ADVERTISING

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A Coca-Cola ad from the 1890s Advertising is a form of communication used to influence individuals to purchase products or services or support political candidates or ideas. Frequently it communicates a message that includes the name of the product or service and how that product or service could potentially enefit the consumer. Advertising often attempts to persuade potential customers to purchase or to consume a particular rand of product or service. !odern advertising developed with the rise of mass production in the late 19th and early "0th centuries.#1$ Commercial advertisers often see% to generate increased consumption of their products or services through randing& which involves the repetition of an image or product name in an effort to associate related qualities with the rand in the minds of consumers. 'ifferent types of media can e used to deliver these messages& including traditional media such as newspapers& maga(ines& television& radio& ill oards or direct mail. Advertising may e placed y an advertising agency on ehalf of a company or other organi(ation. )rgani(ations that spend money on advertising promoting items other than a consumer product or service include political parties& interest groups& religious organi(ations and governmental agencies. *on-profit organi(ations may rely on free modes of persuasion& such as a pu lic service announcement.

!oney spent on advertising has increased in recent years. +n "00,& spending on advertising was estimated at more than -1.0 illion in the /nited 0tates#"$ and -18. illion worldwide&#1$ and the latter to e2ceed -3.0 illion y "010.#citation needed$ Advertising is communication used to influence individuals to purchase products or services or support political candidates or ideas. Advertising can e displaced on ill oards& newspapers& 4.5.& we sites& movies and more.

History

6do period advertising flyer from 1807 for a traditional medicine called Kinseitan 6gyptians used papyrus to ma%e sales messages and wall posters. Commercial messages and political campaign displays have een found in the ruins of 8ompeii and ancient Ara ia. 9ost and found advertising on papyrus was common in Ancient :reece and Ancient ;ome. <all or roc% painting for commercial advertising is another manifestation of an ancient advertising form& which is present to this day in many parts of Asia& Africa& and 0outh America. 4he tradition of wall painting can e traced ac% to +ndian roc% art paintings that date ac% to 3000 =C.#3$ >istory tells us that )ut-of->ome advertising and =ill oards are the oldest forms of advertising. As the towns and cities of the !iddle Ages egan to grow& and the general populace was una le to read& signs that today would say co ler& miller& tailor or lac%smith would use an image associated with their trade such as a oot& a suit& a hat& a cloc%& a diamond& a horse shoe& a candle or even a ag of flour. Fruits and vegeta les were sold in the city square from the ac%s of carts and wagons and their proprietors used street callers ?town criers@ to announce their wherea outs for the convenience of the customers. As education ecame an apparent need and reading& as well as printing& developed advertising e2panded to include hand ills. +n the 1,th century advertisements started to appear in wee%ly newspapers in 6ngland. 4hese early print advertisements were used mainly to promote oo%s and newspapers& which ecame increasingly afforda le with advances in the printing pressA and medicines& which were increasingly sought after as disease ravaged 6urope. >owever& "

false advertising and so-called Bquac%B advertisements ecame a pro lem& which ushered in the regulation of advertising content. As the economy e2panded during the 19th century& advertising grew alongside. +n the /nited 0tates& the success of this advertising format eventually led to the growth of mail-order advertising. +n Cune 1817& French newspaper La Presse was the first to include paid advertising in its pages& allowing it to lower its price& e2tend its readership and increase its profita ility and the formula was soon copied y all titles. Around 1830& 5olney 8almer esta lished a predecessor to advertising agencies in =oston.#.$ Around the same time& in France& Charles-9ouis >avas e2tended the services of his news agency& >avas to include advertisement ro%erage& ma%ing it the first French group to organi(e. At first& agencies were ro%ers for advertisement space in newspapers. *. <. Ayer D 0on was the first full-service agency to assume responsi ility for advertising content. *.<. Ayer opened in 1879& and was located in 8hiladelphia.#.$

An 189. advertisement for a weight gain product. At the turn of the century& there were few career choices for women in usinessA however& advertising was one of the few. 0ince women were responsi le for most of the purchasing done in their household& advertisers and agencies recogni(ed the value of womenEs insight during the creative process. +n fact& the first American advertising to use a se2ual sell was created y a woman F for a soap product. Although tame y todayEs standards& the advertisement featured a couple with the message B4he s%in you love to touchB.#7$ +n the early 19"0s& the first radio stations were esta lished y radio equipment manufacturers and retailers who offered programs in order to sell more radios to consumers. As time passed& many non-profit organi(ations followed suit in setting up their own radio stations& and includedG schools& clu s and civic groups.#,$ <hen the practice of sponsoring programs was 1

popularised& each individual radio program was usually sponsored y a single usiness in e2change for a rief mention of the usinessE name at the eginning and end of the sponsored shows. >owever& radio station owners soon realised they could earn more money y selling sponsorship rights in small time allocations to multiple usinesses throughout their radio stationEs roadcasts& rather than selling the sponsorship rights to single usinesses per show.

A print advertisement for the 1911 issue of the nc!clop"dia #ritannica 4his practice was carried over to television in the late 1930s and early 19.0s. A fierce attle was fought etween those see%ing to commercialise the radio and people who argued that the radio spectrum should e considered a part of the commons F to e used only noncommercially and for the pu lic good. 4he /nited Hingdom pursued a pu lic funding model for the ==C& originally a private company& the =ritish =roadcasting Company& ut incorporated as a pu lic ody y ;oyal Charter in 19",. +n Canada& advocates li%e :raham 0pry were li%ewise a le to persuade the federal government to adopt a pu lic funding model& creating the Canadian =roadcasting Corporation. >owever& in the /nited 0tates& the capitalist model prevailed with the passage of the Communications Act of 1913 which created the Federal Communications Commission.#,$ 4o placate the socialists& the /.0. Congress did require commercial roadcasters to operate in the Bpu lic interest& convenience& and necessityB.#8$ 8u lic roadcasting now e2ists in the /nited 0tates due to the 197, 8u lic =roadcasting Act which led to the 8u lic =roadcasting 0ervice and *ational 8u lic ;adio. +n the early 19.0s& the 'u!ont 4elevision *etwor% egan the modern trend of selling advertisement time to multiple sponsors. 8reviously& 'u!ont had trou le finding sponsors for many of their programs and compensated y selling smaller loc%s of advertising time to several usinesses. 4his eventually ecame the standard for the commercial television industry in the /nited 0tates. >owever& it was still a common practice to have single sponsor shows& such as 4he /nited 0tates 0teel >our. +n some instances the sponsors e2ercised great control over the content of the show - up to and including having oneEs advertising agency actually writing the show. 4he single sponsor model is much less prevalent now& a nota le e2ception eing the >allmar% >all of Fame. 4he 1970s saw advertising transform into a modern approach in which creativity was allowed to shine& producing une2pected messages that made advertisements more tempting to consumersE eyes. 4he 5ol%swagen ad campaignIfeaturing such headlines as B4hin% 0mallB and B9emonB ?which were used to descri e the appearance of the car@Iushered in the era of modern advertising y promoting a BpositionB or Bunique selling propositionB designed to associate each rand with a specific idea in the reader or viewerEs mind. 4his period of American advertising is called the Creative ;evolution and its archetype was <illiam =ern ach who helped create the revolutionary 5ol%swagen ads among others. 0ome of the most creative and long-standing American advertising dates to this period.

4he late 1980s and early 1990s saw the introduction of ca le television and particularly !45. 8ioneering the concept of the music video& !45 ushered in a new type of advertisingG the consumer tunes in for the advertising message& rather than it eing a y-product or afterthought. As ca le and satellite television ecame increasingly prevalent& specialty channels emerged& including channels entirely devoted to advertising& such as J5C& >ome 0hopping *etwor%& and 0hop45 Canada. !ar%eting through the +nternet opened new frontiers for advertisers and contri uted to the Bdot-comB oom of the 1990s. 6ntire corporations operated solely on advertising revenue& offering everything from coupons to free +nternet access. At the turn of the "1st century& a num er of we sites including the search engine :oogle& started a change in online advertising y emphasi(ing conte2tually relevant& uno trusive ads intended to help& rather than inundate& users. 4his has led to a plethora of similar efforts and an increasing trend of interactive advertising. 4he share of advertising spending relative to :'8 has changed little across large changes in media. For e2ample& in the /.0. in 19".& the main advertising media were newspapers& maga(ines& signs on streetcars& and outdoor posters. Advertising spending as a share of :'8 was a out ".9 percent. =y 1998& television and radio had ecome maKor advertising media. *onetheless& advertising spending as a share of :'8 was slightly lowerIa out ".3 percent.#9$ A recent advertising innovation is Bguerrilla mar%etingB& which involve unusual approaches such as staged encounters in pu lic places& giveaways of products such as cars that are covered with rand messages& and interactive advertising where the viewer can respond to ecome part of the advertising message.:uerrilla advertising is ecoming increasing more popular with a lot of companies. 4his type of advertising is unpredicta le and innovative& which causes consumers to uy the product or idea. 4his reflects an increasing trend of interactive and Bem eddedB ads& such as via product placement& having consumers vote through te2t messages& and various innovations utili(ing social networ% services such as !y0pace.

