UNIJERSIDAD CENTRAL DE JENEZUELA

FACULTAD DE INGENIERIA
DEPARTAMENTO DE ENSEANZAS GENERALES
CATEDRA DE INGLES
INGLS INSTRUMENTAL CIVIL
(0111)
GUA DE EJERCICIOS
Elaborada por.
Prof. Graciela Martins
Octubre, 2011
1
Science News
New Bridge Can Be Built In Two Weeks
ScienceDailv (June 9, 2008) With new bridge-building materials, industrial production
methods, and an efficient construction process, it will be possible to start using a bridge
only two weeks after construction starts on the site. This is shown in a new dissertation
from Chalmers Uniersity of Technology.
! pilot study of the new bridge concept, the i-bridge, is included in "eter
#arryson$s doctoral dissertation in concrete construction at Chalmers. The bridge consists
of e%tremely light sections that are assembled on site. The load-bearing parts consist of -
shaped fiberglass beams that are reinforced with carbon fibers on the underside. The beams
interact with a thin bridge deck that is prefabricated out of steel-fiber-reinforced cement
with e%tremely high strength. &ince these materials are ery durable, they are adantageous
in a life-cycle perspectie, and they are highly suitable for industrial construction.
#oweer, these materials are not in use in the new construction of bridges today.
'The new bridge type is a construction that pro(ects seeral years into the future, but
the study shows that it would be technologically possible to build this bridge today if the
concept is further elaborated,) says "eter #arryson. '#oweer, at present the economic
conditions are constrained by the ma(or inestments that would be needed to start
production, and by the high prices for fiber-composite materials.)
Today the new type of bridge is estimated to cost more than twice as much as a
conentional bridge. *ut the economic potential of the bridge concept can be enhanced
considerably if the economic calculations are done in another way. *esides the shorter
construction time, there are seeral adantages both from a life-cycle perspectie and in
terms of the working enironment that could be alued higher.
The pro(ect has been part of +the &wedish ,oernmental !gency for -nnoation
&ystems. /innoa$s research program '0oad, *ridge, Tunnel.) "eter #arryson has been an
industrial doctoral candidate with the &wedish 0oad !dministration, which has proided
funding.
The dissertation, titled -ndustrial *ridge 1ngineering 2 &tructural deelopments for
more efficient bridge construction, was publicly defended on 3ay 45.
The new bridge concept, the i-bridge. (Credit: Image courtesy of Chalmers University of Technology
http677www.sciencedaily.com7releases7488978:7898:8;11<=18.htm
Activity 1.
0ead the article and then answer this >uestion6 What is it about? Write a short paragraph.
4
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Activity 2.
Can you say, on your own words, why this bridge is called 'the i-bridge)?
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Activity 3.
What words are repeated? Can you mention them? Write them down.
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Activity 4.
Underline all the erbal groups you find in the preious article.
Activity 5.
-dentifty and write down all the nouns that are present in the te%t.
Paragraph 1 Paragraph 2 Paragraph 3 Paragraph Paragraph ! Paragraph "
Unidad I.
Aproximacin al texto
=
1.1 Pre-reading activities: previos !no"ledge and prediction.
-t$s all ery simple really. -f you want to read specialiAed te%ts in 1nglish, all you need is an
e%tensie general and technical ocabulary in the language, a good knowledge of 1nglish
grammar, preferably some idea of what 1nglish sounds like and, last, but not necessarily
least, sufficient knowledge and understanding of your particular field. 1asy, right?
"ossibly.
Bet$s start with the final point6 the importance of what you already know about a topic
before you start to read. Take this e%ample6
The text we are going to read, analv:e and discuss was published in June 1999 in the
Journal C#$%r&'& I$'&r$a'(#$a). It has the following title.
Point of view: Reflections about technology choices
Advancements in Concrete Technology
by P. Kumar Mehta
After a short introduction, the text is divided into the following sections:-
Superplasticizing admixtures
High-strength concrete and mortars
High-performance concrete
Self-compacting concrete
Technologies for prolonging serice life
Corrosion-inhi!iting admixtures
"pox#-coated reinforcing steel
Cathodic protection of reinforced concrete
Surface coatings
High olume fl# ash and slag concretes
Structural concrete
$oller-compacted concrete dams
Concrete paements for highwa#s
Base courses and em!ankments
High olume slag cement
$ec#cled concrete aggregate
Cost-!enefit anal#sis
"aluation of recent adancements
In its original format, the text, including a list of 3 bibliogra!hical references, covers
" double#column !ages and, excluding the references, contains nearly $,$%% &ords
'$,(") to be !recise*. +e also learn that the author, no& retired, &or,ed for 3- years
;
as Professor of Civil .ngineering at the /niversity of California, 0er,eley and has
!ublished extensively on the sub1ect of concrete.
Crom the information you hae so far, what can you say about6
(a) the probable content of all or some of the parts of the text
(b) the tvpe of reader for whom it is intended
Choose one or more of the sections listed aboe. Dote down what you think you already
know about the topic and also what you would like to know about it.
1.2 #oca$lary exercise.
a. -nfer the meaning of the following phrases6

1. Superplastici:ing admixtures 6 @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
4. High-strength concrete6 @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
=. Corrosion-inhibiting admixtures 6 @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
;. Epoxv-coated reinforcing steel 6 @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
<. Surface coatings6 @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
:. High volume flv ash6 @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
E. Slag concretes6 @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
9. Highwavs6 @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
5. Embankments6 @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
18. Concrete aggregate6 @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
1.3 %eading and &ompre'ension
<
We are now going to look at the introduction to the text in much more detail. Read
it and then discuss the statements which follow.
+1. Portland cement concrete has clearly emerged as the material of choice for the
construction of a large number and ariety of structures in the world today. +4. This is
attributed mainly to low cost of materials and construction for concrete structures as well as
low cost of maintenance. +=. Therefore, it is not surprising that many adancements in
concrete technology hae occurred as a result of two driing forces, namely the speed of
construction and the durability of concrete.
+;. Furing the period 15;8-15E8, the aailability of high early strength portland cements
enabled the use of high water content in concrete mi%tures that were easy to handle. +<.
This approach, howeer, led to serious problems with durability of structures, especially
those sub(ected to seere enironmental e%posures.
1
+:. !mong the recent adancements, most noteworthy is the deelopment of
superplasticiAed concrete mi%tures which gie ery high fluidity at relatiely low water
contents. +E. The hardened concrete due to its low porosity is generally characteriAed by
high strength and high durability. +9. 3acro-defect-free cements and chemically bonded
ceramics are e%amples of alternatie technological approaches to obtain low-porosity, high-
strength products. +5. Cor the specific purpose of enhancement of serice life of reinforced
concrete structures e%posed to corrosie enironments, the use of corrosion-inhibiting
admi%tures, epo%y-coated reinforced steel, and cathodic protection are among the better
known technological adancements.
+18. -n addition to construction speeds and durability, there is now a third driing force,
namely the enironmental friendliness of industrial materials, which is becoming
increasingly important in technology assessment for the future. +11. -n this article, a critical
ealuation of arious technologies is attempted using the following three criteria6
G cost of materials and construction,
G durability, and
G enironmental friendliness.
+14. -t is not intended to present a comprehensie reiew of all the recent adancements in
concrete technology. +1=. Hnly selectie deelopments of the last =8 years, that are (udged
to be significant by the author, are briefly reiewed.
Activity A.
C#*pr&h&$+(#$ a$, ,(+%-++(#$ +'a'&*&$'+.
:
+1. Concrete is used so widely in construction because it is relatiely cheap.
+4. Cor many years a ma(or problem was the high water content in concrete mi%tures.
+=. -n recent times, two ma(or ob(ecties hae been to deelop mi%tures characteriAed by
low porosity and high strength.
+;. Hne problem that still remains is how to deal with seere enironmental conditions.
+<. "erhaps the most critical aspect in the future will be the need to make industrial
materials enironmentally 'friendly).
Activity (.
)'at "ords are repeated* &an yo mention t'em* )rite do"n t'eir meaning.
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1.4 +angage: ,entences and clases
E
Consider these two sentences taken from the -ntroduction.
Portland cement concrete has clearlv emerged as the material of choice for the
construction of a large number and varietv of structures in the world todav.
During the period 1940-1970, the availabilitv of high earlv strength portland cements
enabled the use of high water content in concrete mixtures that were easv to handle.
The first of these two sentences is &-3"B1. The second one is CH3"B1I.
To hae an idea of what that means, first read oer and discuss the following information
about sentences and clauses. Then, analy-e sentences +1., +=., +;., +<., +:., +9., +5., and +18.
according to6-
+a. if the sentence is simple, comple% or compound
+b. in the case of a comple% or compound sentence, identify the independent and
dependent clauses as well as any subordinator or sentence connector.
+c. Try to combine sentences +14. and +1=. in one sentence. What type of sentence
is it?
+1. "ortland cement concrete has clearly emerged as the material of choice for the
construction of a large number and ariety of structures in the world today.
@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@

+=. Therefore, it is not surprising that many adancements in concrete technology hae
occurred as a result of two driing forces, namely the speed of construction and the
durability of concrete.
@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
+;. Furing the period 15;8-15E8, the aailability of high early strength portland cements
enabled the use of high water content in concrete mi%tures that were easy to handle.
@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
+<. This approach, howeer, led to serious problems with durability of structures, especially
those sub(ected to seere enironmental e%posures.
1
@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
+:. !mong the recent adancements, most noteworthy is the deelopment of
superplasticiAed concrete mi%tures which gie ery high fluidity at relatiely low water
contents.
@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
9
+9. 3acro-defect-free cements and chemically bonded ceramics are e%amples of alternatie
technological approaches to obtain low-porosity, high-strength products.
@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
+5. Cor the specific purpose of enhancement of serice life of reinforced concrete structures
e%posed to corrosie enironments, the use of corrosion-inhibiting admi%tures, epo%y-
coated reinforced steel, and cathodic protection are among the better known technological
adancements.
@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
+18. -n addition to construction speeds and durability, there is now a third driing force,
namely the enironmental friendliness of industrial materials, which is becoming
increasingly important in technology assessment for the future.
@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
+14J1=. @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
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./0 ,01.01&0
1ery sentence must hae a sub(ect and a erb. ! sentence may be a statement, >uestion,
command, re>uest or e%clamation. The first letter of a sentence must be capitaliAed, and the
sentence ends with a final punctuation mark in the form of a period +.., a >uestion mark +?.,
or an e%clamation point +K..
The following e%emplify these different types of sentences6
A 2estion: What is ecology?
,tatement: 1cology is the science of the relationships between organisms and their
enironment.
&ommand: &ae the enironment.
%e2est: Could you gie us a talk on ecology?
0xclamation: What nonsense people talk about the enironmentK
5
./0 &+AU,0
The clause is a part of a sentence with its own sub(ect and predicate.
There are two kinds of clauses6 ($,&p&$,&$' (*a($) and ,&p&$,&$' (+-/#r,($a'&)0
An independent clase is a group of words that has a sub(ect and a erb. -t is used as part
of a sentence but is grammatically independent and could therefore stand alone.
The underlined parts of the following sentences show e%amples of independent clauses6
- may declare my ma(or now, but - can still change it later.
Coreign students suffer from culture shock when they come to the United &tates.
*ecause the cost of education has been rising rapidly, many students are haing
financial problems.
Lou will need certain >ualifications if you choose a career in 1ngineering.
