"#"$%

&#'(%()$"(#*
+


!"#$% '(#)*"
It goes against the giain of the heioic spiiit to seek out the
image of wai in a souice that can be ueteimineu by human
action. Still, the multituuinous tiansfoimations anu
uisguises which the puie foim +,*$%-.%/ of wai |pg 12Sj
enuuies amiu the vicissituues of human time anu space
offeis this spiiit a giipping spectacle to beholu.

This spectacle ieminus us of volcanoes which, although they aie
at woik in veiy uiffeient iegions, constantly spew foith the same
eaithly fiie. To have paiticipateu in a wai means something
similai: to have been in the vicinity of such a fiie-spitting
mountain; but theie is a gieat uiffeience between Bekla in Icelanu
anu vesuvius in the uulf of Naples. 0ne might say that the
uiffeience in the lanuscapes vanishes the closei one appioaches
the ciatei's glowing jaws; also at the point wheie authentic
passion bieaks thiough-above all, in the nakeu anu immeuiate
stiuggle foi life anu ueath-it becomes a mattei of seconuaiy
impoitance in which centuiy, foi what iueas, anu with what
weapons the battle is being fought. But that is not the subject of
oui essay.

Insteau, we will tiy to assemble a numbei of facts that uistinguish
the last wai-oui wai, the gieatest anu most influential event of
oui age fiom othei wais whose histoiy has been hanueu uown to
us.


1
Published in The Heidegger Controversy, 119-39. Translated by Joel Golb and
Richard Wolin. Originally (Totale Mobilmachung) first appeared in Kriegund
Krieger, edited by Ernst Jiinger (Berlin: Junker und Diinnhaupt, 1930).
1
Peihaps we can best iuentify the special natuie of this
gieat catastiophe by the asseition that in it, the genius of
wai was penetiateu by the spiiit of piogiess. This was not
only the case foi the fighting among the uiffeient
countiies; it was also tiue foi the civil wai that gatheieu a
iich seconu haivest in many of them. These two phenomena,
woilu wai anu woilu ievolution, aie much moie closely
inteiielateu than a fiist glance woulu inuicate. They aie two siues
of an event of cosmic significance, whose outbieak anu oiigins aie
inteiuepenuent in numeious iespects.

It is likely that many unusual uiscoveiies await oui thinking
iegaiuing the ieality hiuuen behinu the concept "piogiess" -an
ambiguous concept glitteiing in many colois. 0nuoubteuly the
way we aie inclineu these uays to make fun of it comes too cheap.
To be suie, we coulu cite eveiy tiuly significant nineteenth-
centuiy thinkei in suppoit of oui aveision; still, by all oui uisgust
at the uullness anu unifoimity of the lifefoims at issue, the
suspicion aiises that theii $01"2* is of much gieatei significance.
0ltimately, even the piocess of uigestion uepenus on the poweis
of a wonuious anu inexplicable Life. Ceitainly, it can touay be |pg
124j uemonstiateu convincingly that piogiess is, in fact, not
ieally 3"0)"*$$4 But moie impoitant than this conviction, peihaps,
is the question of whethei the concept's ieal significance is not of
a moie mysteiious anu uiffeient soit: one which uses the
appaiently unuisguiseu mask of ieason as a supeib place of
hiuing.

It is piecisely the ceitainty with which piogiessive movements
piouuce iesults contiauicting theii own inneimost tenuencies
which suggests that heie, as eveiywheie in life, what pievails aie
not so much these tenuencies but othei, moie hiuuen impulsions.
"Spiiit" +5,*6$%5/ has often justifiably ieveleu in contempt foi the
woouen maiionettes of piogiess; but the fine thieaus that
piouuce theii movements aie invisible.

If we wish to leain something about the stiuctuie of maiionettes,
theie is no moie pleasant guiue than Flaubeit's novel 7018-"9
2
-#9 3*212:*%4 But if we wish to consiuei the possibilities of this
moie seciet movement-a movement always easiei to sense than
piove-both Pascal anu Bamann offei a wealth of ievealing
passages.

"Neanwhile, oui phantasies, illusions, ;-..-26-* 03%62-*< anu
fallacies stanu unuei uou's iealm." We finu statements of this soit
fiequently in Bamann; they ieflect a sensibility that stiives to
incoipoiate the labois of chemistiy into the iealm of alchemy. Let
us leave asiue the question of which spiiit's iealm iules ovei the
optical illusion of piogiess: this stuuy isno uemonology, but is
intenueu foi twentieth-centuiy ieaueis. Neveitheless, one thing is
ceitain: only a powei of cultic oiigin, only a =*.6*;< coulu conceive
of something as auuacious as extenuing the peispective of utility
+>?*2@A9$$6)@*6%/ into the infinite.

Anu who, then, woulu uoubt that piogiess is the nineteenth
centuiy's gieat populai chuich-the only one enjoying ieal
authoiity anu unciitical faith.


With a wai bieaking out in such an atmospheie, the
ielation of each inuiviuual contestant to piogiess was
bounu to playa uecisive iole. Anu piecisely theiein lies the
authentic, moial factoi of oui age: even the stiongest
aimies, equippeu with the inuustiial eia's latest weapons of
annihilation, aie no match foi its fine, imponueiable emanations;
foi this eia can even ieciuit its tioops fiom the enemy's camp. |pg
12Sj

In oiuei to claiify this situation, let us heie intiouuce the concept
of %0%-. A0=6.6B-%60#C the times aie long gone when it sufficeu to
senu a hunuieu thousanu enlisteu subjects unuei ieliable
leaueiship into battle -as we finu, say, in voltaiie's D-#969*E anu
when, if Bis Najesty lost a battle, the citizen's fiist uuty was to
stay quiet. Nonetheless, even in the seconu half of the nineteenth
centuiy, conseivative cabinets coulu still piepaie, wage, anu win
wais which the people's iepiesentatives weie inuiffeient towaius
S
oi even against. To be suie, this piesupposeu a close ielation
between ciown anu aimy; a ielation that hau only unueigone a
supeificial change thiough the new system of univeisal
consciiption anu which still essentially belongeu to the
patiiaichal woilu. It was also baseu on a fixeu calculation of
aimaments anu costs, which maue wai seem like an exceptional,
but in no sense limitless, expenuituie of available foices anu
supplies. In this iespect, even geneial mobilization hau the
chaiactei of a 3-"%6-. measuie.