Public service advertising

4he same advertising techniques used to promote commercial goods and services can e used to inform& educate and motivate the pu lic a out non-commercial issues& such as >+5LA+'0& political ideology& energy conservation and deforestation. Advertising& in its non-commercial guise& is a powerful educational tool capa le of reaching and motivating large audiences. BAdvertising Kustifies its e2istence when used in the pu lic interest - it is much too powerful a tool to use solely for commercial purposes.B - Attri uted to >oward :ossage y 'avid )gilvy. 8u lic service advertising& non-commercial advertising& pu lic interest advertising& cause mar%eting& and social mar%eting are different terms for ?or aspects of@ the use of sophisticated advertising and mar%eting communications techniques ?generally associated with commercial enterprise@ on ehalf of non-commercial& pu lic interest issues and initiatives. +n the /nited 0tates& the granting of television and radio licenses y the FCC is contingent upon the station roadcasting a certain amount of pu lic service advertising. 4o meet these requirements& many roadcast stations in America air the ul% of their required pu lic service .

announcements during the late night or early morning when the smallest percentage of viewers are watching& leaving more day and prime time commercial slots availa le for highpaying advertisers. 8u lic service advertising reached its height during <orld <ars + and ++ under the direction of several governments.

Types of advertising

8aying people to hold signs is one of the oldest forms of advertising& as with this >uman directional pictured a ove

A us with an advertisement for :A8 in 0ingapore. =uses and other vehicles are popular mediums for advertisers.

A '=A: Class 101 with /*+C6F ads at +ngolstadt main railway station 5irtually any medium can e used for advertising. Commercial advertising media can include wall paintings& ill oards& street furniture components& printed flyers and rac% cards& radio& cinema and television adverts& we anners& mo ile telephone screens& shopping carts& we popups& s%ywriting& us stop enches& human ill oards& maga(ines& newspapers& town criers& sides of uses& anners attached to or sides of airplanes ?BlogoKetsB@& in-flight advertisements on seat ac% tray ta les or overhead storage ins& ta2ica doors& roof mounts and passenger screens& musical stage shows& su way platforms and trains& elastic ands on disposa le diapers&doors of athroom stalls&stic%ers on apples in supermar%ets& shopping cart handles ?gra ertising@& the opening section of streaming audio and video& posters& and the ac%s of

event tic%ets and supermar%et receipts. Any place an BidentifiedB sponsor pays to deliver their message through a medium is advertising.

Television
!ain articlesG 4elevision advertisement and !usic in advertising 4he 45 commercial is generally considered the most effective mass-mar%et advertising format& as is reflected y the high prices 45 networ%s charge for commercial airtime during popular 45 events. 4he annual 0uper =owl foot all game in the /nited 0tates is %nown as the most prominent advertising event on television. 4he average cost of a single thirty-second 45 spot during this game has reached /0-1 million ?as of "009@. 4he maKority of television commercials feature a song or Kingle that listeners soon relate to the product. 5irtual advertisements may e inserted into regular television programming through computer graphics. +t is typically inserted into otherwise lan% ac%drops#10$ or used to replace local ill oards that are not relevant to the remote roadcast audience.#11$ !ore controversially& virtual ill oards may e inserted into the ac%ground#1"$ where none e2ist in real-life. 5irtual product placement is also possi le.#11$#13$ Info ercials !ain articleG +nfomercial An infomercial is a long-format television commercial& typically five minutes or longer. 4he word BinfomercialB is a portmanteau of the words BinformationB and BcommercialB. 4he main o Kective in an infomercial is to create an impulse purchase& so that the consumer sees the presentation and then immediately uys the product through the advertised toll-free telephone num er or we site. +nfomercials descri e& display& and often demonstrate products and their features& and commonly have testimonials from consumers and industry professionals.

Radio advertising
;adio advertising is a form of advertising via the medium of radio. ;adio advertisements are roadcasted as radio waves to the air from a transmitter to an antenna and a thus to a receiving device. Airtime is purchased from a station or networ% in e2change for airing the commercials. <hile radio has the o vious limitation of eing restricted to sound& proponents of radio advertising often cite this as an advantage

Print advertising
8rint advertising descri es advertising in a printed medium such as a newspaper& maga(ine& or trade Kournal. 4his encompasses everything from media with a very road readership ase& such as a maKor national newspaper or maga(ine& to more narrowly targeted media such as local newspapers and trade Kournals on very speciali(ed topics. A form of print advertising is ,

classified advertising& which allows private individuals or companies to purchase a small& narrowly targeted ad for a low fee advertising a product or service.

!nline advertising
)nline advertising is a form of promotion that uses the +nternet and <orld <ide <e for the e2pressed purpose of delivering mar%eting messages to attract customers. 62amples of online advertising include conte2tual ads on search engine results pages& anner ads& ;ich !edia Ads& 0ocial networ% advertising& online classified advertising& advertising networ%s and email mar%eting& including e-mail spam.

"illboard advertising
=ill oards are large structures located in pu lic places which display advertisements to passing pedestrians and motorists. !ost often& they are located on main roads with a large amount of passing motor and pedestrian trafficA however& they can e placed in any location with large amounts of viewers& such as on mass transit vehicles and in stations& in shopping malls or office uildings& and in stadiums. #obile billboard advertising

4he $ed !e newspaper advertised to its target mar%et at *orth Avenue =each with a sail oat ill oard on 9a%e !ichigan. !o ile ill oards are truc%- or limp-mounted ill oards or digital screens. 4hese can e dedicated vehicles uilt solely for carrying advertisements along routes preselected y clients& or they can e specially-equipped cargo truc%s. 4he ill oards are often lightedA some eing ac%lit& and others employing spotlights. 0ome ill oard displays are static& while others changeA for e2ample& continuously or periodically rotating among a set of advertisements. !o ile displays are used for various situations in metropolitan areas throughout the world& includingG

4arget advertising 8

)ne-day& and long-term campaigns Conventions 0porting events 0tore openings and similar promotional events =ig advertisements from smaller companies )thers

In$store advertising
+n-store advertising is any advertisement placed in a retail store. +t includes placement of a product in visi le locations in a store& such as at eye level& at the ends of aisles and near chec%out counters& eye-catching displays promoting a specific product& and advertisements in such places as shopping carts and in-store video displays.

%overt advertising
!ain articleG 8roduct placement Covert advertising& also %nown as guerrilla advertising& is when a product or rand is em edded in entertainment and media. For e2ample& in a film& the main character can use an item or other of a definite rand& as in the movie %inorit! $eport& where 4om CruiseEs character Cohn Anderton owns a phone with the &okia logo clearly written in the top corner& or his watch engraved with the #ulgari logo. Another e2ample of advertising in film is in ', $obot& where main character played y <ill 0mith mentions his (onverse shoes several times& calling them Bclassics&B ecause the film is set far in the future. ', $obot and Spaceballs also showcase futuristic cars with the Audi and %ercedes)#en* logos clearly displayed on the front of the vehicles. Cadillac chose to advertise in the movie +he %atri, $eloaded& which as a result contained many scenes in which Cadillac cars were used. 0imilarly& product placement for )mega <atches& Ford& 5A+)& =!< and Aston !artin cars are featured in recent Cames =ond films& most nota ly (asino $o!ale. +n BFantastic Four "G ;ise of the 0ilver 0urferB& the main transport vehiche shows a large 'odge logo on the front. #lade $unner includes some of the most o vious product placementA the whole film stops to show a CocaCola ill oard.

%elebrities
!ain articleG Cele rity randing 4his type of advertising focuses upon using cele rity power& fame& money& popularity to gain recognition for their products and promote specific stores or products. Advertisers often advertise their products& for e2ample& when cele rities share their favorite products or wear clothes y specific rands or designers. Cele rities are often involved in advertising campaigns such as television or print adverts to advertise specific or general products. 4he use of cele rities to endorse a rand can have its downsides& however. )ne mista%e y a cele rity can e detrimental to the pu lic relations of a rand. For e2ample& following his performance of eight gold medals at the "008 )lympic :ames in =eiKing& China& swimmer !ichael 8helpsE contract with Hellog was terminated& as Hellog did not want to associate with him after he was photographed smo%ing mariKuana.

#edia and advertising approac&es

+ncreasingly& other media are overta%ing many of the BtraditionalB media such as television& radio and newspaper ecause of a shift toward consumerEs usage of the +nternet for news and music as well as devices li%e digital video recorders ?'5;Es@ such as 4i5o. Advertising on the <orld <ide <e is a recent phenomenon. 8rices of <e - ased advertising space are dependent on the BrelevanceB of the surrounding we content and the traffic that the we site receives. 'igital signage is poised to ecome a maKor mass media ecause of its a ility to reach larger audiences for less money. 'igital signage also offer the unique a ility to see the target audience where they are reached y the medium. 4echnology advances has also made it possi le to control the message on digital signage with much precision& ena ling the messages to e relevant to the target audience at any given time and location which in turn& gets more response from the advertising. 'igital signage is eing successfully employed in supermar%ets.#1.$ Another successful use of digital signage is in hospitality locations such as restaurants.#17$ and malls.#1,$ 6-mail advertising is another recent phenomenon. /nsolicited ul% 6-mail advertising is %nown as Be-mail spamB. 0pam has een a pro lem for email users for many years. =ut more efficient filters are now availa le ma%ing it relatively easy to control what email you get. 0ome companies have proposed placing messages or corporate logos on the side of ooster roc%ets and the +nternational 0pace 0tation. Controversy e2ists on the effectiveness of su liminal advertising ?see mind control@& and the pervasiveness of mass messages ?see propaganda@. /npaid advertising ?also called Bpu licity advertisingB@& can provide good e2posure at minimal cost. 8ersonal recommendations ?B ring a friendB& Bsell itB@& spreading u((& or achieving the feat of equating a rand with a common noun ?in the /nited 0tates& BMero2B N BphotocopierB& BHleene2B N tissue& B5aselineB N petroleum Kelly& B>ooverB N vacuum cleaner& B*intendoB ?often used y those e2posed to many video games@ N video games& and B=andAidB N adhesive andage@ I these can e seen as the pinnacle of any advertising campaign. >owever& some companies oppose the use of their rand name to la el an o Kect. 6quating a rand with a common noun also ris%s turning that rand into a generici(ed trademar% turning it into a generic term which means that its legal protection as a trademar% is lost. As the mo ile phone ecame a new mass media in 1998 when the first paid downloada le content appeared on mo ile phones in Finland& it was only a matter of time until mo ile advertising followed& also first launched in Finland in "000. =y "00, the value of mo ile advertising had reached -"." illion and providers such as Admo delivered illions of mo ile ads. !ore advanced mo ile ads include anner ads& coupons& !ultimedia !essaging 0ervice picture and video messages& advergames and various engagement mar%eting campaigns. A 10