An independent clase is 3ormed $y:
,$4ect 5 #er$ 5 &omplement
A dependent clase is introduced by a subordinator such as when, while, before, or if. -t is
followed by a sub(ect erb and a complement. -t cannot stand alone because the
subordinator signals the need for an independent clause to complete the meaning of the
sentence.
0xamples6
When the semester was oerM
Mwho was accepted by the uniersityM
Mif you leae your car unlocked.
*ecause - had a (ob interiewM
1ach of the e%amples aboe is dependent since each of them e%presses only a part of a
complete thought and is therefore a fragment +an incomplete sentence.. -n order to form a
grammatically complete sentence, each of the aboe clauses must be (oined to an
independent clause.
A dependent clase is 3ormed "it':
,$ordinator 5 ,$4ect 5 #er$ 5 &omplement
18
6I17, 89 ,01.01&0,
There are basically four kinds of sentences in 1nglish6
&imple
Compound
Comple%
Compound-comple%
The kind of sentence is determined by the kind of clauses that form it.
A. A simple sentence is an independent clause.
- en(oy playing tennis with my friends eery day.
- want a new car.
-srael otes for peace.
(. A compond sentence is two or more independent clauses (oined together in any of
three ways.
1. *y a coordinating con(unction
I enfov plaving tennis, but I hate plaving golf
4. *y a sentence connector
I enfov plaving tennis, however, I hate plaving golf.
=. *y a semicolon
I enfov plaving tennis, I hate plaving golf
&. A complex sentence is the combination of an independent clause and a dependent
clause. The two clauses may be in either order. The dependent clause is introduced
with a subordinator, such as that, when, where, who, because, as, if, een though, so
that, while, although, since, then, after, etc.
Although I enfov plaving tennis, I hate golf.
I hate golf although I enfov plaving tennis.
7. A compond-complex sentence is the combination of two or more independent
clauses together with one or more dependent clauses.
I hate plaving golf, but I enfov plaving tennis even though I am not verv good at it.
1on-3inite clase. Fependent clauses do not always hae a subordinator and a sub(ect.
&ometimes they start with an infinitie, or a 2ed4 +past participle. or an 2ing form
+present participle..
11
&88%7I1A.8%, A17 &8110&.8%,
&oordinating con4nctions ,entence &onnectors 9nction
!nd Curthermore, besides, in
addition, moreoer, also
!dditie
*ut, yet #oweer, neertheless, still,
in contrast
Contrast
Cor Cause
Hr Htherwise
&o Conse>uently, therefore,
thus, accordingly
1ffect
Dor Degatie choice
.:P0, 89 70P01701. &+AU,0,
%0+A.I#0 &+AU,0
,U(8%7I1A.8% ;0A1I1<
%elative pronon Who
Whom
Whose J Doun
"erson7people+sub(ect.
"erson7people +ob(ect.
"erson7people thing+s. possessie
That
Which Things
0elatie aderb
Where
When
Why
"lace
Time
0eason
&817I.I81A+ &+AU,0,
,$ordinator ;eaning
-f
1en if
Unless
When
&uppose
-fM.not
-n the eent that
14
A7#0%(IA+ &+AU,0,
9U1&.I81 ,U(8%7I1A.8% ;0A1I1<
Time
When
While
!s soon as
!fter
&ince
!s
! point in time7short
duration
Bonger duration in time
-mmediately after the time
&ubse>uent to the time that
Crom that time
While, when
"lace
Where
Whereer
1erywhere
! definite place
Fistance7fre>uency !s aderb as
3anner !s -n the way or manner that
0eason
*ecause
!s
&ince
Cor the reason that
0esult
&o J ad(. J that
&o J ad. J that
&uch a+n. J D, J That
Contrast7concession !lthough
1en though
Though
"urpose
&o that
-n order that
+in order to J erb.
1.5 +angage: 1ominal grops
1=
Activity 1
0ead the following research article titles and answer the >uestions below.

1. Power-law index for velocity profiles in open channel flows.
2. Numerical modelling of two-way reinforced concrete slabs in fire.
a. !re they meaningful?
b. !re they sentences or phrases?
c. To what do they make reference? +a noun, a erb.
d. !re they typical in this kind of articles?
Thus, what are DH3-D!B ,0HU"&?
!n outstanding feature of irtually all academic texts written in 1nglish, is the use
of what are called comple% noun phrases or nominal groups.
-n simple terms, a nominal group is a noun, either by itself or together with all the
words which help to specify it. -t can act as sub(ect, ob(ect, or complement of a clause, or as
a prepositional complement. Consider the following6
Johanna found the new secretarv in her office a verv capable person.
Johanna, secretarv, office and person are nouns. The sub(ect Johanna, the ob(ect
the new secretarv in her office, the ob(ect complement a verv capable person are noun
phrases. !lso part of the ob(ect, his office, is a prepositional complement, making another
noun phrase.
The head noun can be accompanied by determiners (the, her, a, some, etc.) and by
one or more modifiers, which can either precede the head (premodifiers. new, verv
capable) or follow it (postmodifiers. in her office).
! premodifier can be an adfective (new, capable., a participle (a verv exciting
person, a verv well-trained person), an adverb (verv.. . well-trained., a noun +the new
e%ecutie secretarv..
Thus, the noun is then considered as a #1!F of the group and the other words that
are surrounding it are either P%0;87I9I0%, or P8,.;87I9I0%,.
-. The premodi3iers are placed before the head word in the phrase. They can be6
1;
a. DHUD& 6 These nouns modify the head noun of the phrase. They appear (ust
before the head noun.
Researchers develop low-cost, low-energv desalination process.
The transportation center is doing the monitoring.
Steel framed buildings with concrete floor slabs have higher levels of fire
resistance.
b. "!0T-C-"B1& of erbs 6 They can be "resent "articiple +/ J --D,. or "ast
"articiple +/ J -1F..
Numerical modelling of two-wav reinforced concrete slabs in fire.
Twelve laboratorv-scale simulated landfill columns were operated.
Reduced sulfur compounds have been documented in gas.
c. !FN1CT-/1& 6 This is the most common word and easy to identify because it
gies 'characteristics or >ualities) to the noun. There are many types and we can
find more than one in a group.
Previous researchers have concentrated on the Cardington experiments.
This is quite a complex structure.
Evaluation of alternative landfill cover soils.

d. !F/10*& 6 3ost ad(ecties can also be 'modified) themseles by 'degree)
aderbs or (ust aderbs like /10L, OU-T1 and 0!T#10.
It was a 1&r2 interesting film.
He works in a 3-('& famous companv.
Galileo is now a 4&))-known scientist.
We ery often find premodifiers of different types in a single phrase.
P I$%r&a+($g)2 )arg& %#*p-'&r(5&, ,a'a /a$6+ are a feature of...
P A highlv biochemical oxvgen demand was created by ...
P Fecisions must be made to design highly post-tensioned floor members.
&o, the sub(ect or ob(ect of a sentence can be a long and comple% structure haing a
noun as head, preceded by other words such as an article, an ad(ectie, or another noun,
+pre-modifier. and7or followed by an ad(ectie, a prepositional group, a relatie clause or a
nonfinite clause +post-modifier..
-n the following chart you hae the different elements of a noun group.
1<
0lements o3 t'e 1on <rop
70.0%;I10% P%0-;87I9I0% /0A7 P8,.-;87I9I0%
1. article
the
a7an
1. adfectives 1. noun 1. prepositional
group
2. Possessive
adfective
3y, your, his, her,
its, our, their
2. noun 2. proper noun 2. relative clause
3. demonstrative
adfective
this, that, these, those
3. ing 3. ing clause
4. Quantifiers
many, a few, a lot,
more, seeral, etc.
4. ed 4. ed clause
5. Numerals
one, two,M
first, second,M
5. s possessive noun 5. to clause
6. adfective
Activity 2
Fescribe and translate the following noun groups6
1. "ortand cement concrete
@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
4. the material of choice for construction of a large number and ariety of structures in the
world today.
@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
=. the speed of construction and the durability of concrete
@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
;. the aailability of high early strength "ortland cement
<. seere enironmental e%posures
1:
@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
:. the deelopment of superplasticiAed concrete mi%tures
@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
E. The hardened concrete
9. 3acro-defect-free cements and chemically bonded ceramics
@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
5. alternatie technological approaches
@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
18. the better known technological deelopments
./0 8%70% 89 A7=0&.I#0,.
!d(ecties in 1nglish hae a certain order. -t is necessary to follow it if you want to
be understood. Lou must work with them from right to left starting from the head noun and
working 'backwards). Book at the table below6
opinion si-e age s'ape color origin material type-se non
a small green insect
a ,erman chemical firm
a superb new washing powder
awful plastic toys
the long narrow country road
a pretty little pink cotton dress
a boring fat old bank manager
an e%citing Crench horror film
a strange oal wooden ob(ect
Activity 3
3.1 %e"rite t'e 3ollo"ing non grops in t'e correct order.
1E
1%ample6 "urple 2 blaAers 2 cotton - some 2 medium-siAed6
&ome medium-siAed purple cotton blaAers.
1. Fisplay 2 iid 2 a - graph 2 color-coded 2 bar.
4. Ciil 2 calculations 2 engineering 2 ,erman.
=. Thick 2 red 2 mi%tures 2 li>uid.
;. &ubstances 2 strange 2 nonspherical 2 referential.
<. *right 2 laser 2 sighting 2 red 2 a.
:. 1ngineering 2 new 2 tools 2 ,erman 2 practical.
E. Thermomechanical 2 a 2 disturbance wide.
3.2 %e"rite t'e 3ollo"ing non grops in t'e correct order.
1. 1ngineering 2 the 2 Crench 2 research 2 basic 2 ciil.
4. Dew 2 pro%imal 2 a 2 worldwide 2 enironment 2 dangerous.
=. &pecies 2 rounded 2 few 2 green 2 bacterial 2 strange.
;. !merican 2 corrosion 2 a 2 rate 2 outstanding 2 low 2 old.
3.3 %e"rite t'e 3ollo"ing non grops in t'e correct order.
1. *ritish 2 student 2 an 2 young 2 graduate 2 intelligent.
4. 0ecent 2 enironmental 2 green 2 materials 2 oal 2 smart.
=. &cientific 2 film 2 interesting 2 new 2 an 2 protectie-
;. 3odern 2filling 2 tedious 2 process 2 a 2 long 2 !merican.
3.4 %e"rite t'e 3ollo"ing non grops in t'e correct order.
1. ! - industry - priate - international - ciil.
19
4. Creeway - a - uni>ue - !merican - serice - modern.
=. 1ffectie - traditional - sae - 1uropean - management - an.
;. Hfficials - well - successfully - international - some - trained - traffic.

3.5 %e"rite t'e 3ollo"ing non grops in t'e correct order.
1. characteriAation - a - 1uropean - preliminary - physical - long
4. brown - poAAolanic - some - old - materials - -talian - huge.
=. /eneAuelan - the - products - large - agricultural - new - productie.
;. laboratory - magnificent - the - national - tests - recent - long - electronic.
3.> %e"rite t'e 3ollo"ing non grops in t'e correct order.
1. the - enironmental - worldwide - alarming - impact - recent - huge.
4. rubber - destructie - round - particles - some - old - black.
=. properties - useful - steel - these - mechanical - new - small.
;. national - different - concrete - some - old - compounds - tiny.