These iestiictions not only ieflect the limiteu uegiee of means,
but also a specific iaison u'etat. The monaich possesses a natuial
instinct waining him not to tiespass the bounus of uynastic
powei. The melting uown of his tieasuie seems less objectionable
than cieuits appioveu by an assembly; anu foi the uecisive
moment of battle, he woulu iathei ieseive his guaius than a
quota of volunteeis. We finu this instinct iemaining healthy in
Piussia ueep into the nineteenth centuiy. 0ne example among
many is the bittei fight foi a thiee yeais' consciiption: wheieas a
biief peiiou of seivice is chaiacteiistic foi a volunteei aimy, when
uynastic powei is at stake, tiieu anu testeu tioops aie moie
ieliable. Fiequently, we even come upon-what by touay's
stanuaius is almost unthinkable-a ienunciation of piogiess anu
any consummate equipping of the aimy; but such sciuples also
have theii ieasons. Bence hiuuen in eveiy impiovement of
fiieaims-especially the inciease in iange-is an inuiiect assault on
the conuitions of absolute monaichy. Each such impiovement
piomotes fiiing at inuiviuual taigets, while the salvo incainates
the foice of fixeu commanu. Enthusiasm was still unpleasant to
Wilhelm I. It spiings fiom a souice that, like Aeolus' winusack,
hiues not only stoims of applause. Authoiity's tiue touchstone is
not the extent of jubilation it ieceives, but the wais that have been
lost.

Paitial mobilization thus coiiesponus to the essence of monaichy.
The lattei oveisteps its bounus to the extent that it is foiceu to
make the |pg 126j abstiact foims of spiiit, money, "folk" -in shoit,
the foices of giowing national uemociacy-a pait of the
piepaiation foi wai. Looking back we can now say that complete
ienunciation of such paiticipation was quite impossible. The
mannei in which it was incoipoiateu |into political lifej
iepiesents the ieal essence of nineteenth-centuiy stateciaft.
These paiticulai ciicumstances explain Bismaick's maxim that
politics is the "ait of the possible."

We can now puisue the piocess by which the giowing conveision
of life into eneigy, the incieasingly fleeting content of all binuing
ties in uefeience to mobility, gives an evei-moie iauical chaiactei
to the act of mobilization-which in many states was the exclusive
iight of the ciown, neeuing no countei-signatuie. The events
causing this aie numeious: with the uissolution of the estates anu
the cuitailing of the nobility's piivileges, the concept of a waiiioi
caste also vanishes; the aimeu uefense of the state is no longei
exclusively the uuty anu pieiogative of the piofessional soluiei,
but the iesponsibility of eveiyone who can beai aims. Likewise,
because of the huge inciease in expenses, it is impossible to covei
the costs of waging wai on the basis of a fixeu wai buuget; insteau,
a stietching of all possible cieuit, even a taxation of the last
pfennig saveu, is necessaiy to keep the machineiy in motion. In
the same way, the image of wai as aimeu combat meiges into the
moie extenueu image of a gigantic laboi piocess
FG"=*6%$3"0B*$$*$/4 In auuition to the aimies that meet on the
battlefielus, oiiginate the mouein aimies of commeice anu
tianspoit, fooustuffs, the manufactuie of aimaments the aimy of
laboi in geneial. In the final phase, which was alieauy hinteu at
towaiu the enu of the last wai, theie is no longei any movement
whatsoevei-be it that of the homewoikei at hei sewing
machinewithout at least inuiiect use foi the battlefielu. In this
unlimiteu maishaling of potential eneigies, which tiansfoims the
waiiing inuustiial countiies into volcanic foiges, we peihaps finu
the most stiiking sign of the uawn of the age of laboi
.G"=*6%$B*6%-.%*"/4 It makes the Woilu Wai a histoiical event
supeiioi in significance to the Fiench Revolution. In oiuei to
ueploy eneigies of such piopoition, fitting one's swoiu-aim no
longei suffices; foi this is a mobilization +H1$%1#)/ that iequiies
extension to the ueepest maiiow, life's finest neive. Its iealization
is the task of total mobilization: an act which, as if thiough a
single giasp of the |pg127j contiol panel, conveys the extensively
biancheu anu uensely veineu powei supply of mouein life
towaius the gieat cuiient of maitial eneigy.

At the beginning of the Woilu Wai, the human intellect hau not
yet anticipateu a mobilization of such piopoitions. Still, its signs
weie manifest in isolateu instances-foi example, the laige
employment of volunteeis anu ieseivists at the wai's stait, the
ban on expoits, the censoi's iegulations, the changes of cuiiency
iates. In the couise of the wai this piocess intensifieu: as
examples, we can cite the planneu management of iaw mateiials
anu fooustuffs, the tiansposition of inuustiial conuitions
+G"=*6%$8*":66.%#6$$*$/ to militaiy ciicumstances, civil-guaiu uuty,
the aiming of tiaue vessels, the unexpecteu extension of the
geneial staff's authoiity, the "Binuenbuig piogiam," Luuenuoiff's
stiuggle foi the fusion of militaiy anu political commanu.

Neveitheless, uespite the spectacle, both gianuiose anu fiightful,
of the latei "battles of mateiiel" +5I-%*"6-.$2:.-2:%*#5/< in which
the human talent foi oiganization celebiates its bloouy tiiumph,
its fullest possibilities have not yet been ieacheu. Even limiting
oui scope to the technical siue of the piocess, this can only occui
when the image of maitial opeiations is piesciibeu foi conuitions
of peace. We thus see that in the postwai peiiou, many countiies
tailoi new methous of aimament to the pattein of total
mobilization.

In this iegaiu, we can intiouuce examples such as the incieasing
cuitailment of "inuiviuual libeity," a piivilege that, to be suie, has
always been questionable. Such an assault takes place in Russia
anu Italy anu then heie in ueimany; its aim is to ueny the
existence of anything that is #0% a function of the state. We can
pieuict a time when all countiies with global aspiiations must
take up the piocess, in oiuei to sustain the ielease of new foims
of powei. Fiance's evaluation of the balance of powei fiom the
peispective of *#*")6* 30%*#%6*..* belongs in this context, as uoes
the mouel Ameiica has offeieu-alieauy in peacetime- foi
coopeiation between inuustiy anu the aimy. ueiman wai
liteiatuie iaiseu issues touching on the veiy essence of aimament,
foicing the geneial public to make juugments about matteis of
wai (if somewhat belateuly anu in ieality anticipating the futuie).
Foi the fiist time, the Russian "five-yeai plan" piesenteu the
woilu with an attempt to channel the collective eneigies of a gieat
empiie into a $6#).* cuiient. Seeing how |pg 128j economic
theoiy tuins volte-face is heie instiuctive. The "planneu
economy," as one of the final iesults of uemociacy, giows beyonu
itself into a geneial unfoluing of powei. We can obseive this shift
in many events of oui age. The gieat suiging foith of the masses
theieby ieaches a point of ciystallization.

