BKX, par 33-34 79d-
80c / City ofGod, BK IX, CH 14-17 293a-295c;
BK x, eH 2-3 299d-301a; CH 22-32 312a-
322a,c; BK XIV, CH I 376b,d-377a; BK XXI,
CH 15-16 572c-574a; BKXXII, CH 22-24 606d-
612a /. Christian Doctrine, BK I, CH IS 628b-c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 85
178b-184a; Q 91, A 6 212c-213c; Q 109, A 2
339c-340b; AA 7-8 344a-346a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, XXVIII
[91]-"XXIX .36] 97a-98a; PARADISE, VII 115a-
116c
22 CHAUCER: Second Nun's Tale [15,788-822]
467a-b I Parson's Tale, par 1-15 495a-506b
3 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART III, 195d-196a
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost,BK III [56-415] 136b-
144b esp [130-134] 138a, [227-238] 140b; BK
XI [1-44] 299a-300a; BK XI f334]-BK XII [6491
306b-333a
33 BASCAL: Pensees, 425-430 243b-247b; 447 253a
;37 FIELDING: Tom fones, 38d
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK V, 121d-
127b esp 125d-126b;BK VI, 168a-c
The imperfection oftemporal happiness: its
failure to satisfy natural desire
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BKIV, par 7-19 20d-
24b; BK VIII, par I757d;BKIX, par 23-26
68a-d / City ofGod, BK VIII,CH 8 270a-d; BK
IX, CH 14-15 293a-294a; BK XII, CH I 342b,d-
343c;' BK XIX, CH 4-10 511a..:516d; CH 20 523d-
524a; CH 27 529a-d / Christian Doctrine, BK I,
CH 4 625b-c; CH 38 635c-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 2,
AI, REP 3 615d-616c; A3 617b-618a; A8 621c-
622b; Q 3, A2, REP 4 623a-624b; AA 6-8 627b-
629c; Q 5, A I, REP 2 636d-637c; A 3 638b-
639a; A 4, ANS 639a-640b; A5 esp REP 3640b-
641a
oAQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q66,
A5, REP 2 79b-80c
1 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE,' XI [1-12]
122a
22CHAUCBR: Knight's Tale [133-13241 181b /
Nun's Priest's Tale [15,210-215] 456b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 65a-b; 76c-d
707
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 99b-100a
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART II, 366d-367a
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK Ii [496--55] 122a
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 106193b; 193b-
194a; 126-147 195b-201a; 156-157 201b-202a;
164-183 202b-204b; 205a-217b; 389
239b; 425-555 243b-270a passim
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BKII, CH VII,
SECT 5 132c; CH XXI, SECT 45 SECT
61-62 194b-d; SECT 72 198a-c
35 HUME: Human Understanding, SECT XI, DIV
17, 499d-500a
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 366c-d
42 KANT: Practical Reason, 346b:..347b
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 256d; 401a-b
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART I [1544-1571] 37b-38a
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK V, 216d-218b;
BK VI, 273c-274a,c; BK XI, 525c-526b;BK XII,
560a-562a; EPILOGUE I, 650b; 659c-d; 611c-
672a
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK V, 127b-
137cpassim;BK VI, 153d,.167b