3.? %e"rite t'e 3ollo"ing non grops in t'e correct order.
1. &cience 2 uni>ue 2 a 2 Dational 2 Coundation 2 old.
4. Testing 2 special 2 steel 2 e>uipment 2 big 2 hydraulic 2 a.
=. !n 2 Ciil 2 Crench 2 0esearch 2 important 2 Barge-&cale 2 1ngineering.
;. &ome 2 oerhead 2 siler 2 powerful 2 cranes 2 useful 2 huge.
--. The postmodi3iers are placed after the head word in the phrase. We are (ust going to
analyAe the P%0P8,I.I81A+ P/%A,0 because it is ery common and easy to find in
chemical papers. This prepositional phrase is composed by any preposition and a noun
group +"rep J Doun ,roup..
15
Activity 4
!nalyAe the "H&T3HF-C-10& of the noun groups below.
1. Dumerical modeling of the fire behaiour of two-way reinforced concrete slabs.
@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
4. Bocal authorities in 1ngland proide two options for disposing of these items.
@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
=. The degree of accuracy of the numerical models used for optimal design.
@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
;. "ower-law inde% for elocity profiles in open channel flows.
<. !nalysis of hollowcore concrete floor slabs under fire.
@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
Activity 5
-dentify fie +<. nominal phrase groups in the te%t aboe with the following characteristics.
Fescribe their function +sub(ect or ob(ect. in the te%t.
1. Fet J !d(. J !d(. J #D 6 @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
4. #DJ postmodifier +prepositional phrase. 6 @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
=. Fet J n J "articiple J n J #D 6 @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
;. Fet !d(. J n J #D 6 @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
<. !d(. J !d(. J #D . @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
Activity >
0ead the following te%t and underline the noun phrases.
48
1.U researc'ers se canvas strips to 3orti3y $ildings against 2a!es
By Ng Baoying, Channel NewsAsia | Posted: 14 June 2007 1907 hrs
&-D,!"H01 6 Nust two e%tra seconds could make a difference between life and death,
especially during an earth>uake.
0esearchers at the Danyang Technological Uniersity hae come up with an
inention that can buy that time - by strengthening the way walls are erected in buildings.
When the earth shakes, buildings collapse, especially if they are poorly constructed.
!nd that is where these engineers beliee they can make a difference.
The best part about their inention is that it doesnQt re>uire any high-tech e>uipment.
!ll thatQs needed are a few strips of canas and glue.
!ssociate "rofessor Ting &eng Riong, who is also director of B-1D -nstitute for the
1nironment at Danyang Technological Uniersity, e%plained6 SWe put the canas on the
edges, and in a cross.
SFuring an earth>uake, the building will shake and sway. When it sways in one
direction, one of the crosses will act in tension, and pull it towards the other direction. -tQs a
simple design. What we did is use canas and glue, and stick it onto the brick wall.S
0esearchers find that the wall reinforced with canas and glue can withstand twice
as much shaking compared to other walls.
That translates to more time to escape as well as less danger of in(uries from falling
bricks in the eent of an earth>uake.
!nd the added cost? -tQs (ust an additional 18 percent to current building costs.
This fits in with B-1D -nstituteQs philosophy of creating sustainable research without
e%traagant prices.
SWhatQs important is that it has to be a case appropriate to the community where we
are going to apply it to, in terms of materials aailable and cost,S said "an Tso-Chien, Fean
of College of 1ngineering at Danyang Technological Uniersity.
The institute is already working with two aid groups in -ndonesia to reinforce homes
and schools using canas and glue.
They also plan to collaborate with local groups to send their students oerseas to
help erect more buildings using this method. - CD! 7ls
http677www.channelnewsasia.com7stories7singaporelocalnews7iew7494159717.html
41
Activity ?
-nfer the meaning of the following items6
1. C!D/!&6 @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
4. &T0-"&6 @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
=. OU!R16 @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
;. &T01D,T#1D-D,6 @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
<. &T-CR6 @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@

:. W-T#&T!DF6 @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
E. &#!R1 !DF &W!L6 @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
9. -DNU0-1&6 @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
Activity @
Book at the title. What is the topic of this article? What do you know about it? What do you
think the te%t will be about?
@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
Activity A
The repetition of key words and phrases has been a ery useful way to find out the most
important part of any te%t. Thus, let$s underline and then write down both, words and
phrases.
@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@
@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@
@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@ @@@@@@@@@@@@@
44
Activity 1B
-dentify ten +18. premodifiers and label them.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Activity 11
Cind a name which has turned into an ad(ectie.
Cind a erb which functions as a premodifier +ad(ectie..
Cind a erb which functions as a noun +gerund.
Activity 12
Collow-up6
Cind, analyAe and translate fie +<. nominal groups.
1.
4.
=.
;.
<.
4=
1.5 #oca$lary: )ords C categories and 3ormation
"robably the most important aspect of this course for you, the student, is ocabulary. Lou
want to know what words 'mean). -f there are seeral words in any te%t that are new or
unfamiliar to you, you may feel frustrated, you will probably ask someone like your teacher
about them, you may look up the word in a dictionary. Lou may (ust gie up and do
something else with your time. -n this first Unit, we are going to look at word categories
and word formation.
)ord categories
+A1<UA<0 )8%7,
We need to know some grammar words in 1nglish.
Gra**ar 4#r, M&a$($g E7a*p)&
Doun a person, ob(ect, concept book, girl, pen, happiness
/erb something we do do, read, write, think
!d(ectie describes a person or thing good, bad, happy, long
!derb describes a erb slowly, badly
"reposition a little word used before a
noun or a pronoun
in, on, by at
)ord 3ormation
!ffi%ation is one of the processes by which the base may be modified by adding a prefi% or
a suffi%. This process may or may not change the class word. PP
Pre3ixation
"refi%es are added at the beginning of the word they do not generally alter the word class.
"refi%es can help you understand what a new word means. #ere there are some common
prefi%es.
Pr&8(7 M&a$($g E7a*p)&
e% +J noun. was but not now e%-wife, e%-president
half +J noun or ad(ectie. <8T of something half-price, half-hour
in, im +J ad(ectie . not informal, impossible
non +J ad(ectie or noun. not non-smoking
pre before pre-school
re again re-do, rewrite
un not unhappy, unsafe
ir not irresponsible
il not illegible
4;
dis not disable, disagree
oer too much oerwork, oerdo
mis badly or incorrect misunderstand, misread
1%ercise6
Which prefi% forms the opposite of these words?
happy @@@@@@@@@@@@@ polite @@@@@@@@@@@@@ legal @@@@@@@@@@@@@@
correct @@@@@@@@@@@@ regular @@@@@@@@@@@@ possible @@@@@@@@@@@@
legible @@@@@@@@@@@@ friendly @@@@@@@@@@@ employed @@@@@@@@@@@
honest @@@@@@@@@@@@@ pack @@@@@@@@@@@@@ agree @@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
,33ixation
&uffi%es are added to the root of the word. Unlike prefi%es, suffi%es fre>uently alter the
word-class of the baseU for e%ample, the ad(ectie kind, by the addition of the suffi% ness, is
changed into a noun kindness.
We can group suffi%es not only by the class of word they form +as noun suffi%es, erb
suffi%es, etc.. but also by the class of base they are typically added to.
They help you to understand the meaning of a new word. #ere are some common suffi%es.
S-88(7 M&a$($g E7a*p)&+
-er, or +noun. noun. person worker, swimmer, instructor
-er, or +noun. noun. person, machine, thing cooker, word processor
-ian +noun. person with specific (ob historian, comedian
-ship +noun. showing a state friendship
-ess +noun. woman who works in
something
actress
-ful +ad(ectie. full of useful, beautiful
-ology +noun. sub(ect of study sociology, psychology
-ics +noun singular. sub(ect of study economics, politics
-less +ad(ectie. without useless, endless
-ly makes an aderb from an
ad(ectie
sadly, happily
-ness makes an abstract noun from
an ad(ectie
happiness, sadness
-y makes an ad(ectie from a
noun
sandy, sunny
4<
-ment makes a noun from a erb improement
-ion makes a noun from a erb election
-ation makes a noun from a erb information
-ity makes a noun from an
ad(ectie
punctuality
-ist person +from another noun. artist
-ous ad(ectie +from a noun. famous
-al ad(ectie +from nouns. musical
-ish ad(ectie with the
characteristic of
childish, 1nglish
-ical ad(ectie from nouns physical
-ic ad(ecties from noun artistic
-y ad(ectie +from nouns. cloudy
-able !d(ectie loeable
-ible !d(ectie comprehensible
-ward +ad(. or aderbs. -n the direction of backward
-ie !d(ectie attractie
-ence makes a noun +from erbs. e%istence
-ance makes a noun +from erbs. performance
-ance makes a noun +from
ad(ecties.
elegance
-ee makes a noun from a erb. employee
-ant makes a noun from a erb informant
-ent makes a noun from a erb student
-iAe makes a erb from an ad(. legaliAe
-ify makes a erb from an ad(. simplify
-en makes a erb from an ad(. shorten
-ward makes an aderb in the direction of
Dero a33ixation
3any words in 1nglish can function as a noun and erb, or noun and ad(ectie, or erb and
ad(ectie, with no change in form.
0xample:
What$s the ans"er? +noun.
Ans"er the >uestion. +erb.
Activity 1.
0ead the -ntroduction again and fill in the following Table.
4:
+a. Cirst, complete the 'Doun) column. Cind < nouns that end in itv +be careful, one of
them ends in fact with etv., < nouns that end in ment, = nouns that end in tion, and 1
noun each for the endings, -ance, -ogv, and ness.
+b. The ad(ectie forms of t"o of the nouns you hae found appear in the te%t. Cind them
and put them in.
+c. Using your knowledge, a dictionary or by reading more of the te%t, complete the erb,
ad(ectie and, where possible, the aderb columns.
+d. -n Table 4. add your own e%amples of words from the te%t. "ut them in the correct
column and complete the others.
1on #er$ Ad4ective Adver$
EE.ity
EEment
EEtion
EEance
EEogy
EEness
.a$le 2
1on #er$ Ad4ective Adver$
Activity 2.
4.1 "lace the following words in their appropriate grammatical category.
4E
limited fungi
much durable
building causing
eventuallv lies
soils higher
criterion designing
besides implies
handling deal
sites prudent
controls term
1on #er$ Ad4ective Adver$
4.4 "lace the following words in their appropriate grammatical category.
costs embedded
silicate cracks
hardens trigger
healing reallv
standard approaches
feasible laced
filling release
moisture ultimatelv
significant verv
lengthen repairs
1on #er$ Ad4ective Adver$
4.= "lace the following words in their appropriate grammatical category.
diminishing beams
49
analvsis present
modified when
scrap comparing
testing ultrasonic
strength rubber
tensile treads
fine main
coarse modulus
decrease impedance
1on #er$ Ad4ective Adver$
4.; "lace the following words in their appropriate grammatical category.
associate engineering
lose strength
weaker focuses
large heating
giant beams
fireproofing enables
research operated
findings design
computational composite
heavilv permanentlv
1on #er$ Ad4ective Adver$
Activity 3.
0ead the following te%t.
45
1e" 7esign ;eans &'eaperF ;ore ,staina$le
&onstrction
ScienceDailv (Mar. 11, 2009) "eople are always looking for ways to make something less
e%pensie and more enironmentally friendly 2 and a team of researchers from Dorth Carolina &tate
Uniersity has figured out how to do both of those things at once when raising the large-scale buildings, such
as parking garages, of the future.