particular feature driving mo ile ads is the "' =arcode& which replaces the need to do any typing of we addresses& and uses the camera feature of modern phones to gain immediate access to we content. 81 percent of Capanese mo ile phone users already are active users of "' arcodes. A new form of advertising that is growing rapidly is social networ% advertising. +t is online advertising with a focus on social networ%ing sites. 4his is a relatively immature mar%et& ut it has shown a lot of promise as advertisers are a le to ta%e advantage of the demographic information the user has provided to the social networ%ing site. Friendertising is a more precise advertising term in which people are a le to direct advertisements toward others directly using social networ% service. From time to time& 4he C< 4elevision *etwor% airs short programming rea%s called BContent <raps&B to advertise one companyEs product during an entire commercial rea%. 4he C< pioneered Bcontent wrapsB and some products featured were >er al 6ssences& Crest& :uitar >ero ++& Cover:irl& and recently 4oyota. ;ecently& there appeared a new promotion concept& BA;vertisingBA its supported on Augmented ;eality technology.

%riticis

of advertising

<hile advertising can e seen as necessary for economic growth& it is not without social costs. /nsolicited Commercial 6mail and other forms of spam have ecome so prevalent as to have ecome a maKor nuisance to users of these services& as well as eing a financial urden on internet service providers.#18$ Advertising is increasingly invading pu lic spaces& such as schools& which some critics argue is a form of child e2ploitation.#19$ +n addition& advertising frequently uses psychological pressure ?for e2ample& appealing to feelings of inadequacy@ on the intended consumer& which may e harmful.

Hyper$co

ercialis

and t&e co

ercial tidal 'ave

Criticism of advertising is closely lin%ed with criticism of media and often interchangea le. 4hey can refer to its audio-visual aspects ?e. g. cluttering of pu lic spaces and airwaves@& environmental aspects ?e. g. pollution& oversi(e pac%aging& increasing consumption@& political aspects ?e. g. media dependency& free speech& censorship@& financial aspects ?costs@& ethicalLmoralLsocial aspects ?e. g. su -conscious influencing& invasion of privacy& increasing consumption and waste& target groups& certain products& honesty@ and& of course& a mi2 thereof. 0ome aspects can e su divided further and some can cover more than one category. As advertising has ecome increasingly prevalent in modern <estern societies& it is also increasingly eing critici(ed. A person can hardly move in the pu lic sphere or use a medium without eing su Kect to advertising. Advertising occupies pu lic space and more and more invades the private sphere of people& many of which consider it a nuisance. O+t is ecoming harder to escape from advertising and the media. P 8u lic space is increasingly turning into a gigantic ill oard for products of all %ind. 4he aesthetical and political consequences cannot yet e foreseen.Q#"0$ >anno ;auter erg in the :erman newspaper R'ie SeitT calls advertising a new %ind of dictatorship that cannot e escaped.#"1$

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Ad creepG B4here are ads in schools& airport lounges& doctors offices& movie theaters& hospitals& gas stations& elevators& convenience stores& on the +nternet& on fruit& on A4!s& on gar age cans and countless other places. 4here are ads on each sand and restroom walls.Q#""$ O)ne of the ironies of advertising in our times is that as commercialism increases& it ma%es it that much more difficult for any particular advertiser to succeed& hence pushing the advertiser to even greater efforts.Q#"1$ <ithin a decade advertising in radios clim ed to nearly 18 or 19 minutes per hourA on prime-time television the standard until 198" was no more than 9.. minutes of advertising per hour& today itTs etween 13 and 1, minutes. <ith the introduction of the shorter 1.-second-spot the total amount of ads increased even more dramatically. Ads are not only placed in rea%s ut e. g. also into ase all telecasts during the game itself. 4hey flood the internet& a mar%et growing in leaps and ounds. )ther growing mar%ets are RTproduct placementsTT in entertainment programming and in movies where it has ecome standard practice and RTvirtual advertisingTT where products get placed retroactively into rerun shows. 8roduct ill oards are virtually inserted into !aKor 9eague =ase all roadcasts and in the same manner& virtual street anners or logos are proKected on an entry canopy or sidewal%s& for e2ample during the arrival of cele rities at the "001 :rammy Awards. Advertising precedes the showing of films at cinemas including lavish Rfilm shortsT produced y companies such as !icrosoft or 'aimlerChrysler. O4he largest advertising agencies have egun wor%ing aggressively to co-produce programming in conKunction with the largest media firmsQ#"3$ creating +nfomercials resem ling entertainment programming. )pponents equate the growing amount of advertising with a Otidal waveQ and restrictions with OdammingQ the flood. Halle 9asn& one of the most outspo%en critics of advertising on the international stage& considers advertising Othe most prevalent and to2ic of the mental pollutants. From the moment your radio alarm sounds in the morning to the wee hours of latenight 45 microKolts of commercial pollution flood into your rain at the rate of around 1&000 mar%eting messages per day. 6very day an estimated twelve illion display ads& 1 million radio commercials and more than "00&000 television commercials are dumped into *orth AmericaTs collective unconsciousQ.#".$ +n the course of his life the average American watches three years of advertising on television.#"7$ !ore recent developments are video games incorporating products into their content& special commercial patient channels in hospitals and pu lic figures sporting temporary tattoos. A method unrecognisa le as advertising is so-called RTguerrilla mar%etingTT which is spreading R u((T a out a new product in target audiences. Cash-strapped /.0. cities do not shrin% ac% from offering police cars for advertising.#",$ A trend& especially in :ermany& is companies uying the names of sports stadiums. 4he >am urg soccer 5ol%spar% stadium first ecame the A)9 Arena and then the >0> *ord an% Arena. 4he 0tuttgart *ec%arstadion ecame the !ercedes-=en( Arena& the 'ortmund <estfalenstadion now is the 0ignal +duna 8ar%. 4he former 0%y'ome in 4oronto was renamed ;ogers Centre. )ther recent developments are& for e2ample& that whole su way stations in =erlin are redesigned into product halls and e2clusively leased to a company. 'Usseldorf even has Rmulti-sensorialT adventure transit stops equipped with loudspea%ers and systems that spread the smell of a detergent. 0watch used eamers to proKect messages on the =erlin 45-tower and 5ictory column& which was fined ecause it was done without a permit. 4he illegality was part of the scheme and added promotion.#"1$

1"

+tTs standard usiness management %nowledge that advertising is a pillar& if not OtheQ pillar of the growth-orientated free capitalist economy. OAdvertising is part of the one marrow of corporate capitalism.Q#"8$ OContemporary capitalism could not function and glo al production networ%s could not e2ist as they do without advertising.Q#1$ For communication scientist and media economist !anfred Hnoche at the /niversity of 0al( urg& Austria& advertising isnTt Kust simply a Rnecessary evilT ut a Rnecessary eli2ir of lifeT for the media usiness& the economy and capitalism as a whole. Advertising and mass media economic interests create ideology. Hnoche descri es advertising for products and rands as Rthe producerTs weapons in the competition for customersT and trade advertising& e. g. y the automotive industry& as a means to collectively represent their interests against other groups& such as the train companies. +n his view editorial articles and programmes in the media& promoting consumption in general& provide a Rcost freeT service to producers and sponsoring for a Rmuch used means of paymentT in advertising.#"9$ Christopher 9asch argues that advertising leads to an overall increase in consumption in societyA BAdvertising serves not so much to advertise products as to promote consumption as a way of life.B#10$

Advertising and constitutional rig&ts

Advertising is equated with constitutionally guaranteed freedom of opinion and speech.#11$ 4herefore critici(ing advertising or any attempt to restrict or an advertising is almost always considered to e an attac% on fundamental rights ?First Amendment in the /0A@ and meets the com ined and concentrated resistance of the usiness and especially the advertising community. OCurrently or in the near future& any num er of cases are and will e wor%ing their way through the court system that would see% to prohi it any government regulation of ... commercial speech ?e. g. advertising or food la elling@ on the grounds that such regulation would violate citi(ensT and corporationsT First Amendment rights to free speech or free press.Q#1"$ An e2ample for this de ate is advertising for to acco or alcohol ut also advertising y mail or fliers ?clogged mail o2es@& advertising on the phone& in the internet and advertising for children. 5arious legal restrictions concerning spamming& advertising on mo ile phones& addressing children& to acco& alcohol have een introduced y the /0& the 6/ and various other countries. *ot only the usiness community resists restrictions of advertising. Advertising as a means of free e2pression has firmly esta lished itself in western society. !cChesney argues& that the government deserves constant vigilance when it comes to such regulations& ut that it is certainly not Othe only antidemocratic force in our society. ...corporations and the wealthy enKoy a power every it as immense as that enKoyed y the lords and royalty of feudal timesQ and Omar%ets are not value-free or neutralA they not only tend to wor% to the advantage of those with the most money& ut they also y their very nature emphasi(e profit over all elseP.>ence& today the de ate is over whether advertising or food la elling& or campaign contri utions are speech...if the rights to e protected y the First Amendment can only e effectively employed y a fraction of the citi(enry& and their e2ercise of these rights gives them undue political power and undermines the a ility of the alance of the citi(enry to e2ercise the same rights andLor constitutional rights& then it is not necessarily legitimately protected y the First Amendment.Q +n addition& Othose with the capacity to engage in free press are in a position to determine who can spea% to the great mass of citi(ens and who cannotQ.#11$ Critics in turn argue& that advertising invades privacy which is a constitutional right. For& on the one hand& advertising physically invades privacy& on the other& it increasingly uses relevant& information- ased communication with private data assem led without the %nowledge or consent of consumers or target groups.