7c. Eternal beatitude: the perfection of human
happiness
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions,BKI, par 31 8d-9a;
BK IX, par 2J'-26 68a,-d;BK XIII, par 50-52
124c-d / City ofGod, BK VII, CH 31 261d-262a;
BK IX, CHI5 293a-294a; BKX, CH 1-3 298b,d-
301a; CH 18 310b-d; CH 22 312a-b; CH 32
319d-322a,c; BK XI, CH 12 329b-c; BK XII, CH I
342b,d-343c; BK XIII, CH 20 370c-371a; BK
XIX, CH 4 511a-513c; CH 10-II 516c-517b; CH
13 519a-520a; CH 20 523d-524a; CH 27 529a-d;
BK XXI, ClI IS 572c-573b; BK XXII 586b,d-
618d esp CH I 586b,d-587b, CH 3 588a-b, CH
29-30 614b-618d / Christian Doctrine,. BK I,
CH 4 625b-c; CH IS 628b-c; ClI 32....33633c-
634b;
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I,Q 12, A
I, ANS 50c-51c; Q 18, A 2, REP '2 l05c-106b; Q
26 150a-152a,c; Q 62 317c-325b; Q 66, A 3,
ANS 347b-348d; Q73, A2, REP J371b-d; Q75,
A 7, REP 1 384d-38Sc; Q 82, A 2, ANS 432d-
433c; PART I-II, Q 2, A 8 621c-622b; Q 3, A 8
628d-629c; QQ 4-5 629c-643d; Q 19, A 10, REP
I 710b-711d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PARTI-II, Q55,
A2, REP 3 27a-d; Q62 59d-63a; Q63, A3, ANS
and REP 2 65a-d; Q 67 81b-87c;Q 68, AA 2-6
89c-94c; Q 69 96c-101c; Q I09338a-347d;
PART II-II, Q 2, AA 3-8392d-398b; Q 17, AA
2-3 457d-459a; Q 26, A. 13 519d-520d; PART
III SUPPL,Q 75, A I 935b-937a;QQ 82-85
968a-992a; QQ 1025b-1066a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, XV [40-
81] 75d-76a; PARADISE, III [43'-90JI09d-110b;
XIV [1-66] 126d-127c; XXI [1-102] 138b-139b;
XXII [1-75] 139d-140c; XXVI [1..,..69] 145d-146c;
XXVIII [1-114] 148d-150a
22 CHAUCER: Merchant's Tale [9511-9558] 325b-
326a
709
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART III, 195b-d
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK II,
119b-122a
26 SHAKESPEARE: Richard III, ACT I, SC IV [42-
63J 115a-b
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART II, 418e-
419a
31 DESCARTES: Objections and Replies, 226d-227a
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK I-II 93a-134a; BK
VI [867-877] 215a-b
35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK II, CH XXI,
SECT 62 194e-d; SECT 72 198a-e
40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 188d-189a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 234a-e
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karalnazov, BK V,
127c-d; BK VI, 16ge-170b; BK VII, 185a-e
7d. The beatitude of God
OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 33 :18-20 / I Chronicles,
29:11- 13-(D) I Paralipornenon, 29:11-13 /
Psalms, 8; 19; 24; 14:1; 113:4; 138; 14S-(D)
Psalms, 8; 18; 23; 13:1; 112:4; 137; 144 /
Isaiah, 6:I-4--(D) Isaias, 6:1-4
NE\V TESTAMENT: Mark, 8:38 / John, 8:54 /
I Peter, 4:1 I / II Peter, 1:16-18 j Revelation,
S:9-14-(D) Apocalypse, S:9-14
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK XIII, par 4 111e;
par 53 124d-125a,c / City of God, BK VIII,
CH BK XII, CH 17 353a-354a;
BK XXII, CH 29 614b-616d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 26