3ore specifically, the researchers hae figured out a way to use =8 percent less
reinforcing steel in the manufacture of the concrete beams, or spandrels, used in the
construction of parking garages 2 without sacrificing safety. Fr. &ami 0iAkalla, one of the
leaders of the research team, says they deeloped design guidelines that use less steel while
maintaining safety and reliability. The new spandrel design Ssimplifies construction for
precast concrete producers,S 0iAkalla says. -n addition to using less steel, the new design
cuts labor and manufacturing time in half 2 significantly decreasing costs.
,reg Bucier, a doctoral student at DC &tate who was also crucial to the research
effort, says the new design guidelines include a significant margin for safety. Cor e%ample,
Bucier says the spandrels could handle two to three times the ma%imum weight they would
be e%pected to bear. Bucier is also the lab manager of the Constructed Cacilities Baboratory
at DC &tate, which oersaw the testing of the new spandrel design.
The new design guidelines stem from a two-year pro(ect that was launched in
Nanuary 488E, with support from the "recast7"restressed Concrete -nstitute +"C-.. "C-
proided DC &tate with more than V;88,888 in funding, materials and technical support
oer the life of the pro(ect.
The success of the pro(ect is already drawing interest from the concrete industry,
with indiidual companies coming to DC &tate to get input on how to improe their
products and manufacturing processes. Cor e%ample, 0iAkalla says, many companies want
to collaborate with researchers at the Constructed Cacilities Baboratory on research and
deelopment pro(ects related to new materials, such as adanced composites, to be used in
concrete products.
While researchers hae published some elements of the research pro(ect, they will
present an oeriew of the entire pro(ect 2 including new testing data 2 for the first time at
the spring conention of the !merican Concrete -nstitute in &an !ntonio this month.
=8
!r. "ami #i$%alla e&plains that by testing the new concrete beam design to see how much weight it
can bear, researchers have determined that it can handle two to three times the ma&imum weight it
would be e&pected to bear. (Credit: !avid 'unt, (C "tate University
http677www.sciencedaily.com7releases7488578=7858=8=89491=.htm
Activity 4.
Bocate 48 deried words and classify them according to their grammatical category.
N#-$ V&r/ A,9&%'(1& A,1&r/
=1
1.> #oca$lary Ac2isition
The contact you hae with te%ts written in 1nglish, not to mention contact you may hae
with the language through listening to and speaking it, mean that you will be constantly
encountering new words and e%pressions as well as familiar words used with unfamiliar
meanings.
These words and e%pressions may be technical or non-technical or, depending on the
conte%t, both.
We know from research into how people learn second languages that ocabulary
ac>uisition is ital to success. 1>ually ital is 'o" to ac>uire new ocabulary, that is, for
e%ample, "'at to do when you find these new words.
Hne idea presented here is that of the 'ocabulary notebook), a kind of personaliAed
dictionary of new and interesting words and e%pressions.
V#%a/-)ar2 $#'&/##6+
Lour ocabulary notebook will be a ery useful complement to other important sources of
information about words and e%pressions such as dictionaries and glossaries
P1
. *ut, to make
it useful, you hae to first think about how you$re going to organiAe it. #ere are a few
suggestions.
1. Create sections deoted to specific topics in your field or related areas. +e%amples6
structures, reinforced concrete, soil mechanics, hydraulics, etc...
4. #ae sections for different aspects of general 1nglish. -t is important that these
aspects are clear. 3any students (ust put the words in alphabetical order but maybe
it is better to organiAe them according to categories. Cor e%ample6

+a. <rammatical categories +fluiditv noun, flow noun/verb.
+b. 7erivatives o3 a "ord +construction, constructor, construct, constructive,
constructivelv, unconstructive)
+c. Use3l a33ixes +un-----, -----ment, ----less.
+d. )ords "it' similar meanings +advancements, developments.
+e. )ords "it' di33erent meanings +rise-fall, rise-raise.
+f. )ords "e can place on a scale +tinv, minute, small, medium-si:ed, large,
huge, enormous.
+g. Use3l connectors +nevertheless, on the other hand, moreover.

=. !lso, it$s a good idea DHT to (ust write down the word and simply translate it into
&panish. Dote down the conte%t where you found the word !DF leae a space to
add new conte%ts and meanings if and when you find them. +1%ample6 slump.
;. Cinally, remember that words combine with other words. These combinations are
often /10* J DHUD +exert a force, do research.U !FN1CT-/1 J DHUD +high
strength.U /10* J "01"H&-T-HD +interested in ., based on..
=4
P1
Can a decent glossary of technical terms help the reader? Book at this e%tract from a
glossary.
#ow many of the terms appear in the te%t?
#ow many are familiar to you?
#ow many are new?
Fo you find the definitions of these terms easy to understand?
Concrete terms courtesy of C!D31T
! * C F 1 C , # - N R B 3 D H " O 0 & T U / W I L W
!
!dmi%ture
a material other than water, aggregate, hydraulic cement, supplementary cementing
materials, and fiber reinforcement, used as an ingredient of concrete or mortar, and added
to the batch immediately before or during its mi%ing
!dmi%ture, accelerating
an admi%ture that causes an increase in the rate of hydration of the hydraulic cement, and
thus shortens the time of setting, or increases the rate of strength deelopment, or both
!dmi%ture, air-entraining
an admi%ture that causes the deelopment of a system of microscopic air bubbles in
concrete, mortar, or cement paste during mi%ing
!dmi%ture, water-reducing
an admi%ture that either increases slump of freshly mi%ed mortar or concrete without
increasing water content or maintains slump with a reduced amount of water, the effect
being due to factors other than air-entrainment
!dmi%ture, high-range water-reducing +&uperplasticiAer.
a water-reducing admi%ture capable of producing large water reduction or great flowability
without causing undue set retardation or entrainment or air in mortar or concrete
!ggregate
granular material, such as sand, grael, crushed stone, crushed hydraulic cement concrete,
or iron blast-furnace slag, used with a hydraulic cementing medium to produce either
concrete or mortar
!ir, entrained
microscopic air bubbles intentionally incorporated in mortar or concrete during mi%ing,
usually by use of a surface actie agentU typically between 18 and 1888mm in diameter and
spherical or nearly so
==
!ir content
the olume of air oids in cement paste, mortar, or concrete, e%clusie of pore space in
aggregate particles, usually e%pressed as a percentage of total olume of the paste, mortar,
or concrete
*
*atch
>uantity of either concrete or mortar mi%ed at one time
*atch weights
the weights of the arious materials +cement, supplementary cementing materials, water,
the seeral siAes of aggregate, and admi%tures if used. which compose a batch of concrete
*leeding
the autogenous flow of mi%ing water within, or its emergence from, newly placed concrete
or mortarU caused by the settlement of the solid materials within the massU also called water
gain
*room finish
the surface te%ture obtained by stroking a broom oer freshly placed concrete
*rushed surface
a sandy te%ture obtained by brushing the surface of freshly placed or slightly hardened
concrete with a stiff brush for architectural effect or, in paements, to increase skid
resistance
*ug holes
small regular or irregular caities, usually not e%ceeding 1< mm in diameter, resulting from
entrapment of air bubbles in the surface of formed concrete during placement and
consolidation
C
Caisson pile
a cast-in place pile made by driing a tube, e%caating it, and filling the caity with
concrete
Calcium-silicate hydrate
any of the arious reaction products of calcium silicate and water, produced in the
hydration of cement
Cast-in-place
mortar or concrete which is deposited in the place where it is re>uired to harden as part of
the structure, as opposed to precast concrete
=;
Cement, high early strength
cement characteriAed by attaining a gien leel of strength in mortar or concrete earlier than
normal cementU referred to as Type =8
Cement, hydraulic
cement that sets and hardens by chemical interaction with water and is capable of doing so
under water
Cement, "ortland
a hydraulic cement produced by puleriAing portland cement clinker and usually containing
calcium sulfate
Compressie strength
the measured ma%imum resistance of a concrete or mortar specimen to a%ial compressie
loadingU e%pressed as force per unit cross-sectional areaU or the specified resistance used in
design calculations
Concrete
! composite material that consists essentially of a binding medium within which are
embedded particles or fragments of aggregate, usually a combination of fine aggregate and
coarse aggregateU in portland-cement concrete, the binder is a mi%ture of portland cement
and water
Concrete, architectural
concrete which will be permanently e%posed to iew and which therefore re>uires special
care in selection of the concrete materials, forming, placing, and finishing to obtain the
desired architectural appearance
Concrete, normal weight refractory
refractory concrete haing a unit weight +bulk density. greater than 1:88 kilograms per
cu.m
Concrete, roller-compacted
concrete compacted by roller compactionU concrete that, in its unhardened state, will
support a roller while being compacted
Concrete, structural
concrete used to carry structural load or to form an integral part of a structureU concrete of a
>uality specified for structural use
Curing
the maintenance of a satisfactory moisture content and temperature in concrete during its
early stages so that desired properties may deelop
=<
F
Furability
the ability of concrete to resist weathering action, chemical attack, abrasion, and other
conditions of serice
1
1arly strength
strength of concrete or mortar usually as deeloped at arious times during the first E4 hr
after placement
C
Cinal set
a degree of stiffening of a mi%ture of cement and water greater than initial set, generally
stated as an empirical alue indicating the time in hours and minutes re>uired for a cement
paste to stiffen sufficiently to resist to an established degree, the penetration of a weighted
test needleU also applicable to concrete and mortar mi%tures with use of suitable test
procedures
Cinal setting time
the time re>uired for a freshly mi%ed cement paste, mortar, or concrete to achiee final set
Cinishing
leeling, smoothing, consolidating, and otherwise treating surfaces of fresh or recently
placed concrete or mortar to produce desired appearance and serice.
Cloat finish
a rather rough concrete surface te%ture obtained by finishing with a float.
Cloating
the operation of finishing a fresh concrete or mortar surface by use of a float, preceding
trowelling when that is to be the final finish.
Cly ash
the finely diided residue resulting from the combustion of ground or powdered coal and
which is transported from the firebo% through the boiler by flue gases.
Cormwork
total system of support for freshly placed concrete including the mold or sheathing which
contacts the concrete as well as all supporting members, hardware, and necessary bracing.