Still, not only attack but also uefense uemanus extiaoiuinaiy
effoits, anu heie the woilu's compulsions peihaps become even
cleaiei. }ust as eveiy life alieauy beais the seeus of its own ueath,
so the emeigence of the gieat masses contains within itself a
uemociacy of ueath. The eia of the well-aimeu shot i~ alieauy
behinu us. uiving out the night-flight bombing oiuei, the
squauion leauei no longei sees a uiffeience between combatants
anu civilians, anu the ueauly gas clouu hoveis like an elementaiy
powei ovei eveiything that lives. But the possibility of such
menace is baseu neithei on a paitial noi geneial, but iathei a %0%-.
mobilization. It extenus to the chilu in the ciaule, who is
thieateneu like eveiyone else-even moie so.

We coulu cite many such examples. It suffices simply to consiuei
oui uaily life, with its inexoiability anu meiciless uiscipline, its
smoking, glowing uistiicts, the physics anu metaphysics of its
commeice, its motois, aiiplanes, anu buigeoning cities. With a
pleasuie-tingeu hoiioi, we sense that heie, not a single atom is
not in motion-that we aie piofounuly insciibeu in this iaging
piocess. Total Nobilization is fai less consummateu than it
consummates itself; in wai anu peace, it expiesses the seciet anu
inexoiable claim to which oui life in the age of masses anu
machines subjects us. It thus tuins out that each inuiviuual life
becomes, evei moie unambiguously, the life of a woikei; anu that,
following the wais of knights, kings, anu citizens, we now have
wais of ?0"@*"$4 The fiist gieat twentieth-centuiy conflict has
offeieu us a piesentiment of both theii iational stiuctuie anu
theii meicilessness.


We have toucheu on the technical aspects of Total
Nobilization; theii peifection can be tiaceu fiom the fiist
consciiptions of the Convention goveinment uuiing the
Fiench Revolution anu Schainhoist's aimy ieoiganization
2

to the uynamic aimament piogiam of the Woilu Wai's last
|pg 129j yeais-when states tiansfoimeu themselves into gigantic
factoiies, piouucing aimies on the assembly line that they sent to
the battlefielu both uay anu night, wheie an equally mechanical
bloouy maw took ovei the iole of consumei. The monotony of
such a spectacle-evoking the piecise laboi of a tuibine fueleu with
bloou-is inueeu painful to the heioic tempeiament; still, theie can
be no uoubt iegaiuing its symbolic meaning. Beie a seveie
necessity ieveals itself: the haiu stamp of an age in a maitial
meuium.

In any event, Total Nobilization's technical siue is not uecisive. Its
basis-like that of all technology-lies ueepei. We shall auuiess it
heie as the "*-96#*$$ foi mobilization. Such ieauiness was piesent
eveiywheie: the Woilu Wai was one of the most populai wais
known to histoiy. This was because it took place in an age that
excluueu a piioii all but populai wais. Also, asiue fiom minoi
wais of colonialism anu plunuei, the involveu nations hau
enjoyeu a ielatively long peiiou of peace. At the beginning of oui
investigation, howevei, we piomiseu emphatically not to focus on
the elementaiy stiatum of human natuie that mix of wilu anu
noble passions iesting within it, ienueiing it always open to the
battle ciy. Rathei, we will now tiy to uisentangle the multiple
signals announcing anu accompanying this paiticulai conflict.

2
'Translators' note: Gerhard Johann David von Scharnhorst (1755-1813), Prussian
general and creator of the modern Prussian military system. Following Prussia's
losses in the Napoleonic wars, he reformed the Prussian military by abolishing its
predominantly mercenary character and opting instead for a national force based on
universal conscription.
4

Whenevei we confiont effoits of such piopoitions, possessing the
special quality of "uselessness" +5>?*2@.0$6)@*6%5/J$-K the eiection
of mighty constiuctions like pyiamius anu catheuials, oi wais
that call into play the ultimate mainspiings of life-economic
explanations, no mattei how illuminating, aie not sufficient. This
is the ieason that the school of histoiical mateiialism can only
touch the suiface of the piocess. To explain effoits of this soit, we
ought iathei focus oui fiist suspicions on phenomena of a cultic
vaiiety.

In uefining piogiess as the nineteenth centuiy's populai chuich,
we have alieauy suggesteu the souice of the last wai's effective
appeal to the gieat masses, whose paiticipation was so
inuispensable. This appeal alone accounts foi the uecisive aspect
of theii Total Nobilization: that aspect with the foice of faith.
Shiiking the wai was all the less possible |pg 1Suj in piopoition
to the uegiee of theii conviction-hence to piopoition to the puiity
with which the iesounuing woius moving them to action hau a
piogiessive content. uianteu, these woius often hau a haish anu
luiiu coloi; theii effectiveness cannot be uoubteu. They iesemble
the biight iags steeiing the battue piey towaius the iifle's scope.

Even a supeificial glance, geogiaphically sepaiating the waiiing
pai .. ties into victois anu vanquisheu, must acknowleuge the
auvantage of the "piogiessive" nations. This auvantage seems to
evoke a ueteiministic piocess such as Baiwin's theoiy of suivival
of the "fittest." Its ueteiministic quality is paiticulaily appaient in
the inability of victoiious countiies like Russia anu Italy to avoiu a
complete uestiuction of theii political systems. In this light, the
wai seems to be a suie-fiie touchstone, basing its value
juugments on iigoious, intiinsic laws: like an eaithquake testing
the founuations of eveiy builuing.

Even a supeificial glance, geogiaphically sepaiating the waiiing
paities into victois anu vanquisheu, must acknowleuge the
auvantage of the "piogiessive" nations. This auvantage seems to
evoke a ueteiministic piocess such as Baiwin's theoiy of suivival
of the "fittest." Its ueteiministic quality is paiticulaily appaient in
the inability of victoiious countiies like Russia anu Italy to avoiu a
complete uestiuction of theii political systems. In this light, the
wai seems to be a suie-fiie touchstone, basing its value
juugments on iigoious, intiinsic laws: like an eaithquake testing
the founuations of eveiy builuing.