150a-152a,e; Q 62, A 4, ANS 320b-321b; Q63,
A 3 327b,.328b; Q 65, A 2, ANS 340b-341b; Q
73, A2, REP 3 371b-d; PART I-II, Q2, A2, REP
2 616d-617b; Q 3, A I, REP I 622c:..623a; A 2,
REP 1,4 623a--624b; A8, REP 2 628d-629c; QS,
A 3, REP 2 63'8b-639a; A 7, ANS and REP 2
642a-d
20 AQUINAS: Sttlnma Theologica,PART IlI,Q 19,
A 3 819c-820e; Q 26, A I, REP 2845b-846a;
PART III SUPPL, Q 71, A 8, REP I 909d.,.910d;
Q92 , A I, REP S 1025c-l032b
21 DANTE: Dinne C01nedy, PARADISE, I [1-9]
106a; XXXIII [46--14S] 156d-157d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART V, PROP 17 456c-d;
PROP 35-36 460d-461c
32 MILTON: Upon the Circu1ncision 12b-13a /
Paradise Lost, BK III [S6-415] 136b-144b
42 KANT: Practical Reason, 347d-348b / Judge-
ment, 594d [fn I]
CHAPTER 33: HAPPINESS (3) to 7d
44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 192d-193a
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK II, 22b-
23e; BK XI, 341d-342e
53 JAMES: Psychology, 199b
(3) The misery of the damned
OLD TESTAMENT: Job, 20:4-29/ Psaln1s, 9:16-17;
21:8-12; 116:3-(D)Psaln1s, 9:17-18; 20:9-
13; 114:3 / Isaiah, S:14-15; 14:4-23; 26:10;
66:24-(D) Isaias, 5:14-IS; 14:4-23; 26:10;
66:24 / Ezekiel, 3I:lo-18-(D) Ezechiel,
3r:IO-I8 / Daniel, 12:2
ApOCRYPHA: Judith, 16:17-(D) aT, Judith,
16:20--21 / Vlisdom 0.( SOI0111011, 4:16-S:23
passim-oeD) aT, BookofWisd01n, 4:16-5:24
passim / Ecclesiasticus, 7:17; 21 :9-Io-(D)
aT, Ecclesiasticus, 7:19; 21 :10-11
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 8:12; 13:41-42,49-
50; 18:6-9; 2S:41--46 / Mark,
j\1.ark, 9:41-47 / Luke, 16:19-26/ Romans,
2:5---9 / II Thessalonians, 1:7-9 / Jude, S-7 /
Revelation passim, esp 14 :9-1I , 17: I-20: I5-
(D) Apocalypse passim, esp 14:9-11, I7:1-20:IS
18 AUGUSTINE: City ofGod, BK XI,_ CH 33 341a-d;
BK XIII, CH 2 360b-361a; CH 12 365d-366a;
CH 14-16 366b-367d; BK XIII, CH 24--BK XIV,
Cll I, 376a,c-377a; BK XIV, CH IS 388d-390a;
BK XV, CH 1397b,d--398c'; BK XIX, cR, I J Sr9a-
520a; CH 28 529d-530a,c; BK xx, CH 6 534a-
535a; CH 14-IS 542d-544b; BK XXI 560a-
586a,c esp CH 1-3 560a-562a,cH 9-10 568d-
570b, CH 13 571c-572a, CH 17 574a-b, CH 23
576c-577b / Christian Doctrine, BK I, CH 20-21
629b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 10,A
3, REP 2 42c-43b; Q 21, A 4, REP I 126c-127c
20 AQUINAS: SU1nma Theologica, PART 1--11, Q 87,
AA 3-5 187b-18ge; PART III SUPPL, Q 70, A 3
897d-900d; Q86 992b-996a,c; Q87, A I, REP 4
997b-998c; Q90, A3 1014d-1016a; Q94 1040d-
1042c; QQ 97--99 1066a-1085a,c
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL 1a-52d esp ,III
[1--18] 4a-b, [82'-129] 5a-b, VI [100-lIS] 9c, VII
[100--13] 10c-d, XI 15a-16b, XIV [16-72] 19c-
20b, XXVII [55-136] [91-148]
SOc-51a; PARADISE, VII [64-93] 115d-116a; xv
[10-12J 128c
22 CHAUCER: Friar's Tale [7216-7234] 283b-284a
/ SUlnn1.0ner's Prologue 284b-285a / Parson's
Tale, par 10 498b-502a
I\OSS-REFERENCES
lior: Matters most relevant to the general theory of happiness, see GOOD AND EVIL 3a, sa; PLEAS-
URE AND PAIN 6-6b, 6d.