#
#eat of hydration
heat eoled by chemical reactions with water, such as that eoled during the setting and
=:
hardening of portland cement, or the difference between the heat of solution of dry cement
and that of partially hydrated cement
#ydration
formation of a compound by the combining of water with some other substanceU in
concrete, the chemical reaction between hydraulic cement and water
-
-nitial &et
a degree of stiffening of mi%ture of cement and water less than final set, generally stated as
an empirical alue indicating the time in hours and minutes re>uired for cement paste to
stiffen sufficiently to resist to an established degree, the penetration a weighted test needleU
also applicable to concrete or mortar with use of suitable test procedures
-nitial setting time
the time re>uired for a freshly mi%ed cement paste, mortar, or concrete to achiee initial set
3
3i%ing water
the water in freshly mi%ed sand-cement grout, mortar, or concrete, e%clusie of any
preiously absorbed by the aggregate
3oist-air curing
curing in moist air +not less than 5< percent relatie humidity. at atmospheric pressure and
normally at a temperature appro%imating 44.9 C
"
"lastic consistency
condition of freshly mi%ed cement paste, mortar, or concrete such that deformation will be
sustained continuously in any direction without rupture
"oAAolan
a siliceous or siliceous and aluminous material, which in itself possesses little or no
cementitious alue but will, in finely diided form and in the presence of moisture,
chemically react with calcium hydro%ide at ordinary temperatures to form compounds
possessing cementitious properties
"recast
a concrete member that is cast and cured in other than its final positionU the process of
placing and finishing precast concrete
=E
0
0etardation
reduction in the rate of either hardening or setting or both, i.e., and increase in the time
re>uired to reach time initial and final setting or to deelop early strength of fresh concrete,
mortar, or grout
&
&et
the condition reached by a cement paste, mortar, or concrete when it has lost plasticity to an
arbitrary degree, usually measured in terms of resistance to penetration or deformationU
initial set refers to first stiffeningU final set refers to attainment of significant rigidity
&lump
a measure of consistency of freshly placed concrete, mortar, or stucco e>ual to the
subsidence measured to the nearest : mm of the molded specimen immediately after
remoal of the slump cone
T
Trowel finish
the smooth or te%tured finish of an unformed concrete surface obtained by trowelling
=9
1.? <enresF text types and r'etorical patterns
#ow$s your knowledge of films? Can you match these film titles in column ! with the
categories in column *?
:()* Ca'&g#r2
3atri% Romantic comedv
Chicago Suspense
!merican "ie Musical
The 3anchurian Candidate Horror
Dotting #ill Science fiction
The 0ing Drama
- Rnow What Lou Fid Bast &ummer Comedv
-t$s natural for us to order and label things. 3aybe it makes life a little less complicated.
We can do it with films, probably with music, books and all kinds of things. We can make
our labels ery general, a kind of super category, or more particular, sub-categories. Cor
e%ample, we could start with B-T10!TU01 and break that into, say, "B!L&, "H13&,
DH/1B&, then go on to sub-diide any of these categories.
We can call these general categories ,1D01&.
-f we switch to non-fiction written te%ts, the same general to more particular categoriAation
applies. Take, for e%ample, the general genre or category, academic 1nglish or een
something like Ciil 1ngineering te%ts in 1nglish. Hne difference between these ery
general categories and our general film genres is that the latter are usually structured
conentionally. -n other words, they often follow a highly recogniAable format !s iewers
or as readers, say, of mystery or detectie stories, we not only recogniAe the format but we
e%pect it. -t$s as if we carry around 'detectie) story or 'horror) film structures inside our
heads. The same is true of different types of academic te%ts. We can call these 'mental
stories) schema.
#ow many different types of academic te%t can you think of?
Cor e%ample, what 'types) of te%t do the following general definitions describe?
+a. a te%t which reports the results of studies done in the field or in the laboratory.
Usually appears in a technical or specialiAed (ournal.
+b. this is diided into chapters and sections and is used by teachers and students as the
basis for a course.
+c. it e%plains how to carry out procedures according to industrial or other standards.

=5
!t a more discrete leel we hae rhetorical patterns of te%t, such as, classically, the four
types of narratie, description, e%position and argumentation. !lthough each pattern can be
generally associated with a particular te%t type, there is a great deal of oerlap. -n other
words, a narratie style of writing can be found across seeral te%t types and one te%t type
can contain more than one rhetorical pattern.
-t is as if the genre or te%t type is an e%ternal feature and the rhetorical pattern shows the
internal structure of the te%t.
0ead the following three e%tracts. Fiscuss and decide6
+a. Which type of te%t each one is
+b. What rhetorical patterns are eident in the e%tracts
1.
Storage reservoirs are used to control floods, to
conserve water, and to regulate stream flow. Reservoirs may
be of two types: single-purpose or multipurpose. Aside from
location and structural problems, the planning for a single-
purpose reservoir leads to simple relationships among the
available water supply, the water demand, and the volume of
reservoir storage to be provided. These relationships are
much more complex for a multipurpose reservoir since they
involve the seasonal distribution of stream flow and the
reconciliation thereto, and seasonal and other varying
demands for the several purposes for which the reservoir is
intended. f a specified volume of reservoir storage is
dedicated to more than one use on the basis of seasonal
distribution of flow, as, for example, to provide additional
power storage in the nonflood season, the problem of planning
becomes even more complex. The fluctuation of reserve levels
for sanitary purposes and for malarial control introduces
additional problems.
;8
4.
8verload 3ailre o3 strctral components nder random
crac! propagation and loading C a random process
approac'
AndrG .. (ec!
F F aF 1
and %o$ert 0. ;elc'ers
$

a
Uniersidade Buterana do *rasil, 0ua 3iguel Tostes, 181 "rXdio 11, &ala =1, 54;48-498,
Canoas, 0&, *raAil
b
Uniersity of Dewcastle, Callaghan, D&W 4=89, !ustralia
0eceied 1< Hctober 488=U accepted < Cebruary 488;. !ailable online 4 Nuly 488;.
Abstract
-n this paper, the problem of oerload failure of a structural component under random
loading and under random crack propagation is addressed. The problem is formulated by
combining the first passage failure model with stochastic models of crack propagation.
Fisadantages of the standard random ariable approach to the problem are discussed, and
an alternatie random process approach is deeloped. The deeloped solution addresses
both oerload and critical crack growth failure modes, re>uires a single mean crack growth
computation, allows the consideration of non-destructie inspections and significantly
speeds life-time analysis. The random process approach leads to a first passage problem
inoling crossings of a random barrier leel, which is soled by means of the ensemble
up-crossing rate appro%imation. Bimitations of this appro%imation are addressed and related
to typical problem parameters. The concept of barrier failure dominance is discussed, and
e%tended to the case of a barrier-defined failure. &ensitiity studies inoling different
problem ariables are performed, helping to identify the appropriate solution method for
specific problems.
At'or 6ey"ords: 3etal fatigueU Crack propagationU Famage accumulationU 0esistance
degradationU Ultimate capacityU Herload failureU 0eliabilityU Crossing ratesU 0andom
processes.
;1
=.
&oncrete
Concrete is an engineering material that simulates the properties of rock being a
combination of particles closely bound together. -t is simply a blend of aggregates.
normally natural sand and grael or crushed rock bound together by a hydraulic binder e.g.
"ortland cement, actated by water, to form a dense semi homogenous mass.
&oncrete type $y application
There are many forms of concrete. -n all cases they are produced using a aried selection of
constituent materials brought together to form a semi-homogeneous solid. The name gien
to the many types of concrete aailable is either a reflection of its final application, e.g.
prestressed concrete, or the properties of the concrete, e.g. lightweight concrete.
"re-tensioned concrete "ost-tensioned concrete
"restressed concrete 0epair of concrete
Clooring concrete Fecoratie concrete
Concrete - normal types 0oad concrete
Fesignated - ready-mi%ed concrete Concrete for pumping
Concrete countertops Coamed concrete - !pplications
Coamed concrete - 1%amples of the use Fesigned - ready-mi%ed concrete
"rescribed - ready-mi%ed concrete &tandardised prescribed - ready-mi%ed concrete
"roprietary - ready-mi%ed concrete !irfield concrete
"recast concrete 0oller compacted
&prayed concrete - shotcrete - gunite -mprinted concrete paing
;4
1.@ .as!
-t is now time to apply what we hae studied in this first Unit to another te%t. #ere are the
instructions.
a. Cind a te%t in any pertinent area of Ciil 1ngineering.
b. -dentify the type of te%t you hae chosen.
c. Comment on how the te%t is diided up into parts
d. Choose one part of the te%t and analyAe all its sentences. +3inimum 18
sentences.
e. -dentify and translate 18 comple% nominal groups.
f. Which words and e%pressions in the te%t hae you included in your
ocabulary notebook? Take the words chosen and create a Table
showing the grammatical category of each. Cill in the other columns
where applicable.
.ec'nical voca$lary
The te%t we are studying in detail is rich in technical terminology. This will probably be
true for eery te%t you read in the area of Ciil 1ngineering.
Fifferent degrees of technicality 2 uni>ue to specialiAation +proper names, only one
meaning, fi%ed., special meaning in field +other meanings e%ist.
+ist o3 possible actiities with le%is
What kinds of knowledge and7or things do we hae to know or do when it comes to
learning ocabulary or dealing with new le%is or learning new things from new le%is or
learning new things from the knowledge we already hae.
a. What does it mean to 'know) a word?
$. Can we eer know eerything about a word?
;=
Advancements in Concrete Technology
by P. Kumar Mehta
Superplasticizing admixtures
&eenteen years ago, 3alhotra made the following statement6
'There hae been ery few ma(or deelopments in concrete technology in recent
years. The concept of air entrainment in the 15;8s was oneU it reolutioniAed concrete
technology in Dorth !merica. -t is belieed that the deelopment of superplasticiAers is
another ma(or breakthrough which will hae a significant effect on the production and use
of concrete in years to come.)
4
3alhotra$s prediction has proen to be correct. This is supported by the deelopment and
use of a growing family of superplasticiAed, high-performance concrete products, such as
superplasticiAed high-strength concrete, superplasticiAed high-durability concrete,
superplasticiAed high-olume fly ash and high-olume slag concretes, superplasticiAed self-
compacting concrete, superplasticiAed anti-washout underwater concrete, and
superplasticiAed fiber reinforced concrete. Collepardi
=
and, more recently, 3alhotra
;
and
Dagataki
<
hae published e%cellent reiews on the deelopment of arious technologies
incorporating the use of superplasticiAing admi%tures.
&uperplasticiAers, also known as high-range water-reducing admi%tures, are highly efficient
water reducers. -n late15:8s, products based on naphthalene sulfonates were deeloped in
Napan, and concurrently the melamine sulfonate products were introduced in West
,ermany. The anionic long-chain molecules of the admi%ture become adsorbed on the
surface of the cement particles which are effectiely dispersed in water through electrical
repulsion.
!ccording to Dagataki, the first applications of superplasticiAed concrete in Napan were for
the production of high-strength precast concrete piles which could resist cracking during
the pile driing process.
<
Furing 15E8s, the girder and beams of seeral road and railway
bridges in Napan were fabricated with <8 to 98 3"a +E=88 to 14,888 psi. superplasticiAed
concrete mi%tures haing low to moderate slump. -n West ,ermany, where the initial
ob(ectie was to deelop anti-washout underwater concrete, superplasticiAers were used to
improe the fluidity of stiff mi%tures without altering the water-to-cementitious material
ratio (w7cm.. !s it is possible to realiAe both the ob(ecties simultaneously, now
superplasticiAing admi%tures are used throughout the world for the purpose of obtaining
high strength, high fluidity, and high durability.
&uperplasticiAed concrete mi%tures containing naphthalene or melamine sulfonates often
suffered from rapid slump loss. The problem can be resoled by the introduction of an
additional dosage of the superplasticiAer at the (ob siteU howeer, this method is
cumbersome and costly. -n 159:, slump-retaining or 'long-life) superplasticiAers were
deeloped in Napan. !ccording to LoneAawa, a typical 'long-life) superplasticiAer contains
a water-insoluble compound comprising carbo%ylic acid salts, amide, and carbo%ylic
anhydride.
:
The alkaline solution resulting from the hydration of portland cement gradually
hydrolyses the superplasticiAer, releasing a water-soluble dispersant which helps to
maintain the initial slump for a long time. Tanaka et al. hae described the deelopment of
polycarbo%ylate-based superplasticiAers containing a cross-linked polymer which imparts
;;
high fluidity, long-term slump retention, and high resistance to segregation.