11

For :eorg Franc% at 5ienna /niversity of 4echnology advertising is part of what he calls Omental capitalismQ&#13$#1.$ ta%ing up a term ?mental@ which has een used y groups concerned with the mental environment& such as Ad usters. Franc% lends the O6conomy of AttentionQ with Christopher 9aschTs culture of narcissm into the mental capitalismG#17$ +n his essay VAdvertising at the 6dge of the ApocalypseO& 0ut Chally writesG O"0. century advertising is the most powerful and sustained system of propaganda in human history and its cumulative cultural effects& unless quic%ly chec%ed& will e responsi le for destroying the world as we %now it.#1,$

T&e price of attention and &idden costs

Advertising has developed into a illion-dollar usiness on which many depend. +n "007 191 illion /0 dollars were spent worldwide for advertising. +n :ermany& for e2ample& the advertising industry contri utes 1..W of the gross national incomeA the figures for other developed countries are similar.#citation needed$ 4hus& advertising and growth are directly and causally lin%ed. As far as a growth ased economy can e lamed for the harmful human lifestyle ?affluent society@ advertising has to e considered in this aspect concerning its negative impact& ecause its main purpose is to raise consumption. O4he industry is accused of eing one of the engines powering a convoluted economic mass production system which promotes consumption.Q#18$ Attention and attentiveness have ecome a new commodity for which a mar%et developed. O4he amount of attention that is a sor ed y the media and redistri uted in the competition for quotas and reach is not identical with the amount of attention& that is availa le in society. 4he total amount circulating in society is made up of the attention e2changed among the people themselves and the attention given to media information. )nly the latter is homogenised y quantitative measuring and only the latter ta%es on the character of an anonymous currency.Q#13$#1.$ According to Franc%& any surface of presentation that can guarantee a certain degree of attentiveness wor%s as magnet for attention& e. g. media which are actually meant for information and entertainment& culture and the arts& pu lic space etc. +t is this attraction which is sold to the advertising usiness. 4he :erman Advertising Association stated that in "00, 10.,8 illion 6uros were spent on advertising in :ermany& #19$ "7W in newspapers& "1W on television& 1.W y mail and 1.W in maga(ines. +n "00" there were 170.000 people employed in the advertising usiness. 4he internet revenues for advertising dou led to almost 1 illion 6uros from "007 to "00,& giving it the highest growth rates. 0piegel-)nline reported that in the /0A in "008 for the first time more money was spent for advertising on internet ?10..1 illion /0 dollars@ than on television ?98.. illion /0 dollars@. 4he largest amount in "008 was still spent in the print media ?13, illion /0 dollars@.#30$ For that same year& <elt-)nline reported that the /0 pharmaceutical industry spent almost dou le the amount on advertising ?.,., illion dollars@ than it did on research ?11.. illion dollars@. =ut !arc-AndrX :agnon und Coel 9e2chin of Yor% /niversity& 4oronto& estimate that the actual e2penses for advertising are higher yet& ecause not all entries are recorded y the research institutions.#31$ *ot included are indirect advertising campaigns such as sales& re ates and price reductions. Few consumers are aware of the fact that they are the ones paying for every cent spent for pu lic relations& advertisements& re ates& pac%aging etc. since they ordinarily get included in the price calculation.

13

Influencing and conditioning

Advertising for !c'onaldEs on the 5ia di 8ropaganda& ;ome& +taly 4he most important element of advertising is not information ut suggestion more or less ma%ing use of associations& emotions ?appeal to emotion@ and drives dormant in the su conscience of people& such as se2 drive& herd instinct& of desires& such as happiness& health& fitness& appearance& self-esteem& reputation& elonging& social status& identity& adventure& distraction& reward& of fears ?appeal to fear@& such as illness& wea%nesses& loneliness& need& uncertainty& security or of preKudices& learned opinions and comforts. OAll human needs& relationships& and fears F the deepest recesses of the human psyche F ecome mere means for the e2pansion of the commodity universe under the force of modern mar%eting. <ith the rise to prominence of modern mar%eting& commercialism F the translation of human relations into commodity relations F although a phenomenon intrinsic to capitalism& has e2panded e2ponentially.Q#3"$ TCause-related mar%etingT in which advertisers lin% their product to some worthy social cause has oomed over the past decade. Advertising e2ploits the model role of cele rities or popular figures and ma%es deli erate use of humour as well as of associations with colour& tunes& certain names and terms. Altogether& these are factors of how one perceives himself and oneTs self-worth. +n his description of Rmental capitalismT Franc% says& Othe promise of consumption ma%ing someone irresisti le is the ideal way of o Kects and sym ols into a personTs su Kective e2perience. 6vidently& in a society in which revenue of attention moves to the fore& consumption is drawn y oneTs selfesteem. As a result& consumption ecomes Rwor%T on a personTs attraction. From the su Kective point of view& this Rwor%T opens fields of une2pected dimensions for advertising. Advertising ta%es on the role of a life councillor in matters of attraction. ?P@ 4he cult around oneTs own attraction is what Christopher 9asch descri ed as RCulture of *arcissismT.Q #1.$#17$ For advertising critics another serious pro lem is that Othe long standing notion of separation etween advertising and editorialLcreative sides of media is rapidly crum lingQ and advertising is increasingly hard to tell apart from news& information or entertainment. 4he 1.

oundaries etween advertising and programming are ecoming lurred. According to the media firms all this commercial involvement has no influence over actual media content& ut& as !cChesney puts it& Othis claim fails to pass even the most asic giggle test& it is so preposterous.Q#31$ Advertising draws Oheavily on psychological theories a out how to create su Kects& ena ling advertising and mar%eting to ta%e on a Rmore clearly psychological tingeT ?!iller and ;ose& 199,& cited in 4hrift& 1999& p. 7,@. +ncreasingly& the emphasis in advertising has switched from providing RfactualT information to the sym olic connotations of commodities& since the crucial cultural premise of advertising is that the material o Kect eing sold is never in itself enough. 6ven those commodities providing for the most mundane necessities of daily life must e im ued with sym olic qualities and culturally endowed meanings via the Rmagic system ?<illiams& 1980@ of advertising. +n this way and y altering the conte2t in which advertisements appear& things Rcan e made to mean BKust a out anythingBT ?!cFall& "00"& p. 17"@ and the RsameT things can e endowed with different intended meanings for different individuals and groups of people& there y offering mass produced visions of individualism.Q#1$ =efore advertising is done& mar%et research institutions need to %now and descri e the target group to e2actly plan and implement the advertising campaign and to achieve the est possi le results. A whole array of sciences directly deal with advertising and mar%eting or is used to improve its effects. Focus groups& psychologists and cultural anthropologists are RTTde rigueurTTT in mar%eting researchQ.#33$ 5ast amounts of data on persons and their shopping ha its are collected& accumulated& aggregated and analysed with the aid of credit cards& onus cards& raffles and& last ut not least& internet surveying. <ith increasing accuracy this supplies a picture of ehaviour& wishes and wea%nesses of certain sections of a population with which advertisement can e employed more selectively and effectively. 4he efficiency of advertising is improved through advertising research. /niversities& of course supported y usiness and in co-operation with other disciplines ?s. a ove@& mainly 8sychiatry& Anthropology& *eurology and ehavioural sciences& are constantly in search for ever more refined& sophisticated& su tle and crafty methods to ma%e advertising more effective. O*euromar%eting is a controversial new field of mar%eting which uses medical technologies such as functional !agnetic ;esonance +maging ?f!;+@ -- not to heal& ut to sell products. Advertising and mar%eting firms have long used the insights and research methods of psychology in order to sell products& of course. =ut today these practices are reaching epidemic levels& and with a complicity on the part of the psychological profession that e2ceeds that of the past. 4he result is an enormous advertising and mar%eting onslaught that comprises& argua ly& the largest single psychological proKect ever underta%en. Yet& this great underta%ing remains largely ignored y the American 8sychological Association.Q#3.$ ;o ert !cChesney calls it Bthe greatest concerted attempt at psychological manipulation in all of human history.B#37$

Dependency of t&e

edia and corporate censors&ip

Almost all mass media are advertising media and many of them are e2clusively advertising media and& with the e2ception of pu lic service roadcasting are privately owned. 4heir income is predominantly generated through advertisingA in the case of newspapers and maga(ines from .0 to 80W. 8u lic service roadcasting in some countries can also heavily depend on advertising as a source of income ?up to 30W@.#3,$ +n the view of critics no media that spreads advertisements can e independent and the higher the proportion of advertising& the higher the dependency. 4his dependency has Odistinct implications for the nature of media