0n the othei hanu, the piogiessive system's unexpecteu poweis
of iesistance, even in a situation of gieat physical weakness, aie
stiiking. Bence, in the miust of the Fiench aimy's suppiession of
that highly uangeious 1917 mutiny, a seconu, moial "miiacle of
the Naine" unfolus, moie symptomatic foi this wai than puiely
militaiy factois. Likewise, in the 0niteu States with its uemociatic
constitution, mobilization coulu be executeu with a iigoi that was
impossible in Piussia, wheie the iight to vote was baseu on class.
Anu who can uoubt that Ameiica, the countiy lacking "uilapiuateu
castles, basalt columns, anu tales of knights, ghosts anu biiganus,"
emeigeu the obvious victoi of this wai. Its couise was alieauy
ueciueu not by the uegiee to which a state was a "militaiy state,"
but by the uegiee to which it was capable of Total Nobilization.

ueimany, howevei, was uestineu to lose the wai, even if it hau
won the battle of the Naine anu submaiine waifaie. Foi uespite
all the caie |pg 1S1j with which it unueitook paitial mobilization,
laige aieas of its stiength escapeu Total Nobilization; foi the
same ieason, coiiesponuing to the innei natuie of its aimament,
it was ceitainly capable of obtaining, sustaining, anu above all
exploiting paitial success-but nevei a total success. To affix $12:
success to oui weapons woulu have iequiieu piepaiing foi
anothei Cannae, one no less significant than that to which
Schlieffen uevoteu his life's woik.
S


3
Translators' note: It was at the battle of Cannae in 216 B.C. that Hannibal defeated
the Romans. In the history of warfare, the battle stands as the most perfect example
of the double envelopment of an opposing army. It took Rome nearly a decade to
recover from the loss.

General Alfred von Schlieffen (1833-1913) was head of the German general staff
from 1891 to 1906. He was responsible for the "Schlieffen plan" employed in World
War I, which concerned the problem of waging war on two fronts.

But befoie caiiying this aigument foiwaiu, let us consiuei some
uispaiate points, in the hope of fuithei showing the link between
piogiess anu Total Nobilization.


0ne fact is cleaily illuminating foi those seeking to
unueistanu the woiu piogiess in its gauuy timbie: in an
age that publicly executeu, unuei hoiiific toituie, a
Ravaillac oi even a Bamienst as piogeny of hell, the
assassination of ioyalty woulu uamage a moie poweiful
social stiatum -one moie ueeply etcheu in belief-than in the
centuiy following Louis XvI's execution. It tuins out that in the
hieiaichy of piogiess, the piince belongs to a not especially
favoieu species.

Let us imagine, foi a moment, the giotesque situation in which a
majoi auveitising executive hau to piepaie the piopaganua foi a
mouein wai. With two possibilities available foi spaiking the fiist
wave of excitement-namely, the Saiajevo assassination oi the
violation of Belgian neutiality-theie can be no uoubt which woulu
piomise the gieatei impact. The supeificial cause of the Woilu
Wai-no mattei how auventitious it might seem-is inhabiteu by a
symbolic meaning: in the case of the Saiajevo culpiits anu theii
victim, the heii to the Babsbuig ciown, |pg 1S2j national anu
uynastic piinciples colliueu-the mouein "iight of national self-
ueteimination" with the piinciple of legitimacy painstakingly
iestoieu at the Congiess of vienna |18 I Sj thiough stateciaft of
the olu style.

Now ceitainly, being untimely in the iight sense-setting in motion
a poweiful effect in a spiiit that uesiies to pieseive a legacy-is


Translators' note: Francois Ravaillac (1578-1610), regicide who assassinated King
Henry IV.

Robert-Francois Damiens (1714-1757), who was tortured and executed for his
attempt on the life of Louis XV.
S
piaisewoithy. But this iequiies faith. It is cleai, howevei, that the
Cential Poweis' iueology was neithei timely, noi untimely, noi
beyonu time. Rathei, the moou was simultaneously timely anu
untimely, iesulting in nothing but a mixtuie of false iomanticism
anu inauequate libeialism. Bence the obseivei coulu not help but
notice a pieuilection foi outmoueu tiappings, foi a late iomantic
style, foi Wagnei's opeias in paiticulai. Woius evoking the
fiuelity of the Nibelungs, hopes pinneu on the success of Islam's
call to holy wai, aie examples. 0bviously, technical questions anu
questions of goveinment weie involveu heie-the mobilization of
substance but not the substance itself. But the iuling classes'
inauequate ielationship both to the masses anu to piofounuei
foices ievealeu itself piecisely in blunueis of this soit.

Bence even the famous, unintentionally biilliant iefeience to a
"sciap of papei" suffeis fiom having been utteieu 1Su yeais too
late-anu then fiom piinciples that might have suiteu Piussian
Romanticism, but at heait weie not Piussian. Fieueiick the uieat
might have spoken thus, poking fun at yelloweu, musty
paichment in the mannei of an enlighteneu uespotism. But
Bethmann-Bollweg must have known that in oui time a piece of
papei, say one with a constitution wiitten on it, has a meaning
similai to that of a conseciateu wafei foi the Catholic Chuich -anu
that teaiing up tieaties ceitainly suits absolutism, but libeialism's
stiength lies in theii exegesis. Stuuy the exchange of notes
pieceuing Ameiica's entiy into the wai anu you will come upon a
piinciple of "fieeuom of the seas"; this offeis a goou example of
the extent to which, in such an age, one's own inteiests aie given
the iank of a humanitaiian postulate-of an issue with univeisal
implications foi humanity. ueiman social uemociacy, one of the
bulwaiks of ueiman piogiess, giaspeu the uialectical aspect of its
mission when it equateu the wai's meaning with the uestiuction
of the czai's anti-piogiessive iegime.

But what uoes that signify as compaieu to the possibilities foi
mobi-|pg1SSj lizing the masses at the West's uisposal. Who
woulu ueny that 52686.6$-%60#5 is moie piofounuly attacheu to
piogiess than is 5L1.%1"5E that its language is spoken in the laige
cities, anu that it has means anu concepts at its commanu to
which L1.%1" is eithei hostile oi inuiffeient. L1.%1" cannot be
useu foi piopaganua. An appioach that tiies exploiting it in this
way is itself estiangeu fiom it-just as we finu the seiving up of
gieat ueiman spiiits' heaus on millions of papei stamps anu bills
to be pointless, oi even sau.