E
Bong-life
superplasticiAers based on naphthalene or melamine sulfonate polymers are also
commercially aailable now.
High-strength concrete and mortars
#igh-strength concrete + Y ;8 3"a ZY :888 psi[ compressie strength. was first used in
reinforced concrete frame buildings with =8 or more stories. -n tall buildings, the siAe of
columns in the lower one-third part of the building is >uite large when conentional
concrete is used. *esides saings in the materials cost, construction engineers hae found
that the choice of reinforced concrete frame instead of steel frame in high-rise buildings
permits additional saings resulting from higher construction speeds.
9
*eginning with <8
3"a +E=88 psi. concrete columns for the Bake "oint Tower in Chicago, constructed in
15:<, many tall buildings containing high-strength concrete elements hae been built in
Dorth !merica and elsewhere. The E5-story Water Tower "lace in Chicago contains :8
3"a +9E88 psi. concrete columns. The &cotia "laAa *uilding in Toronto and the Two
Union &>uare *uilding in &eattle hae columns with 58 and 148 3"a +1=,888 psi to 1E,;88
psi. strength concrete, respectiely.
To obtain high strength, the w7cm of the concrete mi%ture is usually held below 8.; with the
help of a superplasticiAing admi%ture. Fue to the low w7cm, an important characteristic of
high-strength concrete is its low permeability, which is the key to long-term durability in
aggressie enironments. Conse>uently, far more high-strength concrete has been used for
applications where durability rather than strength was the primary consideration. 3arine
concrete structures long-span bridges, undersea tunnels, and offshore oil platforms are
e%amples of such applications.
#igh fluidity without segregation is yet another factor contributing to the growth of the
superplasticiAed, high-strength concrete industry. The workability of superplasticiAed
concrete mi%tures can generally be improed by the use of poAAolanic or cementitious
admi%tures, such as silica fume, fly ash, rice husk ash, and ground granulated blast furnace
slag. 1ase in pumping and easy-to-form concrete mi%tures can re-duce construction cost
significantly in large pro(ectsU high-rise buildings and offshore structures, for e%ample. This
is especially the case when heaily reinforced and prestressed concrete elements containing
narrowly-spaced reinforcement are fabricated.
0oy and &ilsbee hae reiewed the deelopment of a new family of high-strength cement-
based products which do not depend on the use of superplasticiAers.
5
Chemically-bonded
ceramics +C*C., are mortars with little or no coarse aggregate, a ery high cement content,
and a ery low w7cm. They are densified under high pressure and then thermally cured to
obtain ery high strength. The products, typically consisting of <8 percent anhydrous
phases, e%hibit properties appro%imating those of fired ceramics. The so-called 3FC
+macro-defect-free. cement products are made with a cement paste containing up to E
percent by mass of a water-soluble plasticiAing agent, such as hydro%ypropyl-methyl
cellulose, polyacrylamide, or hydrolyAed polyinyl acetate. The paste is sub(ected to high
shear mi%ing, and the products are molded under pressure and finally heat cured at
temperatures up to 98 C +1E: C.. Compressie strengths on the order of 1<8 3"a +44,888
psi. are obtained with portland cements, and up to =88 3"a +;;,888 psi. with calcium
aluminate cements. &tudies hae shown that moisture has an aderse effect on the
;<
mechanical properties of 3FC cement products. "roducts densified with small particles
+F&". contain 48 to 4< per-cent silica fume particles which are densely packed in a
superplasticiAed portland cement paste +8.14 to 8.44 w7cm.. Compressie strengths of up to
4E8 3"a +=5,888 psi. and Loung$s moduli up to 98 ,"a +14,888 ksi. were achieed
through mechanical compaction.5 Hn account of their brittleness, the use of C*C, 3FC,
and F&" is limited to non-structural applications.
The high-ductility re>uirement for structural use of high-strength, cement-based products
can be achieed by the in-corporation of steel microfibers. 0eactie power concrete +0"C.
products deeloped by 0ichard and CheyreAy
18
are actually superplasticiAed cement
mortars typically comprising 1888 kg7m
=
+1E88 lb7yd
=
. portland cement, 588 to 1888 kg7m
=
+1<88 to 1E88 lb7yd
=
. fine sand and puleriAed >uartA, 4=8 kg7m
=
+=58 lb7yd
=
. silica fume,
1<8 to 198 kg7m
=
+4<8 to =88 lb7yd
=
. water, and up to :=8 kg7m
=
+1188 lb7yd
=
.
microfibers. 3echanically pressed samples, heat treated at ;88 C +E<4 C. showed up to :98
3"a +55,888 psi. compressie strength, 188 3"a +1<,888 psi. fle%ural strength, and E<
,"a +11,888 ksi. Loung$s 3odulus. -t is too early to predict the future of 0"C. -n spite of
the ery high initial cost and a comple% processing technology, the material may hae a
niche in the construction industry, especially for applications in highly corrosie
enironments. The presence of a large olume of microfibers enhances the crack-resisting
ability of the material, thereby presering its watertightness.
High-performance concrete
The term high-performance concrete +#"C. was first used by 3ehta and !\tcin for
concrete mi%tures possessing three characteristics, namely high workability, high strength,
and high durability.
11
Thus, a primary distinction between high-strength concrete and high-
performance concrete was the mandatory re>uirement of high durability in the case of #"C.
!s high durability under seere enironmental conditions cannot be achieed unless a
structure remains free from cracks during its serice life, the concrete mi%ture ought to be
designed for high dimensional stability. Therefore, to reduce cracking from thermal and
drying shrinkage strains it is necessary to limit the cement paste content of the concrete
mi%ture.
3ehta and !\tcin proposed a method of proportioning #"C mi%tures, which limits the total
cement paste content to one-third by olume of concrete.
11
This method also permits a
partial substitution of portland cement by a poAAolanic or cementitious admi%ture. !\tcin
has recently reiewed the art and science of high-performance concrete.
14
The author fore-
sees increasing use of ternary cement blends containing slag, fly ash, silica fume,
metakaolin, rice husk ash, and limestone powder to take adantage of the synergetic effect
in the improement of properties of both fresh and hardened concrete in addition to making
#"C more economical.
-n 155=, a subcommittee of the !merican Concrete -nstitute$s Technical !ctiities
Committee proposed a new definition of #"C as 'a concrete meeting special performance
re>uirements that may inole enhancement of placement and compaction without
segregation, early-age strength, toughness, olume stability or serice life in a seere
enironment.) !ccording to this definition, durability is not mandatory for high
performance. This has encouraged the deelopment of concrete mi%tures which >ualify to
be classified as #"C but may not be durable under seere enironmental conditions.
;:
Cor e%ample, for use in highway structures, ,oodspeed et al.
1=
proposed seeral #"C
mi%tures typically made with a high early strength cement, and cement contents of the
order of ;88 kg7m
=
+:E8 lb7yd
=
. or more. Therefore, unless special measures are taken,
such concrete mi%tures would be ulnerable to cracking from thermal, autogenous, and
drying shrinkage stresses.
1;
Clearly, one can (eopardiAe the serice life of a concrete
structure if drien by the construction timetables alone. -n structural design, therefore it is
adisable to consider the life-cycle cost rather than the initial cost of the structure. !lso,
there is a need to re-e%amine the issue of whether or not concrete mi%tures of >uestionable
long-term durability should be marketed as high-performance products.
#"C technology is being successfully used for the construction of numerous offshore
structures and long-span bridges throughout the world.
1<
Bangley et al. describe seeral
types of #"C mi%tures used in the construction of structural elements for the 14.5 km +9.8
mi. long, Dorthumberland &trait *ridge in Canada.
1:
The concrete mi%ture for the main
girders, pier shafts, and pier bases contained ;<8 kg7m
=
+E:8 lb7yd
=
. of a blended silica-
fume cement, 1<= B7m
=
+4:8 lb7yd
=
. water, 1:8 mB7m
=
+; oA7yd
=
. air-entraining agent, and
= B7m
=
+E< oA7yd
=
. superplasticiAer. Typically, fresh concrete mi%tures showed 488 mm +9
in.. slump and contained :.1 percent air. The compressie strengths of hardened concrete
samples at 1, =, and 49 days were =<, <4, and 94 3"a +<188, E<88, and 14,888 psi.,
respectiely. Cor approach pier foundations and other mass concrete elements, the #"C
contained a mi%ture of =8E kg7m
=
+<19 lb7yd
=
. silica-fume blended cement and 1== kg7m
=
+44; lb7yd
=
. fly ash. !t a similar water content +1<5 mB7m
=
Z4E8 lb7yd
=
[. but a considerably
reduced dosage of air-entraining agent +99 mB7m
=
Z4 oA7yd
=
[. and superplasticiAer +1.8<
B7m
=
Z4E oA7yd
=
[., the fresh concrete mi%ture gae 19< mm +E in.. slump and E percent air
content. The compressie strengths of hardened concrete at 1, =, 49, and 58 days were 18,
48, <8, and E: 3"a +1;<8, 4588, E=88, and 11,888 psi. respectiely. *oth concrete
mi%tures showed e%tremely low permeability, as measured by the C!D31T Water
"ermeability Test and the !!&#TH T 4EE 0apid Chloride "ermeability Test. With #"C
structures, Bangley et al place a great emphasis on site laboratory testing and >uality
assurance.
1:
!nother deelopment in the #"C field is in high-performance lightweight concrete #"BC..
0elatie to steel, the structural efficiency of normal concrete is >uite low when (udged from
strength7weight ratio. This ratio is considerably enhanced in the case of superplasticiAed,
high-strength concrete mi%tures, and can be further enhanced by full or partial replacement
of normal-weight aggregate with microporous, lightweight aggregate particles. Fepending
on the aggregate >uality, high-performance lightweight concrete +#"BC. with a density of
4888 kg7m
=
+=;88 lb7yd
=
. and compressie strengths in the E8 to 98 3"a +18,888 to 14,888
psi. range has been commercially produced for use in structural members. !ccording to
*remner and #olm, #"BC has been used in offshore platforms, both fi%ed and floating, in
!ustralia, Canada, Napan, Dorway, and the United &tates.1E Curthermore, according to the
authors, due to the high interfacial bond strength between the cement paste and aggregate,
#"BC remains irtually impermeable to fluids and is therefore highly durable in aggressie
enironments.
The superior adhesie >uality of superplasticiAed concrete made with cement blends
containing 18 to 1< percent or een a higher content of silica fume makes them well suited
for repair and rehabilitation of concrete structures by the wet-mi% shotcreting process. This
is another area of growing #"C applications. 3organ has reiewed new deelopments in
shotcreting with seeral e%amples of shotcrete repair of infrastructure in Dorth !merica.
19
;E
Self-compacting concrete
&hortage of skilled labor and saings in construction time were the primary reasons behind
the deelopment and increasing use of self-compacting concrete in Napan. The composition,
properties, and applications of self-compacting, superplasticiAed concrete mi%tures are
described in seeral recently published Napanese papers.
15-4=
Dote that some authors prefer
to use the term, 'self-leelling concrete,) instead of self-compacting concrete.
!ccording to Dagataki, the successful deelopment of superplasticiAed, anti-washout,
underwater concrete mi%tures in West ,ermany during the 15E8s proided the impetus for
the subse>uent deelopment of self-compacting, high-fluidity concrete in Napan in 1598s.