Particular goods or virtues which are related to happiness, see COURAGE S; HONOR 2b;
KNOWLEDGE 8b(4); LOVE 3a; PRUDENCE 2a; TEMPERANCE 3; VIRTUE AND VICE Id;
WEALTH loa; WISDOM 2C; and for the discussion of means and ends in the order of goods,
see GOOD AND EVIL 4b, Sb-sc.
Other treatments of the conflict bet\tveen an ethics of happiness and an ethics of duty, see
DUTY 2; PLEASURE AND PAIN 8b; PRINCIPLE 4-4b.
7c(2) The joy of the blessed: the COtn:tnunio
of saints
OLD TESTAMENT: Psaln'lS, 16 esp 16:ro; 36 e
36:8-9; 37; 84; I49-(D) Psalnts, ISe
IS:IO; 3S esp 3S:9-lo ; 36; 83; 149 / [sa
65 :8-2S,- (D) Isaias, 6S :8-2.5 / Daniel, 7a
ApOCRYPHA: Wisdoln of Solomon, 3:1-9,13-
4:7--5:5; 5:I S-r6-(D) aT, Book of Wisd
3:1-9,13-IS; 4:7-5:S; 5: 16- 17
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 5:1-12,19-20; 6a
2I,J3; 13:43; 19:16-3 esp 19:2.1 ; 25:31-46e
2S:34, 2S:46 / A1ark, 10:17-31 / Luke, 16:
1
26; 18:18-30 / John, 6:38-'4; 8:51; 10:24-3
11:23-27; 16:20-24; 17:1-3 / Romans, 8:
1
14:17/ I Corinthians, IS:40-55 / II Corinthia
4:17-5 :10 / Galatians, 6:8 / Ephesians, 2 :18--
/ Hebrews, 10:34 / James, 1:12/ [Peter,'r :3-
/ I John, 2:IS-17; 3:1-3 / Revelation passi
esp 7, 14-:-15, 19, Apocaly
paSSIm, esp 4-S, 7, 14-IS, 19, 21-22
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK IV, par 16 23b-
BK IX, par 6 63a-b; par 23-25 68a-c; BK
par 38-39 81a-c; par 6S 87d-88a; BK XII,.p
23 104b-e; BK XIII, par S0-53 124c-125a,c
City of God, BK XI, CH 11-13 328d-330b;
29-33 339a-341d; BK XII, CH 20 355h-35
BK XVIII, CH 48 501b-d; BK XIX, CH 10
516c--517b; CH 13 519a-520a; ell 17 522b-52
CH 20 523d-524a; CH 27 529a-d; BK xx, eli
544d-545c; BK XXII, CH .3 616d-618d
Christian Doctrine, BK I, CH 19-22 629a-630
CH 38 635e-d
19 AQUINAS: SU111ma Theologica, PART I, Q 9.5,
4, ANS 509b-510a; Q 113, A7 580b-581a; PA
I--II, Q 2, A 3, REP I 617b-618a; Q 4, AK1
629d-631a; Q 34, A 3 770c-771c
20 AQUINAS: Sumlna Theologica, PART I--II, Q
A4 84d-85d; PART II--II, Q 18, A:2 462d-46
Q 19, A II 472d-473d; Q 26, A 13 519d-520
Q28, A3 528d-S29c; PART III SUPPL, Q90, A
1014d-1016a; Q 93 1037c-l040c; Q 94, A
1041d-1042c; Q 96 1049d-1066a
21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, XV [4-
81] 75d-76a; XXVIII-XXXIII 96a-10Sd;PA
DISE 106a-157d esp III [43-go] 109d-ll0b,
[112--126] 114d-115a, XIV [1-66J 126d-12
XX [130-138] 138a, XXI [1-102] 138b-lag
XXII [52--72J 140b, XXVIII [94-114] 149d-lS0
XXX-XXXIII 151d-157d
22 CHAUCER: Parson's Tale, par 103 549b-5S0
23 HOBBES: Let1iathan, PART III, 195d
32 On Time 12a-b / At a Solemn Mu
13a-b / Lycidas [165-185] 3Ib / Sonnets,
66a / Paradise Lost, BK III [13S-143] 1
[344-415] 143a-144b; BK VII [lso-I61]2
BK VIII [618-630] 245a-246a; BK XI [S7
300b; [696-77] 314b; BK XII [4II-46S]3
329a
33 PASCAL: Pensee." 643 290b-291a
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 234b-d
THE GR.EAT IDEAS 7c(1) to '"'Ie
31 DESCARTES: Meditations, III, 88d-89a
42 KANT: Practical Reason, 346b-347a
708
(7. The distinctJon betuJeen temporal and eternal
happiness. 7c. Eternal beatitude: the per-
fection of human happiness.)