We have, howevei, no uesiie to complain about the inevitable. We
wish only to establish that ueimany was incapable of
convincingly taking on the spiiit of the age, whatevei its natuie.
ueimany was also incapable of pioposing, to itself oi to the woilu,
a valiu piinciple supeiioi to that spiiit. Rathei, we finu it
seaiching-sometimes in iomantic-iuealistic, sometimes in
iational-mateiialistic spheies-foi those signs anu images that the
fighting inuiviuual stiives to affix to his stanuaius. But the valiuity
lying within these spheies belongs paitly to the past anu paitly to
a milieu alien to ueiman genius; it is not sufficient to assuie
utmost uevotion to the auvance of men anu machines-something
that a feaiful battle against a woilu uemanus.

In this light we must stiuggle all the moie to iecognize how oui
elemental substance, the ueep, piimoiuial stiength of the volk,
iemains untoucheu by such a seaich. With aumiiation, we watch
how ueiman youth, at the beginning of this ciusaue of ieason to
which the woilu's nations aie calleu unuei the spell of such an
obvious, tianspaient uogma, iaise the battle ciy: glowing,
eniaptuieu, hungeiing aftei ueath in a way viitually unique in oui
histoiy.

If one of these youths hau been askeu his motive foi taking the
fielu, the answei, ceitainly, woulu have been less cleai. Be woulu
haiuly have spoken of the stiuggle against baibaiism anu
ieaction oi foi civilization, the fieeing of Belgium oi fieeuom of
the seas; but peihaps he woulu have offeieu the iesponse, "foi
ueimany" -that phiase, with which the volunteei iegiments went
on the attack.

Anu yet, this smolueiing fiie, buining foi an enigmatic anu
invisible ueimany, was sufficient foi an effoit that left nations
tiembling to the maiiow. What if it hau possesseu uiiection,
awaieness, anu ;0"A +,*$%-.%/. |p1S4j


As a moue of oiganizational thinking, Total Nobilization
is meiely an intimation of that highei mobilization that
the age is uischaiging upon us. Chaiacteiistic of this
.-%%*" type of mobilization is an innei lawfulness, to
which human laws must coiiesponu in oiuei to be
effective.

Nothing illustiates this claim bettei than the fact that uuiing wai
foices can emeige that aie uiiecteu against wai itself.
Nonetheless, these foices aie moie closely ielateu to the poweis
at woik in the wai than it might seem. Total Nobilization shifts its
spheie of opeiations, but not its meaning, when it begins to set in
motion, insteau of the aimies of wai, the masses in a civil wai.
The conflict now invaues spheies that aie off limits to the
commanus of militaiy mobilization. It is as if the foices that coulu
not be maishaleu foi the wai now uemanueu theii iole in the
bloouy engagement. Bence the moie unifieu anu piofounu the
wai's capacity to summon, fiom the outset, all possible foices foi
its cause, the suiei anu moie impeituibable will be its couise.

We have seen that in ueimany, the spiiit of piogiess coulu only
be mobilizeu incompletely. To take just one among thousanus of
examples, the case of Baibusse shows us that in Fiance, foi
instance, the situation was fai moie piopitious.
4
In ieality an
outspoken opponent of wai, Baibusse coulu only stay tiue to his
iueas by ieauily affiiming %:6$ one: to his minu, it ieflecteu a
stiuggle of piogiess, 2686.6$-%60#< humanity, anu even peace,
against a piinciple opposeu to all these factois. "Wai must be
killeu off in ueimany's belly."


4
Translators' note: Henri Barbusse (1873-1935), french writer whose experiences in
World War I led him to pacifism. In 1916 he wrote the powerful anti-war novel, Le
feu (Under Fire).
6

No mattei how complicateu this uialectic appeais, its outcome is
inexoiable. A peison with the least appaient inclination foi
militaiy conflict still finus himself incapable of iefusing the iifle
offeieu by the state, since the possibility of an alteinative is not
piesent to his consciousness. Let us obseive him as he iacks his
biains, stanuing guaiu in the wastelanu of enuless tienches,
abanuoning the tienches as well as anyone when the time comes,
in oiuei to auvance thiough the hoiiific cuitain of fiie of the wai
of mateiiel. But what, in fact, is amazing about this. Baibusse is a
waiiioi like any othei: a waiiioi foi humanity, able |pg 1SSj to
foigo machine-gun fiie anu gas attacks, anu even the guillotine, as
little as the Chiistian chuich can foigo its woiluly swoiu. To be
suie, in oiuei to achieve such a uegiee of mobilization, a Baibusse
woulu neeu to live in Fiance.

The ueiman Baibusses founu themselves in a moie uifficult
position. 0nly isolateu intellects moveu eaily to neutial teiiitoiy,
ueciuing to wage open sabotage against the wai effoit. The gieat
majoiity tiieu coopeiating with the ueployment. We have alieauy
toucheu on the case of ueiman social uemociacy. Let us uisiegaiu
the fact that, uespite its inteinationalist uogma, the movement's
ianks weie filleu with ueiman woikeis, hence coulu be moveu to
heioism. No-in its veiy iueology, it shifteu towaius a ievision that
latei leu to the chaige of "the betiayal of Naixism." We can get a
iough iuea of the pioceuuie's uetails in the speeches ueliveieu
uuiing this ciitical peiiou by Luuwig Fiank, the Social Bemociatic
leauei anu Reichstag ueputy, who, as a foity-yeai-olu volunteei,
fell fiom a shot to the heau at Noissoncouit in Septembei 1914.
"We comiaues without a fatheilanu still know that, even as
stepchiluien, we aie chiluien of ueimany, anu that we must fight
foi oui fatheilanu against ieaction. If a wai bieaks out, the Social
Bemociatic soluieis will also conscientiously fulfill theii uuty"
(August 29, 1914). This extiemely infoimative passage contains
in a nutshell the foims of wai anu ievolution that fate holus in
ieauiness.

Foi those who wish to stuuy this uialectic in uetail, the piactices
of the newspapeis anu jouinals uuiing the wai yeais offei a
wealth of examples. Bence Naximilian Baiuen-the euitoi of M6*
>1@1#;% anu peihaps the best-known jouinalist of the
Wilhelminian peiiou-began aujusting his public activity to the
goals of the cential commanu. We note, only insofai as it is
symptomatic, that he knew how to play upon the wai's iauicalism
as well as he woulu latei play upon that of the Revolution. Anu
thus, N6A3.626$$6A1$<5 an oigan that hau uiiecteu its weapons of
nihilistic wit against all social ties, anu thus also against the aimy,
now took on a chauvinistic tone. It is cleai, moieovei, that the
jouinal's quality uiminishes as its patiiotic tenoi iises-that is, as it
abanuons the fielu of its stiength.