<
-n both cases, high fluidity and segregation resistance were obtained by the simultaneous
use of a superplasticiAing admi%ture and a iscosity-increasing admi%ture. Dote that
cellulose and acrylic water-soluble polymers are widely used as main components of
iscosity-increasing admi%tures. The iscosity of self-compacting concrete mi%tures is
greatly influenced by their powder content. ! high content of cement can cause thermal
cracking in some structures. Therefore, it is a common practice to use substantial amounts
of mineral admi%tures, such as fly ash, ground granulated blast-furnace slag, or limestone
powder. Dagataki reported that 458,888 m
=
+=98,888 yd
=
. of a self-compacting concrete
mi%ture, containing 1<8 kg7m
=
+4<8 lb7yd
=
. limestone powder and a superplasticiAing
admi%ture, were used for the construction of the two anchorage bodies of the !kashi-
Raikyo *ridge system in Napan. The anchorage consisted of densely-arranged
reinforcement and cable frame congested with steel. -n another application, high-fluidity
concrete with e%tremely low w/cm was used for bottom-up concreting of a concrete-filled
steel column without compaction.
:
-n Crance, the ready-mi%ed concrete industry is using self-compacting concrete as a noise-
free product that can be used around the clock in urban areas. Fue to noise reduction, labor
saings, and longer life of steel molds, the precast concrete products industry is also
inestigating the use of the material.
Technologies for prolonging serice life
Corrosion of reinforcing steel is implicated in a ma(ority of deteriorating concrete
structures. -n addition to #"C described preiously, there are seeral recently deeloped
technologies that are being pursued to address this problem, namely the use of corrosion-
inhibiting admi%tures, epo%y-coated steel reinforcement, cathodic protection, and
application of protectie coatings on the concrete surface. These are briefly reiewed6
&orrosion-in'i$iting admixtres: *erke and Weil presented a comprehensie reiew of
corrosion-inhibiting admi%tures in concrete.4; ,aidis and 0osenberg showed that the
addition of 4 percent calcium nitrite by mass raised the threshold chloride concentration to
leels that were high enough to inhibit the corrosion of steel.4< The anodic inhibitors, such
as calcium nitrite, function by minimiAing the anodic reaction promoted by the chloride
ions. This is the reason that the amount of nitrite ions present relatie to the amount of
chloride ions in the icinity of the steel surface determines whether or not corrosion
protection will be achieed. -t was proposed that protection from corrosion is obtained if
the chloride7nitrite ratio does not e%ceed 1.<. 4< Dmai et al. beliee this to be a serious
;9
limitation of anodic inhibitors including calcium nitrite.4: The authors inestigated an
amino-ester which offers protection by forming a protectie film at the steel surface in
addition to reducing the ingress of chloride ions into the concrete coer. -n a preliminary
inestigation on pre-cracked concrete beams ponded with : percent DaCl solution, the
amino-ester containing ad-mi%ture, at a dosage of < B7m
=
+1=8 oA7yd
=
. of concrete, gae
better protection against corrosion than the calcium nitrite inhibitor at a dosage of 48 B7m
=
+<48 oA7yd
=
.. -t seems more research is needed to clearly establish the limitations and long-
term effectieness of arious corrosion-inhibiting ad- mi%tures.
0poxy-coated rein3orcing steel: -n the United &tates, epo%y-coated reinforcement +1C0.
was used in bridge decks during the 15E8s and in parking ramps during the 1598s. -t is
estimated that the United &tates has appro%imately 4E,888 bridge decks with 1C0, mostly
located in regions where de-icing chemicals are used. -n some cases, for instance the &een
3ile *ridge in Rey West, Cla., unsatisfactory performance of 1C0 concrete was reported.
"roblems with early 1C0 concrete structures were generally attributed to improper epo%y
coatings, epo%y debonding, inade>uate coer, or other construction errors. ! 155= surey
of 19 to 48 year old 1C0 bridge decks in 1; states, where the structures were e%posed to
cycles of freeAing and thawing, showed that little or no maintenance was needed since
installation of the structures.
4E
#oweer, a 155: surey of parking garages containing ep-
o%y-coated reinforcement in concrete showed that only :8 percent of the respondents
indicated performance to e%-pectation.
4E
!ccording to the Concrete 0einforcing &teel
-nstitute, industry users feel that the use of epo%y-coated steel in parking garages adds 18 to
1< years of protection before corrosion starts. !pparently, it is too early to answer the
>uestion whether or not the use of 1C0 offers long-term corrosion protection in a cost-
effectie manner.
&at'odic protection o3 rein3orced concrete: Cathodic protection techni>ues inole the
suppression of current flow in the galanic cell either by e%ternal supply of current in the
opposite direction or by using sacrificial anodes. The e%ternally-applied current method is
commonly used for corrosion protection in chloride-contaminated reinforced concrete
structures. 0esearchers including 0asheduAAafar hae re-ported the degradation of bond
between steel and concrete probably due to a buildup of sodium and potassium ions which
results in the softening of concrete at the steel-concrete interface.
49
The degradation of
steel-concrete bond was found to increase with the increase in the impressed current density
and chloride content of concrete.
,r3ace coatings: !ccording to &wamy and Tanikawa, surface or barrier coatings when
applied to the concrete surface to protect it from e%ternal attack hae a long but checkered
history of effectieness.
45
This is due to the aailability of a wide range of barrier coatings,
and the fact that coatings of similar generic types may ary considerably in diffusion
characteristics. The authors used a highly elastic acrylic rubber coating, which showed
e%cellent engineering properties and a ery low diffusion coefficient. The effectieness of
this coating to presere concrete durability including the control of deleterious alkali-silica
e%pansion in concrete was clearly demonstrated. 3ore research is needed to establish the
long-term performance and cost-effectieness of surface coatings.
High olume fl# ash and slag concretes
;5
The current annual production of fly ash in the world is of the order of ;<8 million tonnes.
Hnly about 4< million tonnes or : percent of the total aailable fly ash is being used as a
poAAolan in blended portland cements or in concrete mi%tures. The enironmental
friendliness of concrete can be considerably enhanced if the rate of fly ash utiliAation by the
concrete industry is accelerated in the ash producing countries. Countries where large
amounts of blast-furnace slag is aailable as a by-product can similarly benefit from the use
of high olumes of granulated slag either as a concrete admi%ture or as an additie in the
manufacture of portland slag cements. 1%amples of high olume fly ash and slag concretes
are gien here6
,trctral concrete: &tudies by 3alhotra =8 with superplasticiAed concrete mi%tures hae
shown that, when the w/cm is limited to 8.= or less, up to :8 percent cement can be replaced
with a Class C or Class C fly ash +!&T3 C :19. to obtain e%cellent strength and durability
characteristics. Cor instance, a test mi%ture containing 1<8 kg7m
=
+4<8 lb7yd
=
. !&T3 ype -
cement, 488 kg7m
=
+=;8 lb7yd
=
. !&T3 Class C fly ash, 184 kg7m
=
+1E8 lb7yd
=
. water, 1448
kg7m
=
+4188 lb7yd
=
. coarse aggregate, 918 kg7m
=
+1;88 lb7yd
=
. fine aggregate, and E B7m
=
+158 oA7yd
=
. superplasticiAer gae 9, <<, and 98 3"a +1488, 9888, and 14,888 psi.
compressie strengths at 1, 49, and 194 days, respectiely. Crom e%tensie laboratory
tests,
=8
,
=1
it was concluded that the Loung$s 3odulus of elasticity, creep, drying shrinkage,
and freeAing and thawing characteristics of high olume fly ash +#/C!. concrete are
comparable to normal portland cement concrete. -t is noteworthy that high olume fly ash
concretes showed e%ceptionally high resistance to water permeation and chloride-ion
penetration. These findings are of considerable importance from the standpoint of durability
of structures including control of corrosion of reinforcing steel in concrete e%posed to
chloride enironments. Therefore, #/C! superplasticiAed concrete may turn out to be the
best alue-added use of fly ash in the construction industry.
%oller-compacted concrete dams: &ince the 1598s, roller-compacted concrete +0CC. has
been accepted worldwide as the most rapid and economical method for the construction of
medium height dams. !ccording to Funstan, until the end of 1554 appro%imately 188 0CC
dams had been built in 1E different countries.=4 The high paste type 0CC mi%tures
typically contain 4<8 kg7m
=
+;48 lb7yd
=
. cementitious material of which E8 to 98 percent is
a poAAolan. Cly ash has been used as a poAAolan in most 0CC dams. The Upper &tillwater
Fam in the United &tates re>uired 1.4; million m
=
+1.:1 million yd
=
. of concrete containing
E5 kg7m
=
+1=8 lb7yd
=
. portland cement and 1E= kg7m
=
+454 lb7yd
=
. fly ash. -n all, oer
488,888 tonnes of low calcium fly ash from si% different power plants was used. Barge
olumes of poAAolanic materials are needed for the Wungeru Fam in Napan which contains <
million m
=
+:.< million yd
=
. 0CC, and the 41E m +E88 ft. high Bongton Fam in China will
contain E.< million m
=
+18 million yd
=
. 0CC. Curther, according to Funstan, een
nonstandard fly ash is being successfully used as a component of 0CC mi%tures.=4 Cor
instance, the 0CC mi%ture for the construction of 5< m +=18ft. high "latanoryssi Fam in
,reece contains =< kg7m
=
+<5lb7yd
=
. portland cement and 4<8 kg7m
=
+;48 lb7yd
=
. of a fly
ash which has an unusually high calcium content +;4 percent total CaH.. The fly ash is
generated from thermal power stations using lignite as fuel, and as pretreated +puleriAed
and hydrated. before use.
<8
&oncrete pavements 3or 'ig'"ays: !ccording to ,olden, appro%imately E8 percent of the
low olume highways and local access roads in the United &tates re>uire upgrading.
==
Considering the cost saings resulting from the replacement of cement with high olumes
of fly ash, the 1lectric "ower 0esearch -nstitute +1"0-. funded seeral demonstration
pro(ects. -n Dorth Fakota, during the summers of 1599 and 1595, 48,888 m
=
+4:,888 yd
=
. of
a 488 mm +9 in.. thick concrete paement was constructed with 'poAAocrete,) which is a
8.;= w7cm, air-entrained concrete mi%ture containing 188 kg7m
=
+1E8 lb7yd
=
. portland
cement and 448 kg7m
=
+=E1 lb7yd
=
. high calcium fly ash. Femonstration pro(ects in Ransas
hae successfully used both low calcium and high calcium fly ashes in concrete paement
mi%tures +18 to 48 percent fly ash by mass of concrete.. !n innoatie feature of this
pro(ect was the utiliAation of crushed concrete from the old paement as a source of coarse
aggregate in the concrete mi%ture for the new paement.
(ase corses and em$an!ments: #igh olume fly ash and bottom ash applications in
highway construction may include soil stabiliAation, paement base courses, embankments,
and road shoulders. !ccording to ,olden, in 1595 more than =<8,888 tonnes of fly ash
were used for the construction of a highway embankment in "ennsylania.
==
-n ,eorgia,
cement treated fly ash mi%tures hae been used as base courses in highway test sections. -n
3ichigan, high carbon fly ash is being used at the rate of =88,888 tonnes per year for the
construction of base courses and road shoulders.