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 65a-b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 99b-lOOa
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART II, 366d-367a
31 DESCARTES: Aleditations, III, 88d-89a
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART V, PROP 42 463b-d
33 PASCAL: Pensees, 184-241 205a-217b; 425-55S
243b-270a passim
35 LOCKE: Toleration, 15d-16a / Human Under-
standing, BK II, CH VII, SECT .5 132c; CH XXI,
SECT 38 187b-c; SECT 45, 189c-d; SECT 62
194c-d; SECT 72 198a-c
38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 366c-d
41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 233c-234d
42 KANT: Practical Reason, 346b-347c
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK V, 216d-218b;
BK VI, 273c-274a,c; BK XI, 525c-526b
52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK v, 120d-
121c; 125d-126d; 127b-137c passim
7'c(1) The beatific vision
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 32 :24-'3 / Exodus,
24esP 24:9-11; 33:11-23/ Numbers, 12:6-8/
Deuteronomy, 34:10 / Job, 19:26- 2 7 / Isaiah,
Isaias, 26:10
NE\V TESTAMENT: A1atthew, 5:8 / John, 1:18;
14:19-21 / I Corinthians, 13 :12/ II Corinthians,
12:1-4/1 Timothy, 6:IS-16 I I John, 3:1- 2 /
Revelation esp 4-5, 7-8, II, 14:I-S,
2I:1-22:21-(D) Apocalypse esp 4-S, 7-8, II,
14:1-5, 16:1-19:21,21 :1-22:21
18 AUGUSTINE : Confessions, BK IX, par 2S 68c;
BK XIII, par 18 115b-c / City ofGod, BK IX, ClI
15 293a-294a; BK X, CH2 299d-300a; BK XII,
CH 20, 355b; BK XXII, CH 29-30 614b-618d /
Christian Doctrine, BK I, CH 10-II 627b-c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 12,
AA I-II 50c-60d; Q 26, A .3 151a-c; Q 60, A S,
REP 5 313b-314c; Q 62, A I, ANs 317d-318c; A
2, ANS 318d--:319c; Q 64, A I, REP I 334a-335c;
Q82, A2, ANS 432d-433c; Q84, A5 446c-447c;
Q89, A2, REP 3 475a-d; Q93, A8, REP 4 499b-
500c; Q 94, A I, ANS and REP I 501d-503a; Q
100, A 2, ANS 521c-522b; PART I-II, Q 3, A 8
628d-629c; Q 4, AA 1-2 629d-631a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 67,
A3 83b-84d;A 6, REP 3 87a-c; Q69, A2, REP 3
97b-98c; A 4, ANS and REP 3 100e-l01c; PART
II-II, Q I, A 8, ANS 387a-388c; Q 8, A 7 421d-
422c; Q 9, A 4, REP 3 425d-426c; Q 180, A .5
611d-613a; PART III, Q 9, A2 764c-765a; Q IS,
A 10 795b-796a; PART III SUPPL, Q 90, A 3
1014d-1016a; Q 92 1025b-1037c; Q 94, A I
1040d-1041b; Q 98, A 5, ANS 1075b-d
21 DANTE: Divine C01nedy, PARADISE, v [1-12]
112a-b; XIV [1-66] 126d-127c; xv [28-84] 128c-
129b; XXI [1-102] 138b-139b; XXVIII [94--114]
149d-150a; XXXII [139]-xXXIII [145] 156a-157d
22 CHAUCER: Parson's Tale, par 10, 499b-SOOa
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 65a-b
ADDITIONAL READINGS
PLUTARCH. "Of the Tranquillity of the. Mind,"
"Whether Vice is Sufficient to Render a Man Un-
happy," in Moralia
AUGUSTINE. .The Happy Life
AQUINAS. Summa Contra Gentiles,BK I, ClI 100-102;
BK III, CH 17-63
DANTE.Convivio (The Banquet), FOURTH TREATISE,
CH 12
--. On World-Government or De Monarchia, BK
III, CI-I 16
HUME. An Inquiry Concerningthe Principles ofMorals
A. SMITH. The Theory ofMoraI Sentiments, PART VI
KANT. Lectures on Ethics
DOSTOEVSKY. Notes from Underground
--. The Idiot
II.