17

contentP. +n the usiness press& the media are often referred to in e2actly the way they present themselves in their candid momentsG as a ranch of the advertising industry.Q#38$ +n addition& the private media are increasingly su Kect to mergers and concentration with property situations often ecoming entangled and opaque. 4his development& which >enry A. :irou2 calls an Oongoing threat to democratic cultureQ&#39$ y itself should suffice to sound all alarms in a democracy. Five or si2 advertising agencies dominate this 300 illion /.0. dollar glo al industry. OCournalists have long faced pressure to shape stories to suit advertisers and owners P. the vast maKority of 45 station e2ecutives found their news departments RcooperativeT in shaping the news to assist in Rnon-traditional revenue development.Q#.0$ *egative and undesired reporting can e prevented or influenced when advertisers threaten to cancel orders or simply when there is a danger of such a cancellation. !edia dependency and such a threat ecomes very real when there is only one dominant or very few large advertisers. 4he influence of advertisers is not only in regard to news or information on their own products or services ut e2pands to articles or shows not directly lin%ed to them. +n order to secure their advertising revenues the media has to create the est possi le Radvertising environmentT. Another pro lem considered censorship y critics is the refusal of media to accept advertisements that are not in their interest. A stri%ing e2ample of this is the refusal of 45 stations to roadcast ads y Ad usters. :roups try to place advertisements and are refused y networ%s.#.1$ +t is principally the viewing rates which decide upon the programme in the private radio and television usiness. O4heir usiness is to a sor as much attention as possi le. 4he viewing rate measures the attention the media trades for the information offered. 4he service of this attraction is sold to the advertising usinessQ#1.$ and the viewing rates determine the price that can e demanded for advertising. OAdvertising companies determining the contents of shows has een part of daily life in the /0A since 1911. 8rocter D :am le ?8D:@ P. offered a radio station a history-ma%ing trade ?today %now as O arteringQ@G the company would produce an own show for OfreeQ and save the radio station the high e2penses for producing contents. 4herefore the company would want its commercials spread and& of course& its products placed in the show. 4hus& the series R!a 8er%insT was created& which 8D: s%ilfully used to promote )2ydol& the leading detergent rand in those years and the 0oap opera was orn PQ#."$ <hile critics asically worry a out the su tle influence of the economy on the media& there are also e2amples of lunt e2ertion of influence. 4he /0 company Chrysler& efore it merged with 'aimler =en( had its agency& 8entaCom& send out a letter to numerous maga(ines& demanding them to send& an overview of all the topics efore the ne2t issue is pu lished to Oavoid potential conflictQ. Chrysler most of all wanted to %now& if there would e articles with Ose2ual& political or socialQ content or which could e seen as Oprovocative or offensiveQ. 8entaCom e2ecutive 'avid !artin saidG O)ur reasoning is& that anyone loo%ing at a "".000 product would want it surrounded y positive things. 4here is nothing positive a out an article on child pornography.Q#."$ +n another e2ample& the V/0A *etwor% held top-level Zoffthe-recordT meetings with advertisers in "000 to let them tell the networ% what type of programming content they wanted in order for /0A to get their advertising.Q#.1$ 4elevision shows are created to accommodate the needs for advertising& e. g. splitting them up in suita le sections. 4heir dramaturgy is typically designed to end in suspense or leave an unanswered question in order to %eep the viewer attached.

1,

4he movie system& at one time outside the direct influence of the roader mar%eting system& is now fully integrated into it through the strategies of licensing& tie-ins and product placements. 4he prime function of many >ollywood films today is to aid in the selling of the immense collection of commodities.#.3$ 4he press called the "00" =ond film R'ie Another 'ayT featuring "3 maKor promotional partners an Rad-ventureT and noted that Cames =ond Onow has een Rlicensed to sellTQ As it has ecome standard practise to place products in motion pictures& it Ohas self-evident implications for what types of films will attract product placements and what types of films will therefore e more li%ely to get madeQ.#..$ Advertising and information are increasingly hard to distinguish from each other. O4he orders etween advertising and media P. ecome more and more lurredP. <hat August Fischer& chairman of the oard of A2el 0pringer pu lishing company considers to e a Rproven partnership etween the media and advertising usinessT critics regard as nothing ut the infiltration of Kournalistic duties and freedomsQ. According to ;49-e2ecutive >elmut 4homa Oprivate stations shall not and cannot serve any mission ut only the goal of the company which is the Racceptance y the advertising usiness and the viewerT. 4he setting of priorities in this order actually says everything a out the Rdesign of the programmesT y private television.Q#."$ 8atric% 9e 9ay& former managing director of 4F1& a private French television channel with a mar%et share of ". to 1.W& saidG B4here are many ways to tal% a out television. =ut from the usiness point of view& letTs e realisticG asically& the Ko of 4F1 is& e. g. to help Coca Cola sell its product. ?P@ For an advertising message to e perceived the rain of the viewer must e at our disposal. 4he Ko of our programmes is to ma%e it availa le& that is to say& to distract it& to rela2 it and get it ready etween two messages. +t is disposa le human rain time that we sell to Coca Cola.Q#.7$ =ecause of these dependencies a widespread and fundamental pu lic de ate a out advertising and its influence on information and freedom of speech is difficult to o tain& at least through the usual media channelsA otherwise these would saw off the ranch they are sitting on. O4he notion that the commercial asis of media& Kournalism& and communication could have trou ling implications for democracy is e2cluded from the range of legitimate de ateQ Kust as Ocapitalism is off-limits as a topic of legitimate de ate in /.0. political cultureQ. #.,$ An early critic of the structural asis of /.0. Kournalism was /pton 0inclair with his novel 4he =rass Chec% in which he stresses the influence of owners& advertisers& pu lic relations& and economic interests on the media. +n his oo% O)ur !asterEs 5oice F AdvertisingQ the social ecologist Cames ;orty ?1890F19,1@ wroteG B4he gargoyleTs mouth is a loudspea%er& powered y the vested interest of a two- illion dollar industry& and ac% of that the vested interests of usiness as a whole& of industry& of finance. +t is never silent& it drowns out all other voices& and it suffers no re u%e& for it is not the voice of America[ 4hat is its claim and to some e2tent it is a Kust claim...Q#.8$ +t has taught us how to live& what to e afraid of& what to e proud of& how to e eautiful& how to e loved& how to e envied& how to e successful.. +s it any wonder that the American population tends increasingly to spea%& thin%& feel in terms of this Ka erwoc%y[ 4hat the stimuli of art& science& religion are progressively e2pelled to the periphery of American life to ecome marginal values& cultivated y marginal people on marginal time[B#.9$

T&e co

ercialisation of culture and sports

18

8erformances& e2hi itions& shows& concerts& conventions and most other events can hardly ta%e place without sponsoring. 4he increasing lac% arts and culture they uy the service of attraction. Artists are graded and paid according to their artTs value for commercial purposes. Corporations promote renown artists& therefore getting e2clusive rights in glo al advertising campaigns. =roadway shows& li%e R9a =oh\meT featured commercial props in its set.#70$ Advertising itself is e2tensively considered to e a contri ution to culture. Advertising is integrated into fashion. )n many pieces of clothing the company logo is the only design or is an important part of it. 4here is only little room left outside the consumption economy& in which culture and art can develop independently and where alternative values can e e2pressed. A last important sphere& the universities& is under strong pressure to open up for usiness and its interests.#71$

+nflata le ill oard in front of a sports stadium Competitive sports have ecome unthin%a le without sponsoring and there is a mutual dependency. >igh income with advertising is only possi le with a compara le num er of spectators or viewers. )n the other hand& the poor performance of a team or a sportsman results in less advertising revenues. CUrgen >Uther and >ans-C]rg 0tiehler tal% a out a R0portsL!edia Comple2 which is a complicated mi2 of media& agencies& managers& sports promoters& advertising etc. with partially common and partially diverging interests ut in any case with common commercial interests. 4he media presuma ly is at centre stage ecause it can supply the other parties involved with a rare commodity& namely ?potential@ pu lic attention. +n sports Othe media are a le to generate enormous sales in oth circulation and advertising.Q#7"$ O0ports sponsorship is ac%nowledged y the to acco industry to e valua le advertising. A 4o acco +ndustry Kournal in 1993 descri ed the Formula )ne car as R4he most powerful advertising space in the worldT. P. +n a cohort study carried out in "" secondary schools in 6ngland in 1993 and 199. oys whose favourite television sport was motor racing had a 1".8W ris% of ecoming regular smo%ers compared to ,.0W of oys who did not follow motor racing.Q#71$ *ot the sale of tic%ets ut transmission rights& sponsoring and merchandising in the meantime ma%e up the largest part of sports associationTs and sports clu Ts revenues with the +)C ?+nternational )lympic Committee@ ta%ing the lead. 4he influence of the media rought many changes in sports including the admittance of new Rtrend sportsT into the )lympic :ames& the alteration of competition distances& changes of rules& animation of spectators& changes of sports facilities& the cult of sports heroes who quic%ly esta lish themselves in the advertising and entertaining usiness ecause of their media value#73$ and last ut not least& the naming and renaming of sport stadiums after ig companies. O+n sports adKustment into the logic of the media can contri ute to the erosion of values such as equal chances or fairness& to

19

e2cessive demands on athletes through pu lic pressure and multiple e2ploitation or to deceit ?doping& manipulation of results P@. +t is in the very interest of the media and sports to counter this danger ecause media sports can only wor% as long as sport e2ists.#73$

