DTKFCPL Feb 03 1

We start with Wheat flour.

Wheat flour is the major ingredient used in manufacturing products . It directly affects
Profitability & performance of the product and the units. The performance of the raw
material is related to the various constituents in the wheat flour which play a major role
and go under various chemical, physical and microbiological changes during
processing. Good quality wheat flour helps to manufacture standard and consistent
quality product constantly and is directly responsible to the product yield and cost. It is
because all the constituents of wheat flour are responsible to achieve excellent quality
product, hence it becomes important for all of us to understand the contribution of
wheat and wheat flour in general so as be able to implement the same to control the
product manufacture and production process.

Wheat grain consists of :








Bran

Endosperm

Germ
DTKFCPL Feb 03 2

Varieties of Wheat

Triticum Vulgare
Triticum Durum
Triticum Compactum

Bulk of wheat is of the Vulgare variety and is used for manufacture of bread and
biscuits. The Drum variety of wheat is used to manufacture pasta goods. Very soft
wheat is suitable for manufacture of biscuits (compactum)

Wheat mainly consist of three major components
1) Germs
2) Endosperm
3) Bran/Husk.


These constituents exists in wheat in the falling ratios :
1) Germ embryo that produce new plant growth 2%
2) Starchy endosperm -- food for new plant growth 85%
3) Various Coverings Bran/Husk 13%

The chemical composition of these constituents will demonstrate the chemical role of
these constituents during manufacturing as well helps the flour mills to manufacture the
quality of the flour required by bakery product manufacture.



DTKFCPL Feb 03 3
Chemical Composition of Three Major Constituents of WHEAT

1. Bran
Protein 15-18 %
Fat 4-5%
Carbohydrate 61-73%
Fibre 2-13%
Ash 3-6.3%

2. Germ
Moisture 9.2%
Protein 28.9%
Crude Fiber 2.1%
Fat 9.7%
Mineral Water 4.1%
Carbohydrate 46.0%

3. Endosperm
Moisture 14.0%
Proteins 9.6%
Fat 1.4%
Ash 0.7%
Carbohydrate 74.3%
( Starch - 71.2
Hemicellulose - 1.8
Sugar - 1.1
Cellulose - 0.2
Total Carbon hydrate - 74.3)
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The Wheat composition consists of average composition of all these constituents.
Approximate composition of wheat : Moisture 9-18%
Starch 60-68%
Proteins 815%
Cellulose 2-2.5%
Fat 1.52%
Sugar 2-3%
Ash 1.52%

The wheat flour which is used for manufacture of various bakery products mainly
constitute of the endosperm.

To understand bakery operation in relation to the constitution of the wheat flour, there
are too major elements viz starch and Gluten (Protein) which affect the quality and yield
in bakery operation. It is important to understand the chemical composition and their all
level effects in the processing.

The profitability of flour mills is dependant upon the extraction rate. High extraction
provides better contribution and thereby increases overall profitability. Higher extraction
produces wheat flour of poor quality and also varies in the composition. It effects the
gluten quality. Higher extraction rates always damage the starch molecules. The
variation in composition due to extraction rate is shown below :





DTKFCPL Feb 03 5
Wheat Flour


72% Extraction 80% Extraction

Moisture 13-15.5 13-15
Starch 65-70 64-69
Protein 8-13 914
Cellulose 0-0.2 0.20.35
Fat 1.5-2.0 1.5-2.0
Miral Ash 0.3-0.6 0.6-0.8




Carbohydrate
Starch consists of Amylose and amylopectin. Amylose constitutes 23% and consists of
straight unbranched chain of glucose 1 : 4 gulcosidic linkage. White amylopectin
consists of highly branched short glucose chains.

The significant point here is that these compounds react differently to enzymic
(diastatic) attacks.

The analysis converts straight chain to maltose but is unable to attack amylopectin
beyond the branch point.

DTKFCPL Feb 03 6
The analyses however can attack linkage at branch point and once this is done
amylose can act on amylose and produce maltose with residue from amylopectin
position as dextrin

When amylose attack starch , dextrin (gummy) are formed from amylopectin and
these are compounds which are harmful during bread manufacture the formation of
dextrin makes the product clammy and sticky. During this reaction process , maltose is
produced. There has always been correlation between the amount of dextrin and
maltose. If one is able to estimate the percentage of maltose it would be possible to
derive the extent of starch damage that has taken place and in due course the quantity
of dextrin produced.

There are several methods for the estimation of maltose (which is one of the by
products of anylase reaction. This subjects has always been a very interesting aspect
of cereal chemistry . Rumsey develop a method of estimation and value was
represented as maltose figure. The autolysed flour at fixed time at 62
0
C after which a
separate meter reading was obtained.