CICERO. De Finibus (On the Supreme Good)
--. Tusculan Disputations, V
SENECA. De Beata Vita (On the Happy Life)
SEXTUS EMPIRICUS. Against the Ethicists
--. Outlines of Pyrrh0 nism, BK lIt, CH 21-32
POMERIUS. The Contemplative Life
BOETHIUS. The Consolation of Philosophy, BK III
ABAILARD. Ethics (Scito Teipsum)
MAIMONIDES. The Guidefor the Perplexed, PART III,
CH 8-9
NICOLAS OF CUSA. The Vision of God
TERESA OF JESUS. The Way of Perfection
SUAREZ. Disputationes Metaphysicae, XXX (I I, 14)
JOHN OF THE CROSS. Ascent of Mount.Carmel
S. JOHNSON. History of Rasselas
HUTCHESON. A System of Moral Philosophy
VOLTAIRE. Candide
PALEY. Moral Philosophy, BK I, CH 6
IN ITS ORIGINAL Greek root, the word "history"
means research, and implies the act of judging
the evidences in order to separate fact from fic-
tion. The opening line of Herodotus is some-
times translated not "these are the histories of
Herodotus of Halicarnassus," but "these are
the researches ..."
The word "research" can, of course, mean
any sort of inquiry-into what is the case as
well as into what has happened. The title of one
of Aristotle's biological works, the History of
Animals, suggests that it is concerned with re-
searches about animals. The book does not deal
with natural history; it is not a history ofani-
mals in the sense of giving the stages of their
development in the course of time. The redun-
dancy of "historical research" can therefore be
excused on the ground that it is necessary to
distinguish between two kinds of inquiry or re-
search-scientific and historical.
Francis Bacon makes this' distinction when he
divides history into "natural,civil,ecclesiasti-
cal, and literary." Whereas the last three deal
with human things, the first is concerned with
the -non-human part of the natural world. At
the same time, this natural history is not, in
Bacon's judgment, the same. thing as "natural
philosophy," or what we would
tural science."
In this set of great books,natural history,
even, costIlic history, makes its appearance in
,works which we ordinarily classify as scienceor
philosophy; for example, Darwin's Origin of
Species, I,ucretius' On the Nature of Things, or
Plato's Timaeus.The great books of history
deal with man and society, not nature or the
universe. For the most part this is true also of
the great philosophies of history. They, too, are
primarily concerned with human civilization,
not the physical world.
711
INTRODUCTION
Chapter 34: HISTORY
ur language the term History," Hegel ob-
ryes, "unites the objective with the sub-
e side.. 11 It comprehends not less what
appenedthan the narration of what has hap-
cd. This union of the two meanings we must
cd as of a higher order than mere outward
ent; we must suppose historical narrations
yeappeared contemporaneously with
I cdeeds and events."
r .daily speech confirms Hegel's observa-
that "history" refers to that which has hap-
cd as well as to the record of it. We speak of
istory of a people or a nation, or of the
t events and epochs of history; and we also
a history the book which gives a narrative
unt of these rnatters.