!ccupation and co

ercialisation of public space

6very visually percepti le place has potential for advertising. 6specially ur an areas with their structures ut also landscapes in sight of through fares are more and more turning into media for advertisements. 0igns& posters& ill oards& flags have ecome decisive factors in the ur an appearance and their num ers are still on the increase. O)utdoor advertising has ecome unavoida le. 4raditional ill oards and transit shelters have cleared the way for more pervasive methods such as wrapped vehicles& sides of uildings& electronic signs& %ios%s& ta2is& posters& sides of uses& and more. 'igital technologies are used on uildings to sport Rur an wall displaysT. +n ur an areas commercial content is placed in our sight and into our consciousness every moment we are in pu lic space. 4he :erman *ewspaper RSeitT called it a new %ind of Rdictatorship that one cannot escapeT.#"1$ )ver time& this domination of the surroundings has ecome the OnaturalQ state. 4hrough long-term commercial saturation& it has ecome implicitly understood y the pu lic that advertising has the right to own& occupy and control every inch of availa le space. 4he steady normali(ation of invasive advertising dulls the pu licTs perception of their surroundings& re-enforcing a general attitude of powerlessness toward creativity and change& thus a cycle develops ena ling advertisers to slowly and consistently increase the saturation of advertising with little or no pu lic outcry.Q#7.$ 4he massive optical orientation toward advertising changes the function of pu lic spaces which are utilised y rands. /r an landmar%s are turned into trademar%s. 4he highest pressure is e2erted on renown and highly frequented pu lic spaces which are also important for the identity of a city ?e. g. 8iccadilly Circus& 4imes 0quare& Ale2anderplat(@. /r an spaces are pu lic commodities and in this capacity they are su Kect to Oaesthetical environment protectionQ& mainly through uilding regulations& heritage protection and landscape protection. O+t is in this capacity that these spaces are now eing privatised. 4hey are peppered with ill oards and signs& they are remodelled into media for advertising.Q#13$#1.$

Socio$cultural aspects( se)is * discri ination and stereotyping

OAdvertising has an Oagenda setting functionQ which is the a ility& with huge sums of money& to put consumption as the only item on the agenda. +n the attle for a share of the pu lic conscience this amounts to non-treatment ?ignorance@ of whatever is not commercial and whatever is not advertised for. Advertising should e reflection of society norms and give clear picture of target mar%et. 0pheres without commerce and advertising serving the muses and rela2ation remain without respect.#neutralit! disputed$ <ith increasing force advertising ma%es itself comforta le in the private sphere so that the voice of commerce ecomes the dominant way of e2pression in society.Q#77$ Advertising critics see advertising as the leading light in our culture. 0ut Chally and Cames 4witchell go eyond considering advertising as %ind of religion and that advertising even replaces religion as a %ey institution.#7,$ BCorporate advertising ?or is it commercial media[@ is the largest single psychological proKect ever underta%en y the human race. Yet for all of that& its impact on us remains un%nown and largely ignored. <hen + thin% of the mediaTs influence over years& over decades& + thin% of those rainwashing e2periments conducted y 'r. 6wen Cameron in a !ontreal psychiatric hospital in the 19.0s "0

?see !H/94;A@. 4he idea of the C+A-sponsored BdepatterningB e2periments was to outfit conscious& unconscious or semiconscious su Kects with headphones& and flood their rains with thousands of repetitive BdrivingB messages that would alter their ehaviour over timeP.Advertising aims to do the same thing.B#".$ Advertising is especially aimed at young people and children and it increasingly reduces young people to consumers.#39$ For 0ut Chally it is not Osurprising that something this central and with so much eing e2pended on it should ecome an important presence in social life. +ndeed& commercial interests intent on ma2imi(ing the consumption of the immense collection of commodities have coloni(ed more and more of the spaces of our culture. For instance& almost the entire media system ?television and print@ has een developed as a delivery system for mar%eters its prime function is to produce audiences for sale to advertisers. =oth the advertisements it carries& as well as the editorial matter that acts as a support for it& cele rate the consumer society. 4he movie system& at one time outside the direct influence of the roader mar%eting system& is now fully integrated into it through the strategies of licensing& tie-ins and product placements. 4he prime function of many >ollywood films today is to aid in the selling of the immense collection of commodities. As pu lic funds are drained from the non-commercial cultural sector& art galleries& museums and symphonies id for corporate sponsorship.Q#.3$ +n the same way effected is the education system and advertising is increasingly penetrating schools and universities. Cities& such as *ew Yor%& accept sponsors for pu lic playgrounds. O6ven the pope has een commerciali(ed P 4he popeTs 3-day visit to !e2ico in P1999 was sponsored y Frito-9ay and 8epsiCo.#78$ 4he industry is accused of eing one of the engines powering a convoluted economic mass production system which promotes consumption. As far as social effects are concerned it does not matter whether advertising fuels consumption ut which values& patterns of ehaviour and assignments of meaning it propagates. Advertising is accused of hiKac%ing the language and means of pop culture& of protest movements and even of su versive criticism and does not shy away from scandali(ing and rea%ing ta oos ?e. g. =enneton@. 4his in turn incites counter action& what Halle 9asn in "001 called RTCamming the Cam of the CammersTT. Anything goes. O+t is a central social-scientific question what people can e made to do y suita le design of conditions and of great practical importance. For e2ample& from a great num er of e2perimental psychological e2periments it can e assumed& that people can e made to do anything they are capa le of& when the according social condition can e created.Q#79$ Advertising often uses stereotype gender specific roles of men and women reinforcing e2isting clichXs and it has een critici(ed as Oinadvertently or even intentionally promoting se2ism& racism& and ageismP At very least& advertising often reinforces stereotypes y drawing on recogni(a le BtypesB in order to tell stories in a single image or 10 second time frame.Q#18$ Activities are depicted as typical male or female ?stereotyping@. +n addition people are reduced to their se2uality or equated with commodities and gender specific qualities are e2aggerated. 0e2uali(ed female odies& ut increasingly also males& serve as eye-catchers. +n advertising it is usually a woman eing depicted as

servants of men and children that react to the demands and complaints of their loved ones with a ad conscience and the promise for immediate improvement ?wash& food@ a se2ual or emotional play toy for the self-affirmation of men a technically totally clueless eing that can only manage a childproof operation female e2pert& ut stereotype from the fields of fashion& cosmetics& food or at the most& medicine as ultra thin& slim& and very s%inny.

"1

doing ground-wor% for others& e. g. serving coffee while a Kournalist interviews a politician#,0$

A large portion of advertising deals with promotion of products that pertain to the Bideal ody image.B 4his is mainly targeted toward women& and& in the past& this type of advertising was aimed nearly e2clusively at women. <omen in advertisements are generally portrayed as good-loo%ing women who are in good health. 4his& however& is not the case of the average woman. Consequently& they give a negative message of ody image to the average woman. =ecause of the media& girls and women who are overweight& and otherwise BnormalB feel almost o ligated to ta%e care of themselves and stay fit. 4hey feel under high pressure to maintain an accepta le odyweight and ta%e care of their health. Consequences of this are low self-esteem&eating disorders& self mutilations& and eauty operations for those women that Kust cannot ring themselves eat right or get the motivation to go to the gym. 4he 6/ parliament passed a resolution in "008 that advertising may not e discriminating and degrading. 4his shows that politicians are increasingly concerned a out the negative impacts of advertising. >owever& the enefits of promoting overall health and fitness are often overloo%ed.

%&ildren and adolescents as target groups

4he childrenTs mar%et& where resistance to advertising is wea%est& is the Opioneer for ad creepQ.#,1$ OHids are among the most sophisticated o servers of ads. 4hey can sing the Kingles and identify the logos& and they often have strong feelings a out products. <hat they generally donEt understand& however& are the issues that underlie how advertising wor%s. !ass media are used not only to sell goods ut also ideasG how we should ehave& what rules are important& who we should respect and what we should value.Q#,"$ Youth is increasingly reduced to the role of a consumer. *ot only the ma%ers of toys& sweets& ice cream& rea%fast food and sport articles prefer to aim their promotion at children and adolescents. For e2ample& an ad for a rea%fast cereal on a channel aimed at adults will have music that is a soft allad& whereas on a channel aimed at children& the same ad will use a catchy roc% Kingle of the same song to aim at %ids. Advertising for other products prefera ly uses media with which they can also reach the ne2t generation of consumers.#,1$ OHey advertising messages e2ploit the emerging independence of young peopleQ. Cigarettes& for e2ample& Oare used as a fashion accessory and appeal to young women. )ther influences on young people include the lin%ing of sporting heroes and smo%ing through sports sponsorship& the use of cigarettes y popular characters in television programmes and cigarette promotions. ;esearch suggests that young people are aware of the most heavily advertised cigarette rands.Q#71$ O8roduct placements show up everywhere& and children arenEt e2empt. Far from it. 4he animated film& Foodfight& had Rthousands of products and character icons from the familiar ?items@ in a grocery store.T ChildrenEs oo%s also feature randed items and characters& and millions of them have snac% foods as lead characters.O#,3$ =usiness is interested in children and adolescents ecause of their uying power and ecause of their influence on the shopping ha its of their parents. As they are easier to influence they are especially targeted y the advertising usiness. O4he mar%eting industry is facing increased pressure over claimed lin%s etween e2posure to food advertising and a range of social pro lems& especially growing o esity levels.Q#,.$ +n "001& childrenTs programming accounted for over "0W of all /.0. television watching. 4he glo al mar%et for childrenTs licensed products was some 11" illion /.0. dollars in "00".#33$ Advertisers target children ecause& e. g. in Canada& they Orepresent three distinct mar%etsG