/ig' volme slag cement: !ppro%imately 188 million tonnes of blast furnace slag are
produced eery year in the world. -ts utiliAation rate as a cementitious material is >uite low
because, in many countries, only a small portion of the slag is aailable in the granulated
form which is cementitious. !lthough blended portland cements containing up to :< per-
cent granulated slag are permitted according to !&T3 standard specifications, usually the
slag content of commercial cements does not e%ceed <8 percent. 0ecent work by Bang and
,eiseler on a ,erman blast furnace slag cement +;8< m
4
7kg Z448 yd
4
7lb[ specific surface.
containing EE.9 percent slag showed that e%cellent mechanical and durability characteristics
were achieed in superplasticiAed concrete mi%tures with ;<< kg7m
=
+E:Elb7yd
=
. cement
content and 8.49 w7cm.=; The compressie strengths at ages 1, 4, E, and 49 days were 1=,
=E, <9, and 51 3"a +1588, <;88, 9;88, and 1=,888 psi., respectiely. The concrete showed
good resistance to carbonation, penetration of organic li>uids, freeAing and thawing cycles
+without air entrainment., and salt scaling.
$ec#cled concrete aggregate
Cor a ariety of reasons, reuse of concrete waste by the construction industry is becoming
increasingly important. This is reflected in seeral research papers from different countries
which were presented at a special session on concrete for enironmental enhancement at a
recent international conference, 'Concrete in the &erice of 3ankind,) held in Fundee,
&cotland. -n addition to enironmental protection, conseration of natural aggregate
resources, shortage of waste disposal land, and increasing cost of waste treatment prior to
disposal are the principal factors responsible for growing interest in recycling concrete
waste as aggregate.
!ccording to #endriks, presently the 1uropean Union countries produce 488 million tonnes
of building and demolition waste eery year, which is e%pected to double in 18 years.=< -n
<1
the Detherlands where waste recycling has become a growth industry since 15E8s, :8
percent of the demolition waste is reused. Uchikawa and #anehera estimated that 45
million tonnes, which is one-third of the 9: million tones of the construction waste
produced in Napan in 1554, consisted of concrete rubble.
=:
Twele million tonnes was re-
cycled as road-base aggregateU the rest was disposed. &aeki and &himura reported the
satisfactory performance of re-cycled concrete aggregate as a road-base material in cold
regions.
=E
-n the United &tates, in 159=, deteriorated concrete from a 5 km +: mi. long
freeway paement in 3ichigan was crushed, and the rubble was used as aggregate for
concrete that was needed for the construction of the new paement.
9
The end-use of the aggregate recoered from concrete waste depends on its cleanness and
soundness, which are controlled by the source of origin of the rubble and the processing
technology. !ggregate recoered from surplus fresh concrete in precasting yards and ready-
mi%ed concrete plants is generally clean and similar in properties to the irgin aggregate.
Concrete rubble from demolition of road paements and hydraulic structures re>uires
screening to remoe the fines. 3any laboratory and field studies hae shown that the siAe
fraction of the concrete rubble corresponding to coarse aggregate can be satisfactorily used
as a substitute for natural aggregate. ! comparison of properties of concrete from natural
aggregate and the recycled concrete aggregate shows that the latter would gie at least two-
third of the compressie strength and the elastic modulus of natural aggregate.
9
Femolition wastes from buildings are more difficult to handle. The concrete is usually
contaminated with deleterious constituents, such as wood, metals, glass, gypsum, paper,
plastics, and paint. -n combination with selectie demolition of building components, such
wastes can be handled in a cost effectie way by processing into a number of sub-flows,
which can be recycled separately. 1idently, due to the processing cost, at times the
recycled concrete aggregate from building rubble may be more e%pensie than natural
aggregate. #oweer, this situation will rapidly change as the natural sources of good
aggregate become scarce and the alternatie waste disposal costs are included in the
economic analysis.
Cost-!enefit anal#sis
There is not much published information on materials and construction costs. Unpublished
reports may proide some useful dataU howeer, costs ary considerably from one country
to another, and een within a country. !lso, due to insufficient e%perience, there are no
hard data on the cost-benefit analysis of technologies that hae been recently deeloped for
the enhancement of serice life of reinforced concrete structures e%posed to aggressie
enironmental conditions. ,erwick made an attempt to e%amine the economic aspects of
the concrete durability problem.
=9
Comparing the relatie cost of mitigating measures
commonly recommended for controlling the deterioration of concrete due to the corrosion
of steel reinforcement +as a percentage of the first cost of the concrete structure, based on
155; prices in Western countries., the following conclusions can be drawn from ,erwick$s
data6
G The use of fly ash or slag as a partial replacement for portland cement inoles no
increase in cost. -t may actually result in a lower costU
G Bowering the w/cm with a superplasticiAer increases the cost by 4 percent. The cost
increase will be < percent if silica fume is also usedU
<4
G The use of a corrosion-inhibiting admi%ture or epo%y-coated reinforcement increases the
cost by 9 percentU using both will increase the cost by 1: percentU and
G The use of e%ternal coatings for concrete or cathodic protection of the structure re>uires
48 to =8 percent cost augmentation.
"aluation of recent adancements
!ny e%ercise in technology assessment to (udge the impact of recent technological
adancements on the concrete industry as a whole will hae to be sub(ectie. The author
has designed an arbitrary rating system to ealuate each adancement in the following
categories6 comple%ity of the technology, initial cost of materials and construction, life-
cycle cost, enironmental friendliness of the product, and future impact on the concrete
industry as a whole. 0elatie grades of low, moderate, and high are assigned to each
technology in all the fie categories. Crom the tabulated results shown in Table 1, the
following conclusions can be drawn6
1. Fue to comple% processing technologies, high cost, and low enironmental friendliness
of the products, it appears that macro-defect free cements, chemically-bonded ceramics,
and reactie powder mortars will hae a negligible impact on the concrete industry as a
whole.
4. &uperplasticiAed concrete mi%tures with or without silica fume and self-compacting
concretes will continue to hae a niche in the concrete industry. Fue to stickiness and high
autogenous shrinkage, these concretes re>uire special care in finishing and curing and,
therefore, are e%pected to hae only a moderate impact on the industry.
=. Fue to simplicity of the technology, low initial cost, high durability, and high
enironmental friendliness of the product, superplasticiAed high olume fly ash or slag
concrete is e%pected to hae a high impact on the concrete industry. Considerable research
and deelopment is e%pected in the area of ternary blends containing portland cement, silica
fume or rice-husk ash, and large olumes of fly ash or slag.
;. -t is too early to predict the future of corrosion-inhibitors, epo%y coated reinforcing bars,
surface coatings, and cathodic protection technology. When compared to high olume fly
ash or slag concretes, their high cost and low enironmental friendliness would clearly be a
ma(or disadantage.
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1. 3ehta, ". R., 'Furability of Concrete Cifty Lears of "rogress?)
Durabilitv of Concrete, &"-14:, !merican Concrete -nstitute,
Carmington #ills, 3ich., 1551, pp. 1-=1.
4. 3alhotra, /. 3., '&uperplasticiAers6 their effect on fresh and
hardened concrete,) Concrete International, /. =, Do. <, 3ay 1591,
pp. :1-91.
=. Collepardi, 3., '&uperplasticiAers and !ir-1ntraining !gents
&tate of the !rt and Cuture Deeds,) Concrete Technologv. Past,
Present, and Future, &"-1;;, !merican Concrete -nstitute,
Carmington #ills, 3ich., 155;, pp. =55-;1:.
;. 3alhotra, /. 3., '-nnoatie !pplications of &uperplasticiAers
in Concrete ! 0eiew,) !dances in Concrete &cience and Tech-nology,
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pp. 4E1-=1;.
<. Dagataki, &., '"resent &tate of &uperplasticiAers in Napan,) Fifth
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<=
-nstitute, Carmington #ills, 3ich., 1559.
:. LoneAawa, T., 'The Contribution of Cluidity -mproing Tech-nology
to the Widespread Use of #igh-&trength Concrete,) Concrete
in the Service of Mankind Radical Concrete Technology, editors6
0. R. Fhir and ".C. #ewlett, 1 ] CD &pon, 155:, pp. <4<-<;4.
E. Tanaka, L. H.U 3atsuo, &.U Hhta, !.U and Ueda, 3., '! Dew !d-mi%ture
for #igh-"erformance Concrete,) op. cit., pp. 451-=88.
9. 3ehta, ". R., and 3onteiro, ". N. 3., Concrete. Microstructure,
Properties, and Materials, 3c,raw-#ill College Custom &eries, 155:,
<;9 pages.
5. 0oy, F. 3., and &ilsbee, 3. 0., 'Doel Cements and Concrete
"roducts for !pplication in the 41st Century,) Concrete Technologv,
Past, Present, and Future, &"-1;;, !merican Concrete -nstitute,
Carmington #ills, 3ich., 155;, pp. =;5-=94.
18. 0ichard, "., and CheyreAy, 3. #., '0eactie "owder Concretes
with #igh Fuctility and 488-988 3"a Compressie &trength,) ibid.,
pp. <8E-<19.
11. 3ehta, ". R., and !\tcin, ". C., '"rinciples Underlying the "ro-duction
of #igh-"erformance Concrete,) Cement, Concrete, and Ag-gregates,
!&T3, /. 14, Do. 4, 1558, pp. E8-E9.
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!dances in Concrete &cience and Technology, Proceedings,
3. Collepardi &ymposium, 0ome, Hctober 155E, editor6 ". R. 3ehta,
pp. 18E-14;.
1=. ,oodspeed, C. #.U /anikar, &.U and Cook, 0., '#igh-"erformance
Concrete Fefined for #ighway &tructures,) Concrete International,
/. 19, Do. 4 and 9, Cebruary and !ugust 155:.
1;. 3ehta, ". R., 'Furability Critical -ssues for the Cuture,)
Concrete International, /. 15, Do. E, Nuly 155E, pp. 4E-==.
1<. #off, ,. C., 'Concrete for Hffshore &tructures,) Advances in
Concrete Technology, editor6 /. 3. 3alhotra, C!D31T, Httawa,
155;, pp. 9=-14;.
1:. Bangley, W. &.U ,ilmour, 0.U and Tromposch, 1., 'The
Dorthumberland &trait *ridge "ro(ect,) Advances in Concrete Tech-nology,
&"-1<;, !merican Concrete -nstitute, Carmington #ills,
3ich., 155<, pp. <;=-<:;.
1E. *remner, T. W., and #olm, T. !., '#igh-"erformance Bight-weight
Concrete a 0eiew,) ibid., pp. 1-48.
19. 3organ, F. 0., 'Dew Feelopments in &hotcrete of 0epair and
0ehabilitation,) Advances in Concrete Technology, C!D31T, Ht-tawa,
155;, pp. :E<-E48.
15. #ayakawa, 3.U 3atsuoka, L.U and Lokota, R., '!pplication of
&uperworkable Concrete in the Construction of a E8-story *uilding
in Napan,) Advances in Concrete Technology, &"-1<;, !merican Con-crete
-nstitute, Carmington #ills, 3ich. 155<, pp. =91-=59.
48. Cukute, T.U 3oriwaka, !.U &ano, R.U and #amasaki, R., 'Feel-opment
of &uperworkable Concrete for 3ulti-functional &tructures,)
ibid., pp. ==<-=<:.
41. Dagataki, &., and Cu(iwara, #., '&elf-Compacting "roperty of
#ighly Clowable Concrete,) ibid., pp. =81-=1;.
<;