's as if we used the word "physics" to name
the object of study and the science of that
et; whereas normaHy .we tend to use
ysies" for. the science and refer to its sub-
matter as the physical world. We do. not
that matter in motion is physics, but that
the object. of physics, one of the things a
icist studies. We might similarly have
tecd the convention of using "history" in a
ieted sense to signify a kind of knowledge
kind of writing, and then. called the phe-
ena written about or studied "historical"
not "history."
hat, however, is not the prevailing usage.
word "history" seems to have at least four
inct meanings. It refers to a kind of knowl-
e. It refers to a type of literature. It means
ctual sequence of events in time, which
itutes a process of irreversible change.
ean be either change in the structure of tht)
or any part of nature, or change in human
,in society or civilization,
istorical and historical writing
be about natural history or human history.
is classification of the kinds of knowledge,
THE GREAT IDEAS
1.
Listed below are works not included in Great Books ofthe Western World, but relevant to the
idea and topics with which this chapter deals. These works are divided into two groups:
I. Works by authors represented in this collection.
II. Works by authors not represented in this collection.
For the date, place, and other facts concerning the publication of the works cited, consult
the Bibliography of Additional Readings which follo\vs the last chapter of The Great Ideas.
T. REID. Essays on the Active Powers ofthe NUl
Mind, III, PART III, CH 1-4
BENTHAM.. An Introduction to thePrinciplesofM
and Legislation, CH I
WORDSWORTH. The Prelude
SCHOPENHAUER. The World as Wt1t and Idea, v
BK IV; VOL III, SUP, CH 45-50
LEOPARDI. Essays, Dialogues, and Thoughts
WHEWELL. The Elements of Morality, BK
25
KIERKEGAARD. Philosophical Fragments
--. Concluding Unscientific Postscript
LOTZE. Microcosmos, BK VIII, CH 2
FLAUBERT. Madalne Bovary
EMERSON. The Conduct of Life
H. SIDGWICK. The Methods ofEthies, BK II, CH
BK III, CH 14; BK IV
IBSEN. A Doll's House
NIETZSCHE. Beyond Good and Evil
-.-. The Will to Power
HAUPTMANN. The Weavers
CHEKHOV. Three Sisters
MANN. Buddenbrooks
DEWEY and TUFTS. Ethics, PART II, CH 14-15
MOORE. Principia Ethica, CH 2-3
--. Ethics, CH 1-2
UNAMUNO. The Tragic Sense of Life
B. RUSSELL. What I Believe, CH 4)
--. Skeptical Essays, VIII
A. E. TAYLOR. The Faith ofa Moralist, SERIES
KIRK. The Vision of God
SANTAYANA. Some Turns of Thought in
Philosophy, CH 4
MARITAIN. Scholasticism and Politics, CH VII
ADLER. A Dialectic of Morals
LUBAC. Surnaturel
O'CONNOR. The Eternal Quest
For: The bearing of natural desire on the pursuit of happiness, see DESIRE 2a, 3a, 7b;t
sa-sa( I); WILL 7d.
The relation of happiness to death and the fear of death, see IMMORTALITY
DEATH Sa-Sc.
Other considerations of individual happiness in relation to the state or the common
see GOOD AND EVIL Sd; STATE 2f.
Basic notions involved in the Christian doctrine of supernatural happiness or eternal be
tude, see ETERNITY 4d; GOD 6c(4), 7d, 7g; IMMORTALITY se-sg; LOVE sa(2);
MENT Sd, se(I); SIN 3c-3d, 4d, 6d, 7; VIRTUE AND VICE Sb, Se; WILL 7e,e(2).
Another discussion of the beatitude of God, see GOD 4h.
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