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1. 8rimary 8urchasers ?-".9 illion annually@ ". Future Consumers ?=rand-loyal adults@ 1. 8urchase +nfluencers ?-"0 illion annually@ Hids will carry forward rand e2pectations& whether positive& negative or indifferent Hids are already accustomed to eing catered to as consumers. 4he long term pri(eG 9oyalty of the %id translates into a rand loyal adult customerQ#,7$ 4he average Canadian child sees 1.0&000 45 commercials efore graduating from high school& spends nearly as much time watching 45 as attending classes. +n 1980 the Canadian province of JuX ec anned advertising for children under age 11.#,,$ O+n upholding the consititutional validity of the Jue ec Consumer 8rotection Act restrictions on advertising to children under age 11 ?in the case of a challenge y a toy company@ the Court heldG R...advertising directed at young children is per se manipulative. 0uch advertising aims to promote products y convincing those who will always elieve.TQ#,8$ *orway ?ads directed at children under age 1"@& and 0weden ?television ads aimed at children under age 1"@ also have legislated road ans on advertising to children& during child programmes any %ind of advertising is for idden in 0weden& 'enmar%& Austria and Flemish =elgium. +n :reece there is no advertising for %ids products from , to "" h. An attempt to restrict advertising directed at children in the /0A failed with reference to the First Amendment. +n 0pain ans are also considered undemocratic.#,9$#80$

!pposition and ca paigns against advertising

=ill oard in 9und& 0weden& saying B)ne *ight 0tand[B ?"00.@ According to critics& the total commerciali(ation of all fields of society& the privati(ation of pu lic space& the acceleration of consumption and waste of resources including the negative influence on lifestyles and on the environment has not een noticed to the necessary e2tent. 4he Ohyper-commerciali(ation of the culture is recogni(ed and roundly detested y the citi(enry& although the topic scarcely receives a whiff of attention in the media or political cultureQ.#81$ O4he greatest damage done y advertising is precisely that it incessantly demonstrates the prostitution of men and women who lend their intellects& their voices& their artistic s%ills to purposes in which they themselves do not elieve& and P. that it helps to shatter and ultimately destroy our most precious non-material possessionsG the confidence in "1

the e2istence of meaningful purposes of human activity and respect for the integrity of man.Q#8"$ O4he struggle against advertising is therefore essential if we are to overcome the pervasive alienation from all genuine human needs that currently plays such a corrosive role in our society. =ut in resisting this type of hyper-commercialism we should not e under any illusions. Advertising may seem at times to e an almost trivial of omnipresent aspect of our economic system. Yet& as economist A. C. 8igou pointed out& it could only e Rremoved altogetherT if Rconditions of monopolistic competitionT inherent to corporate capitalism were removed. 4o resist it is to resist the inner logic of capitalism itself& of which it is the pure e2pression.Q#81$ O5isual pollution& much of it in the form of advertising& is an issue in all the worldEs large cities. =ut what is pollution to some is a vi rant part of a cityEs fa ric to others. *ew Yor% City without 4imes 0quareEs huge digital ill oards or 4o%yo without the :in(aEs commercial panorama is unthin%a le. 8iccadilly Circus would e Kust a 9ondon rounda out without its signage. 0till& other cities& li%e !oscow& have reached their limit and have egun to crac% down on over-the-top outdoor advertising.Q#83$ O!any communities have chosen to regulate ill oards to protect and enhance their scenic character. 4he following is y no means a complete list of such communities& ut it does give a good idea of the geographic diversity of cities& counties and states that prohi it new construction of ill oards. 0cenic America estimates the nationwide total of cities and communities prohi iting the construction of new ill oards to e at least 1.00. A num er of 0tates in the /0A prohi it all ill oardsG

5ermont - ;emoved all ill oards in 19,0s >awaii - ;emoved all ill oards in 19"0s !aine - ;emoved all ill oards in 19,0s and early 80s Alas%a - 0tate referendum passed in 1998 prohi its ill oards#8.$ Almost two years ago the city of 0^o 8aulo& =ra(il& ordered the downsi(ing or removal of all ill oards and most other forms of commercial advertising in the city.Q#87$

4echnical appliances& such as 0pam filters& 45-Sappers& Ad-=loc%ers for 45Ts and stic%ers on mail o2esG O*o AdvertisingQ and an increasing num er of court cases indicate a growing interest of people to restrict or rid themselves of unwelcome advertising. Consumer protection associations& environment protection groups& glo ali(ation opponents& consumption critics& sociologists& media critics& scientists and many others deal with the negative aspects of advertising. OAntipu Q in France& Osu vertisingQ& culture Kamming and ad usting have ecome esta lished terms in the anti-advertising community. )n the international level glo ali(ation critics such as *aomi Hlein and *oam Choms%y are also renown media and advertising critics. 4hese groups critici(e the complete occupation of pu lic spaces& surfaces& the airwaves& the media& schools etc. and the constant e2posure of almost all senses to advertising messages& the invasion of privacy& and that only few consumers are aware that they themselves are earing the costs for this to the very last penny. 0ome of these groups& such as the R4he =ill oard 9i eration Front Creative :roupT in 0an Francisco or Ad usters in 5ancouver& Canada& have manifestos.#8,$ :rassroots organi(ations campaign against advertising or certain aspects of it in various forms and strategies and quite often have different roots. Ad usters& for e2ample contests and challenges the intended meanings of advertising y su verting them and creating unintended meanings instead. )ther groups& li%e R+llegal 0igns CanadaT try to stem the flood of ill oards y detecting and reporting ones that have een put up without permit.#88$ 62amples for various groups and organi(ations in different countries are R9Eassociation ;Xsistance _ lEAgression 8u licitaireT#89$ "3

in France& where also media critic Cean =audrillard is a renown author. #90$ 4he RAnti Advertising AgencyT wor%s with parody and humour to raise awareness a out advertising.#91$ and RCommercial AlertT campaigns for the protection of children& family values& community& environmental integrity and democracy.#9"$ !edia literacy organisations aim at training people& especially children in the wor%ings of the media and advertising in their programmes. +n the /. 0.& for e2ample& the R!edia 6ducation FoundationT produces and distri utes documentary films and other educational resources.#91$ R!edia<atchT& a Canadian non-profit womenEs organi(ation wor%s to educate consumers a out how they can register their concerns with advertisers and regulators.#93$ 4he Canadian R!edia Awareness *etwor%L;Xseau Xducation mXdiasT offers one of the worldTs most comprehensive collections of media education and +nternet literacy resources. +ts mem er organi(ations represent the pu lic& nonprofit ut also private sectors. Although it stresses its independence it accepts financial support from =ell Canada& C45:lo e!edia& Can<est& 469/0 and 0-5)M.#9.$ 4o counter the increasing criticism of advertising aiming at children media literacy organi(ations are also initiated and funded y corporations and the advertising usiness themselves. +n the /. 0. the R4he Advertising 6ducational FoundationT was created in 1981 supported y ad agencies& advertisers and media companies. +t is the Oadvertising industryEs provider and distri utor of educational content to enrich the understanding of advertising and its role in culture& society and the economyQ#97$ sponsored for e2ample y American Airlines& Anheuser-=usch& Camp ell 0oup& Coca-Cola& Colgate-8almolive& <alt 'isney& Ford& :eneral Foods& :eneral !ills& :illette& >ein(& Cohnson D Cohnson& Hellogg& Hraft& *estle& 8hilip !orris& Jua%er )ats& *a isco& 0chering& 0terling& /nilever& <arner 9am ert& advertising agencies li%e 0aatchi D 0aatchi Compton and media companies li%e American =roadcasting Companies& C=0& Capital Cities Communications& Co2 6nterprises& For es& >earst& !eredith& 4he *ew Yor% 4imes& ;CAL*=C& ;eaderTs 'igest& 4ime& <ashington 8ost& Kust to mention a few. Canadian usinesses esta lished RConcerned ChildrenEs AdvertisersT in 1990 Oto instill confidence in all relevant pu lics y actively demonstrating our commitment& concern& responsi ility and respect for childrenQ.#9,$ !em ers are Can<est& Corus& C45& :eneral !ills& >as ro& >ersheyTs& HelloggTs& 9o law& Hraft& !attel& !ac'onaldTs& *estle& 8epsi& <alt 'isney& <eston as well as almost .0 private roadcast partners and others.#98$ Concerned ChildrenEs Advertisers was e2ample for similar organi(ations in other countries li%e R!edia smartT in the /nited Hingdom with offspring in :ermany& France& the *etherlands and 0weden. *ew Sealand has a similar usiness-funded programme called R<illie !unchrightT. O<hile such interventions are claimed to e designed to encourage children to e critical of commercial messages in general& critics of the mar%eting industry suggest that the motivation is simply to e seen to address a pro lem created y the industry itself& that is& the negative social impacts to which mar%eting activity has contri utedP. =y contri uting media literacy education resources& the mar%eting industry is positioning itself as eing part of the solution to these pro lems& there y see%ing to avoid wide restrictions or outright ans on mar%eting communication& particularly for food products deemed to have little nutritional value directed at childrenP. 4he need to e seen to e ta%ing positive action primarily to avert potential restrictions on advertising is openly ac%nowledged y some sectors of the industry itselfP. Furthermore& >o s ?1998@ suggests that such programs are also in the interest of media organi(ations that support the interventions to reduce criticism of the potential negative effects of the media themselves.Q#,.$

Ta)ation as revenue and control

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8u lic interest groups suggest that Oaccess to the mental space targeted y advertisers should e ta2ed& in that at the present moment that space is eing freely ta%en advantage of y advertisers with no compensation paid to the mem ers of the pu lic who are thus eing intruded upon. 4his %ind of ta2 would e a 8igovian ta2 in that it would act to reduce what is now increasingly seen as a pu lic nuisance. 6fforts to that end are gathering more momentum& with Ar%ansas and !aine considering ills to implement such a ta2ation. Florida enacted such a ta2 in 198, ut was forced to repeal it after si2 months& as a result of a concerted effort y national commercial interests& which withdrew planned conventions& causing maKor losses to the tourism industry& and cancelled advertising& causing a loss of 1" million dollars to the roadcast industry aloneQ.#18$ +n the /. 0.& for e2ample& advertising is ta2 deducti le and suggestions for possi le limits to the advertising ta2 deduction are met with fierce opposition from the usiness sector& not to mention suggestions for a special ta2ation. +n other countries& advertising at least is ta2ed in the same manner services are ta2ed and in some advertising is su Kect to special ta2ation although on a very low level. +n many cases the ta2ation refers especially to media with advertising ?e. g. Austria& +taly& :reece& *etherlands& 4ur%ey& 6stonia@. 4a2 on advertising in 6uropean countriesG#99$