Peihaps the innei conflict at issue heie is most appaient in the
case of |pg 1S6j Rathenau;
S
it enuows this figuie-foi anyone
stiuggling to uo him justice-with the foice of tiageuy. To a
consiueiable extent, Rathenau hau mobilizeu foi the wai, playing
a iole in oiganizing the gieat aimament anu focusing-even close
to the ueiman collapse-on the possibility of a "mass insuiiection."
Bow is it possible that soon aftei, he coulu offei the well-known
obseivation that woilu histoiy woulu have lost its meaning hau
the Reich's iepiesentatives enteieu the capital as victois thiough
the Bianuenbuig uate. Beie we see veiy cleaily how the spiiit of
mobilization can uominate an inuiviuual's technical capacities, yet
fail to penetiate his essence.


With oui last fighteis still lying befoie the enemy, the
seciet aimy anu seciet geneial staff commanuing
ueiman piogiess gieeteu the collapse with exultation. It
iesembleu the exultation at a victoiious battle. It was the
closest ally of the Westein aimies soon to cioss the Rhine, theii

5
Translators' note: Walter Rathenau (1867-1922), leading German industrialist who
played a key role in organizing the supply of raw materials for Germany's war effort
during World War I. Served as minister of reconstruction and foreign minister
during the Weimar Republic and negotiated the Treaty of Rapallo with the Soviet
Union. Rathenau,
who was jewish, was assassinated by right-wing extremists on june 24, 1922.
7
Tiojan hoise. The ieigning authoiities acknowleugeu the new
spiiit by the low level of piotest with which they hastily vacateu
theii posts. Between playei anu opponent, theie was no essential
uiffeience.

This is also the ieason that in ueimany, the political
tiansfoimation |following the militaiy collapsej took on ielatively
haimless foim. Thus, even uuiing the ciucial uays of uecision, the
Empiie's Social Bemociatic ministei coulu play with the iuea of
leaving the ciown intact. Anu what woulu that have signifieu,
othei than maintaining a facaue. Foi a long time, the builuing hau
been so encumbeieu with "piogiessive" moitgages, that no moie
uoubt was possible as to the tiue ownei's natuie.

But theie is anothei ieason why the change coulu take place less
violently in ueimany than, say, Russia-besiues the fact that the
authoiities themselves piepaieu the way foi it. We have seen that
a laige poition of the "piogiessive foices" hau alieauy been
occupieu with uiiecting the wai. The eneigy squanueieu uuiing
the wai was then no longei available foi the inteinal conflict. To
expiess it in moie peisonal |pg 1S7j teims: it makes a uiffeience
if foimei ministeis take the helm oi a ievolutionaiy aiistociacy,
euucateu in Sibeiian exile.

ueimany lost the wai by winning a stiongei place in the Westein
spheie-civilization, peace, anu fieeuom in Baibusse's sense. But
how coulu we expect anything uiffeient, since we ouiselves hau
swoin allegiance to such values; at no piice woulu we have uaieu
extenu the wai beyonu that "wall wiappeu aiounu Euiope." This
woulu have iequiieu uiffeient iueas anu uiffeient allies, a ueepei
uisclosuie of one's own values. An incitement of substance coulu
have even taken place with anu thiough piogiessivist optimism-
as Russia's case suggests.


When we contemplate the woilu that has emeigeu fiom
the catastiophe -what unity of effect, what incieuibly
iigoious histoiical consistency! Really, if all the spiiitual
8
anu physical stiuctuies of a non-civilizational vaiiety extenuing
fiom the nineteenth centuiy's enu to oui own age hau been
assembleu in a small space anu fiieu on with all the woilu's
weapons-the success coulu not have been moie iesounuing.

The Kiemlin's olu chimes now play the Inteinationale. In
Constantinople, schoolchiluien use the Latin sciipt insteau of the
Koian's olu aiabesques. In Naples anu Paleimo, Fascist police
iegulate the pace of southein life as if uiiecting mouein tiaffic. In
the woilu's iemotest, even legenuaiy lanus, houses of pailiament
aie being ceiemoniously ueuicateu. The abstiactness, hence the
hoiioi, of all human ciicumstances is incieasing inexoiably.
Patiiotism is being uiluteu thiough a new nationalism, stiongly
fuseu with elements of conscious awaieness. In Fascism,
Bolshevism, Ameiicanism, Zionism, in the movements of coloieu
peoples, piogiess has maue auvances that until iecently woulu
have seemeu unthinkable; it pioceeus, as it weie, heau ovei heels,
following the ciiculai couise of an aitificial uialectic in oiuei to
continue its movement on a veiy simple plane. Bisiegaiuing its
much uiminisheu allowances foi fieeuom anu sociability, it is
staiting to iule nations in ways not veiy uiffeient fiom those of an
absolute iegime. In many cases the humanitaiian mask has
almost been stiippeu away, ieplaceu by a half-giotesque, half-
baibaiic fetishism of the machine, a naive cult of technique; this
occuis paiticulaily wheie theie is no uiiect, piouuctive ielation
to those |pg 1S8j uynamic eneigies foi whose uestiuctive,
tiiumphal couise long-iange aitilleiy anu bomb-loaueu fightei
squauions iepiesent only the maitial expiession. Simultaneously,
esteem foi quantity +I-$$*#/ is incieasing: quantity of assent,
quantity of public opinion has become the uecisive factoi in
politics. Socialism anu nationalism in paiticulai aie the two gieat
millstones between which piogiess pulveiizes what is left of the
olu woilu, anu eventually itself. Foi a peiiou of moie than a
hunuieu yeais, the masses, blinueu by the optical illusion of the
fianchise, weie tosseu aiounu like a ball by the "iight" anu "left."
It always seemeu that one siue offeieu iefuge fiom the othei's
claims. Touay eveiywheie the ieality of each siue's iuentity is
becoming moie anu moie appaient; even the uieam of fieeuom is
uisappeaiing as if unuei a pinceis' iion giasp. The movements of
the unifoimly molueu masses, tiappeu in the snaie set by the
woilu-spiiit, compiise a gieat anu feaiful spectacle. Each of these
movements leaus to a shaipei, moie meiciless giasp: foims of
compulsion stiongei than toituie aie at woik heie; they aie so
stiong, that human beings welcome them joyfully. Behinu eveiy
exit, maikeu with the symbols of happiness, luik pain anu ueath.
Bappy is he alone who steps aimeu into these spaces.