Better physical methods were developed to understand the reaction of amylose
on wheat starch. Various equipment were developed and one of the most
important techniques presently used is Amylograph.

The process is described below:
The mixture is mixed at 75 rpm. The material is heated through bath by increasing
temperature at the rate of 1.5
0
C per minute. The shaft operate at the upper end of pen
that records the changes in viscosity .

To 50- 80gm flour add 450ml water in smooth suspension.
DTKFCPL Feb 03 7

The temperature is allowed to increase to 95
0
C and is held constant and apparatus is
allowed for an hour. The graph is recorded as a line at which it runs parallel to
horizontal axis but at 70
0
C starts to rise reaching as peak between 88
0
C to 95
0
C usually
after 45 to 50 mt. Lower peak shows addition of amylase or excess.

Baking Viscosity Diastatic activity of maltose Maltose
Per 10 gm

Very Poor 150 540 3.5
Fair 315 395
Good 442 -547 365 352
Very Good 763 1000
+
275 85 5.5




The other method adopted nowadays is Falling No. in milling industry

The sample of wheat is grounded is allowed to pass through 0.8mm screen. The 7 gm
of flour is mixed with 25 ml. of water in a tube provided with 20 to 30 shakes. The test
tube with a stirrer in position is immediately immersed in a lively boiling water bath. The
contents remain in bath for 60 sec. The stirrer is then raised on top and allowed to drop
by its own weight to a fixed depth. The time taken for the stirrer to drop is called falling
No.

Sprouted wheat would have : Falling No. 150 -300
This provides indication of amylose activity with liquefaction No.
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Liquefaction No. 6000
Falling No. -50 ( Although starch is insoluble in water the granules
swell in hot water and eventually burst. The effect is known a gelatinization of starch.

During the milling process the starch gets damaged due heat produced from rollers
during grinding as it is sheared and crushed between roller. A large amount of water
added which is around 50% or more in the mix is largely consumed by gluten and small
quantity is utilized by starch, which starts swelling. The top of the bread shows
preponderances of starch granules that are swollen. This represents first order
gelatinization. The inside of the loaf has temperature never more that 95 deg Celsius
and water is limited and the gelatinization is not complete.

High viscosity of starch is associated with low volume of baked loaf.


Protein

An Organic Compound where in amino acids are linked together.

Amino acetic acid CH2 (NH2)COOH

Amino group COOH (Carbonlic group).


Protein Composition of wheat flour

Carbon 50-55%
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Hydrogen 6.5-7.5%
Nitrogen 15- 9%
Oxygen 22-27%
Sulphur 0-3.5%

Protein in wheat flour is a combination of the following:

Albumin
Globulin
Protease
Prolamin ( Glidnin)
Glutelin (glutenin)


The first three are insignificant because of their quantities in wheat flour are
approximately 1.7 %. The other two protein are commonly known as gluten and Glidnin
. Glutenin gives solidity and gliadnin imparts softness. The estimation of
extensity/strechability and strength is estimated by various techniques as below:

1) Alveograph

2.5 % salt solution for making dough at 25
0
C - weigh 250 gm start mixer carefully add
calculated qty of salt water taking approximately 15 sec. Allow mixing to proceed for 7
minutes. Stop mixer, raise the shutter A. Extrude the dough cut into four piece . Place
the dough in tempering compartment . Relax for 20 min. If a bubble is created, the
recording monometer should watch the bubble as it punctures.
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Area is measured by Planimeter provides strength of the dough
P = Height of peak is measured in mm stability
L = MM gives stretching ability
Stability 45 90
Strength 20 75
Condition Wheat stability 90
Strength 70 -75

Sticky body is responsible for binding. The bran and germane richer in protein contact. It
is quality of gluten rather than quantity that influences baking quality. The quality of
gluten depends upon chiefly the collidal state of protein.

2) Farino Graph
P
L
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0
















A= Dough Consistency B = Dough Development
D= Elasticity C = Dough Stability
C
B
A
E D
DTKFCPL Feb 03 12
E= Weakening of dough

Quality Of flour

a) There must be sufficient sugar and enough diastatic activity to produce reserve
sugar during fermentation to ensure continuous sufficiency of gas to distant the
dough
b) Protein must be sufficient in quality to hold sufficient gas
c) The dough must be ripe at the time of baking.




B
A
C
Tension D Proportional No
D = B/C
Time Seconds

Visco elastic behavior of the dough.
DTKFCPL Feb 03 13
Fat and lipids

The whole grain contain 2% rather under 4% fat

The oil is present in germ contain : Oleic = 30.0
Linoleic = 44 %
Linolenic = 10%
Other saturated = 13 14%

Germ oil acidity is very important it is responsible for the oxidation of the product. It is
always necessary to check the germoil acidity on a regular basis. It has been observed
that more than 20 units is not an acceptable quality for manufacture of biscuits and
baked varieties.