=elgiumG Advertising or ill oard ta2 ?ta2e dEaffichage or aanpla%%ingsta%s@ on pu lic posters depending on si(e and %ind of paper as well as on neon signs FranceG 4a2 on television commercials ?ta2e sur la pu licitX tXlXvisXe@ ased on the cost of the advertising unit +talyG !unicipal ta2 on acoustic and visual %inds of advertisements within the municipality ?imposta communale sulla pu licit_@ and municipal ta2 on signs& posters and other %inds of advertisements ?diritti sulle pu liche offisioni@& the tariffs of which are under the Kurisdiction of the municipalities *etherlandsG Advertising ta2 ?reclame elastingen@ with varying tariffs on certain advertising measures ?e2cluding ads in newspapers and maga(ines@ which can e levied y municipalities depending on the %ind of advertising ? ill oards& neon signs etc.@ AustriaG !unicipal announcement levies on advertising through writing& pictures or lights in pu lic areas or pu licly accessi le areas with varying tariffs depending on the fee& the surface or the duration of the advertising measure as well as advertising tariffs on paid ads in printed media of usually 10W of the fee. 0wedenG Advertising ta2 ?re%lams%att@ on ads and other %inds of advertising ? ill oards& film& television& advertising at fairs and e2hi itions& flyers@ in the range of 3W for ads in newspapers and 11W in all other cases. +n the case of flyers the tariffs are ased on the production costs& else on the fee 0painG !unicipalities can ta2 advertising measures in their territory with a rather unimportant ta2es and fees of various %inds.

+n his oo% O<hen Corporations ;ule the <orldQ /.0. author and glo ali(ation critic 'avid Horten even advocates a .0W ta2 on advertising to counter attac% what he calls Ban active propaganda machinery controlled y the worldEs largest corporationsQ which Oconstantly reassures us that consumerism is the path to happiness& governmental restraint of mar%et e2cess is the cause of our distress& and economic glo ali(ation is oth a historical inevita ility and a oon to the human species.B#100$

Regulation
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!ain articleG Advertising regulation +n the /0 many communities elieve that many forms of outdoor advertising light the pu lic realm.#101$ As long ago as the 1970s in the /0 there were attempts to an ill oard advertising in the open countryside.#10"$ Cities such as 0^o 8aulo have introduced an outright an#101$ with 9ondon also having specific legislation to control unlawful displays. 4here have een increasing efforts to protect the pu lic interest y regulating the content and the influence of advertising. 0ome e2amples areG the an on television to acco advertising imposed in many countries& and the total an of advertising to children under 1" imposed y the 0wedish government in 1991. 4hough that regulation continues in effect for roadcasts originating within the country& it has een wea%ened y the 6uropean Court of Custice& which had found that 0weden was o liged to accept foreign programming& including those from neigh oring countries or via satellite. +n 6urope and elsewhere& there is a vigorous de ate on whether ?or how much@ advertising to children should e regulated. 4his de ate was e2acer ated y a report released y the Haiser Family Foundation in Fe ruary "003 which suggested fast food advertising that targets children was an important factor in the epidemic of childhood o esity in the /nited 0tates. +n *ew Sealand& 0outh Africa& Canada& and many 6uropean countries& the advertising industry operates a system of self-regulation. Advertisers& advertising agencies and the media agree on a code of advertising standards that they attempt to uphold. 4he general aim of such codes is to ensure that any advertising is Elegal& decent& honest and truthfulE. 0ome selfregulatory organi(ations are funded y the industry& ut remain independent& with the intent of upholding the standards or codes li%e the Advertising 0tandards Authority in the /H. +n the /H most forms of outdoor advertising such as the display of ill oards is regulated y the /H 4own and County 8lanning system. Currently the display of an advertisement without consent from the 8lanning Authority is a criminal offense lia le to a fine of `"&.00 per offence. All of the maKor outdoor ill oard companies in the /H have convictions of this nature. *aturally& many advertisers view governmental regulation or even self-regulation as intrusion of their freedom of speech or a necessary evil. 4herefore& they employ a wide-variety of linguistic devices to ypass regulatory laws ?e.g. printing 6nglish words in old and French translations in fine print to deal with the Article 1"0 of the 1993 4ou on 9aw limiting the use of 6nglish in French advertising@.#103$ 4he advertisement of controversial products such as cigarettes and condoms is su Kect to government regulation in many countries. For instance& the to acco industry is required y law in most countries to display warnings cautioning consumers a out the health ha(ards of their products. 9inguistic variation is often used y advertisers as a creative device to reduce the impact of such requirements.

+uture
Global advertising
Advertising has gone through five maKor stages of developmentG domestic& e2port& international& multi-national& and glo al. For glo al advertisers& there are four& potentially

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competing& usiness o Kectives that must e alanced when developing worldwide advertisingG uilding a rand while spea%ing with one voice& developing economies of scale in the creative process& ma2imising local effectiveness of ads& and increasing the companyTs speed of implementation. =orn from the evolutionary stages of glo al mar%eting are the three primary and fundamentally different approaches to the development of glo al advertising e2ecutionsG e2porting e2ecutions& producing local e2ecutions& and importing ideas that travel.
#10.$

Advertising research is %ey to determining the success of an ad in any country or region. 4he a ility to identify which elements andLor moments of an ad that contri utes to its success is how economies of scale are ma2imised. )nce one %nows what wor%s in an ad& that idea or ideas can e imported y any other mar%et. !ar%et research measures& such as Flow of Attention& Flow of 6motion and randing moments provide insight into what is wor%ing in an ad in any country or region ecause the measures are ased on the visual& not ver al& elements of the ad.#107$

Trends
<ith the dawn of the +nternet came many new advertising opportunities. 8opup& Flash& anner& 8opunder& advergaming& and email advertisements ?the last often eing a form of spam@ are now commonplace. 4he a ility to record shows on digital video recorders ?such as 4i5o@ allow users to record the programs for later viewing& ena ling them to fast forward through commercials. Additionally& as more seasons of pre-recorded o2 sets are offered for sale of television programsA fewer people watch the shows on 45. >owever& the fact that these sets are sold& means the company will receive additional profits from the sales of these sets. 4o counter this effect& many advertisers have opted for product placement on 45 shows li%e 0urvivor. 8articularly since the rise of BentertainingB advertising& some people may li%e an advertisement enough to wish to watch it later or show a friend. +n general& the advertising community has not yet made this easy& although some have used the +nternet to widely distri ute their ads to anyone willing to see or hear them. Another significant trend regarding future of advertising is the growing importance of the niche mar%et using niche or targeted ads. Also rought a out y the +nternet and the theory of 4he 9ong 4ail& advertisers will have an increasing a ility to reach specific audiences. +n the past& the most efficient way to deliver a message was to lan%et the largest mass mar%et audience possi le. >owever& usage trac%ing& customer profiles and the growing popularity of niche content rought a out y everything from logs to social networ%ing sites& provide advertisers with audiences that are smaller ut much etter defined& leading to ads that are more relevant to viewers and more effective for companiesE mar%eting products. Among others& Comcast 0potlight is one such advertiser employing this method in their video on demand menus. 4hese advertisements are targeted to a specific group and can e viewed y anyone wishing to find out more a out a particular usiness or practice at any time& right from their home. 4his causes the viewer to ecome proactive and actually choose what advertisements they want to view.#10,$ +n the realm of advertising agencies& continued industry diversification has seen o servers note that O ig glo al clients donEt need ig glo al agencies any moreQ.#108$ 4his trend is "8

reflected y the growth of non-traditional agencies in various glo al mar%ets& such as Canadian usiness 4AM+ and 0!A;4 in Australia and has een referred to as Ba revolution in the ad worldB.#109$ +n freelance advertising& companies hold pu lic competitions to create ads for their product& the est one of which is chosen for widespread distri ution with a pri(e given to the winner?s@. 'uring the "00, 0uper =owl& 8epsiCo held such a contest for the creation of a 10second television ad for the 'oritos rand of chips& offering a cash pri(e to the winner. Chevrolet held a similar competition for their 4ahoe line of 0/5s. 4his type of advertising& however& is still in its infancy. +t may ultimately decrease the importance of advertising agencies y creating a niche for independent freelancers.#citation needed$ Advertising education has ecome widely popular with achelor& master and doctorate degrees ecoming availa le in the emphasis. A surge in advertising interest is typically attri uted to the strong relationship advertising plays in cultural and technological changes& such as the advance of online social networ%ing. A unique model for teaching advertising is the student-run advertising agency& where advertising students create campaigns for real companies.#110$ )rgani(ations such as American Advertising Federation and Ad/ *etwor% partner esta lished companies with students to create these campaigns.

Advertising researc&
!ain articleG Advertising research Advertising research is a speciali(ed form of research that wor%s to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of advertising. +t entails numerous forms of research which employ different methodologies. Advertising research includes pre-testing ?also %nown as copy testing@ and post-testing of ads andLor campaignsIpre-testing is done efore an ad airs to gauge how well it will perform and post-testing is done after an ad airs to determine the in-mar%et impact of the ad or campaign on the consumer. Continuous ad trac%ing and the Communicus 0ystem are competing e2amples of post-testing advertising research types.

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