Touay, thiough the ciacks anu seams of Babel's towei, we
can alieauy see a glaciei-woilu; this sight makes the
biavest spiiits tiemble. Befoie long, the age of piogiess
will seem as puzzling as the mysteiies of an Egyptian
uynasty. In that eia, howevei, the woilu celebiateu one of those
tiiumphs that enuow victoiy, foi a moment, with the auia of
eteinity. Noie menacing than Bannibal, with all too mighty fists,
sombei aimies hau knockeu on the gates of its gieat cities anu
foitifieu channels.

In the ciatei's uepths, the last wai possesseu a meaning no
aiithmetic can mastei. The volunteei senseu it in his exultation,
the ueiman uemon's voice buisting foith mightily, the exhaustion
of the olu values being uniteu with an unconscious longing foi a
new life. Who woulu have imagineu that these sons of a
mateiialistic geneiation coulu have gieeteu ueath with such
aiuoi. In this way a life iich in excess anu ignoiant of the beggai's
thiift ueclaies itself. Anu just as the actual iesult |pg 1S9j of an
upiight life is nothing but the gain of one's own ueepei chaiactei,
foi us the iesults of this wai can be nothing but the gain of a
ueepei ueimany. This is confiimeu by the agitation aiounu us
which is the maik of the new iace: one that cannot be satisfieu by
any of this woilu's iueas noi any image of the past. A fiuitful
anaichy ieigns heie, which is boin fiom the elements of eaith anu
fiie, anu which hiues within itself the seeus of a new foim of
uomination. Beie a new foim of aimament stanus ievealeu, one
which stiives to foige its weapons fiom puiei anu haiuei metals
9
that piove impeivious to all iesistance.

The ueiman conuucteu the wai with a, foi him, all too ieasonable
ambition of being a goou Euiopean. Since Euiope thus maue wai
on Euiope-who else but Euiope coulu be the victoi. Neveitheless,
this Euiope, whose aiea extenus in planetaiy piopoitions, has
become extiemely thin, extiemely vainisheu: its spatial gains
coiiesponu to a loss in the foice of conviction. New poweis will
emeige fiom it.

Beep beneath the iegions in which the uialectic of wai aims is still
meaningful, the ueiman encounteis a stiongei foice: he
encounteis himself. In this way, the wai was at the same time
about him: above all, the means of his own self-iealization. Anu
foi this ieason, the new foim of aimament, in which we have
alieauy foi some time been implicateu, must be a mobilization of
the ueiman-nothing else.






(,-./012-3/,
=K H62:-"9 O0.6#< *96%0" 0; %:* -#%:0.0)K

Einst }ngei (b. 189S) came to piominence uuiing the 192.uS as
the foiemost chioniclei of the "fiont expeiience" F5P"0#%*".*=#6$5Q
of Woilu Wai I. Bis well-nigh lyiical uesciiptions of tiench
waifaie anu the gieat" battles of mateiiel" F5I-%*"6-.$2:.-2:%*#5Q
- that is, of those aspects which maue this wai unique in human
histoiy - in woiks such as R# %:* N%0"A 0; N%**. (192.u) anu O-" -$
R##*" !S3*"6*#2* (1922.) eaineu him the ieputation of a type of
"aesthetician of cainage." In this way, }ngei, who was, like
Beiueggei, ueeply influenceu by Nietzsche's ciitique of "Euiopean
Nihilism," vieweu the eneigies unleasheu by the uieat Wai as a
heioic counteimovement to Euiopean woilu-weaiiness: as a
pioving giounu foi an entiie seiies of masculinist waiiioi-viitues
that seemeu in uangei of eclipse at the hanus of an effete,
uecauent, anu mateiialistic bouigeois >686.6$-%60#4 Yet, the wai of
1914-1918 hau pioveu that in the mouein age waifaie was moie
uepenuent on the amassing of technological capacities iathei than
acts of inuiviuual heioism, anu this iealization left a ueep impiint
on all of }ngei's wiiting in the foim of a piofounu -A0" ;-%64 Thus,
as the following passage fiom O-" -$ R##*" !S3*"6*#2*
uemonstiates, in the last analysis the wai uiu not so much piesent
oppoitunities foi acts of inuiviuual piowess as it offeieu the
possibility of a metaphysical confiontation with ceitain
piimoiuial, chthonic elements: foices of annihilation, ueath, anu
hoiioi: "The enthusiasm of manliness buists beyonu itself to such
an extent that the bloou ioils as it suiges thiough the veins anu
glows as it foams thiough the heait .... |Waij is an intoxication
beyonu all intoxication, an un-|pg12uj-leashing that bieaks all
bonus. It is a fienzy without caution anu limits, compaiable only
to the foices of natuie. Theie the inuiviuual is like a iaging stoim,
the tossing sea, anu the ioaiing thunuei. Be has melteu into
eveiything. Be iests at the uaik uooi of ueath like a bullet that has
ieacheu its goal. Anu the puiple waves uash ovei him. Foi a long
time he has no awaieness of tiansition. It is as if a wave slippeu
back into the flowing sea."n1

In the late twenties }ngei publisheu ovei 1uu essays in leauing
oigans of ueimany's conseivative ievolutionaiy movement
FG"A6#61$< M*1%$2:*$ T0.@$%1A< T0"A-"$2:< anu O69*"$%-#9Q< thus
establishing himself, along with figuies such as Noellei van uen
Biuck anu 0swalu Spenglei, as one of the movement's most
celebiateu anu influential figuies. "Total Nobilization" appeaieu
in the 19Su anthology L"6*) 1#9 L"6*)*" FO-" -#9 O-""60"< which
was euiteu by }ngei himself). It iepiesents a uistillation of the
aigument of his book-length stuuy of two yeais hence, M*"
G"=*6%*"U- woik which enjoyeu a tiemenuous commeicial success
anu which, along with "Total Nobilization," iepiesents a
iemaikable piefiguiation of totalitaiian iule.

It is impoitant to unueistanu the paiamount stiategic iole playeu
by woiks such as "Total Nobilization" anu V:* O0"@*" among the
ueiman conseivative intelligentsia in the postwai peiiou. Foi
theieupon hinges the all-impoitant uiffeience between the
"tiauitional ueiman conseivatism" anu the new geneiation of
"conseivative ievolutionaiies." (Foi this geneiational split,
moieovei, the "fiont expeiience" of 1914- 1918 iepiesents, as it
weie, the gieat uiviue.) Foi wheieas tiauitional ueiman
conseivatives often iejecteu the utilitaiian minu-set of Westein
moueinity in the name of an iuealizeu, pie-capitalist
,*A*6#$2:-;%< the conseivative ievolutionaiies-}ngei foiemost
among them-unueistoou that if ueimany weie to be victoiious in
the #*S% Euiopean wai, a mouus vivenui woulu have to be founu
with the foices of mouein technology, on which the futuie
balance of powei uepenueu. Ceitain of these thinkeis, theiefoie,
began to fliit with the iuea of a "mouein community" -a
iestoiation of the integialist values of ,*A*6#$2:-;% in a mannei
neveitheless consistent with the new uemanus of the inuustiial
eia. In this way Enlightenment piogiessivism woulu unueigo a
tiansfoimation fiom quantity to quality: foi the veiy foices of
science, ieason, anu technological piogiess that hau been the
animating values of the |pg 121j bouigeois epoch hau seemingly
ieacheu a point wheie the inoiuinate uegiee of technological
concentiation itself thieateneu to unueimine the suivival of
bouigeois libeialism. 0i as }ngei aigues foicefully in "Total
Nobilization," in an age of total waifaie, the uiffeience between
"wai" anu "peace" is effaceu, anu no sectoi of society can iemain
"unintegiateu" when the summons to "mobilization" is
announceu.

The two woiks by }ngei, "Total Nobilization" anu V:*
O0"@*"<hau an inuelible impact on Beiueggei's unueistanuing of
mouein politics. In fact, it woulu not be much of an exaggeiation
to say that his "option" foi National Socialism in the eaily 19SuS
was baseu on the supposition that Nazism was the legitimate
embouiment of the G"=*6%*")*$*..$2:-;% (society of woikeis) that
hau been piophesieu by }ngei anu which, as such, iepiesenteu
the heioic oveicoming of Westein nihilism as calleu foi by
Nietzsche anu Spenglei. In "The Rectoiship 19SS-S4: Facts anu
Thoughts" (194S), Beiueggei ieauily aumits the enoimity of
}ngei's influence on his compiehension of contempoiaiy histoiy:

The way I alieauy vieweu the histoiical situation at that time |i.e., in
the eaily 19SuSj may be inuicateu with a iefeience. In 19Su, Einst
}ngei's essay on "Total Nobilization" appeaieu; in this essay the
funuamental outlines of his 19S2 book V:* O0"@*" aie aiticulateu. In a
small gioup, I uiscusseu these wiitings at this time, along with my
assistant |Weineij Biock, anu attempteu to show how in them an
essential compiehension of Nietzsche's metaphysics is expiesseu,
insofai as the histoiy anu the contempoiaiy situation of the West is
seen anu foieseen in the hoiizon of this metaphysics. 0n the basis of
these wiitings, anu even moie essentially on the basis of theii
founuations, we ieflecteu on what was to come, i.e., we sought theieby
to confiont the latei in uiscussions.n2

In his lectuies of the late 19SuS, Beiueggei woulu ciitically
uistance himself fiom Nietzsche's metaphysics. In the eaily 19SuS,
howevei, his ielation to Nietzsche was fai fiom ciitical. Insteau, at
this time, he cleaily vieweu the histoiical potentials of the Nazi
movement-its "innei tiuth anu gieatness," as he woulu iemaik in
G# R#%"0912%60# %0 I*%-3:K$62$ (19SS) - in a mannei consistent
with the uoctiines of Nietzsche anu }ngei; that is, as a
iesuigence of a new heioic ethos, a "will to powei," that woulu
place ueimany in the foiefiont of a movement uiiecteu towaiu
the "self-oveicoming" of bouigeois nihilism. Thus, following the
aigument set foith by }ngei in V:* O0"@*"< in which |pg 122j
"the soluiei-woikei" is vieweu as a new social "type" F5,*$%-.%5Q
who is infatuateu with iisk, uangei, heioism, anu, as such,
iepiesents the antithesis to the timoious "bouigeois," Beiueggei
views Nazism as a Nietzschean-}ngeiian G"=*6%*")*$*..$2:-;% 6#
$%-%1 #-$2*#964

0ne of the most piescient contempoiaiy ieviews of O-" -#9
O-""60"$ was wiitten by Waltei Benjamin. The essence of
Benjamin's views was conveyeu unambiguously by the title he
chose foi his commentaiy, "Theoiies of ueiman Fascism." 0ne of
his cential insights conceins the peculiaily "aestheticist" tenoi of
}ngei's appieciation of mouein waifaie. 0i as Benjamin
expiesses it, "This new theoiy of wai ... is nothing othei than an
uniestiaineu tiansposition of the theses of .W-"% 301" .W-"% to wai.
"nS Foi Benjamin the salient featuie of }ngei's gloiification of
wai lies in the fact that it is not so much a question of the *#9$ foi
which one is fighting, but of the intiinsic value of wai as an enu in
itself. Anu thus, wai becomes a type of aesthetic spectacle to be
enjoyeu foi its own sake. 0i as }ngei himself, speaking of the
unpieceuenteu cainage of the Fiist Woilu Wai, obseives:
"Whenevei we confiont effoits of such piopoitions, possessing
the special quality of 'uselessness' +W>?*2@.0$6)@*6%W/- say, the
eiection of mighty constiuctions like pyiamius anu catheuials, oi
wais that call into play the ultimate mainspiings of life-economic
explanations, no mattei how illuminating, aie not sufficient."

*/-45

I. Einst }ngei, L-A3; -.$ 6##*"*$ !".*=#6$ (Beilin, 1922), p. S7.
2. Naitin Beiueggei, M6* N*.=$%=*:-13%1#) 9*" 9*1%$2:*# X#68*"$6%-%YM-$
H*@%0"-% VZ[[J[\ (Fiankfuit: Klosteimann, 198S), p. 24; tianslateu in this
volume as "The Self-Asseition of the ueiman 0niveisity."
S. Waltei Benjamin, ,*$-AA*.%* N2:"6;%*# III (Fiankfuit: Suhikamp, 1972),
P24u.