The lipids in flour affect both formation of dough as it is influenced by the gluten and
also a method to understand the gluten quality and water absorption.


Sugar and Dextrin

Dextrin are responsible to glaze the side / Top of the bread. Excessive dextrin causes
heaviness, stickiness in curb which is noticeable with amylose process.





DTKFCPL Feb 03 14
Standards of white flour
Moisture Ash Protein PH fat maltose Gluten %
min.
14 0.65 10.5 6.0 -6.8 1.5 250 8


Other ingredients

Other important ingredients used in baking operation is yeast which help in proofing the
to the required size and volume . It is important to understand the quality of yeast used
in manufacturing process. The yeast which is commonly used in bakery operation is
called SACCHAROMYCES CEREVISIAE (YEAST).

Saccharomyces Cerevisiae
Dry matter basis - 52% Protein
2% Fat
8 9 %mineral matter
30% glycogen

Yeast is also used a leavening. Yeast converts fermentable sugars such as maltose,
glucose, fructose and sucrose into CO
2
and alcohol. Yeast is a living organism and its
activity can be influenced by storage practices, dough temperature and PH, availability
of water and food supply. Out of these control points, the most important is temperature.

Yeast is available in two forms: Compressed yeast
Dried yeast

DTKFCPL Feb 03 15
The compressed yeast needs to be stored at refrigerated conditions. Active dry yeast
must be pre hydrated 5-to 15 mins before adding to dough at 95 110
o
F water. Instant
Dry yeast can be added directly without pre-hydrating.

Average quantity requirements : 1.5 lb 280. lb per sack
4 lb per sack
Addition Salt

The fermentation by yeast depends on Quality flour and process parameters used in
manufacturing. It has been observed that good quality of flour shows an over jump of
approximately 1.7cm. This is achieved by ability to produce co
2
while entering the oven
and gluten able to extend to encompass the gas which qualified as over jump.

These are various method for manufacture of bread and commonly used are sponge
and dough and straight dough methods. Sponge and dough process is commonly used
in Europe, straight dough process has been adopted as common manufacturing
process. Both these processes have advantages and disadvantage and produce quality
bread . In American countries sliced bread and soft buns are mostly consumed hence
the adoption of soft spong process allows them to achieve better texture for soft bread.
In the European market French bread, Italian bread etc are available from straight
dough method. Bread obtained by such a method provides quality bread and shows
better performance.

The spong dough process is carried out by using half of the flour in formation process
and half the flour is later added to achieve complete dough. While as in straight dough
method all ingredients are mixed at one time and dough is straight taken for
manufacturing process

DTKFCPL Feb 03 16
In the spong dough process the flour quality has to be good otherwise during
fermentation process amylose activity is likely produce more dextrin. So if the quality
of starch is poor it is always recommended to use straight dough process for
manufacture of bread/ bun etc.

For soft flour some oxidsing and reducing agents have been recommended. Oxidsing
agents help to achieve good volume and provide strength to the flour while reducing
agents help gluten to achieve the ability to extend / stretch by breaking down the protein
structure.
Oxidizing agents - Ascorbic acid. KBro
3

Reducing agents - Lcystenien Hydrochloride
SSL Strength
Ethoxylated monoglyciride

















SH
SH
SH Free oxygen by
O KBro3
SH
S

S
Di Sulphide
bands
O
H

H
SH
SH
SH

ADA
H
ADA
H
S

S
Di Sulphide
bands
OXIDIZING AGENTS
DehyoAscorbicacid
KBo
3

SH
DTKFCPL Feb 03 17

There are many theories on how oxidizing agents work. We know that oxiding agents
strengthen the dough. Oxidizing agents have the ability to form disulphide band which
like protein, chain together. It also allows the dough to recover from mixing faster. This
may be due to disulphidethiol interchange. Another theory suggests that oxidizing
agents promote protein aggregation through ionic and hydrogen bonding. When dough
is under oxidized the dough tends to be over sticky and with poor gas retention
properties. A dough that is over oxidized will be too tight and stiff and the resulting
product usually is low in volume( except for over usage of ascorbic acid and KBro
3
) and
grain is dense with holes.

Our strategy is to give longer fermentation time. As the fermentationt time increases, the
oxidation requirements are reduced. Another strategy is to reduce proofing temperature.
The only problem in reducing the proofing temperature is , it extends the proofing time.
This can be overcome by adding additional quantities of yeast.

The oxidizing agents: Strengthens dough structure by creating bond between
proteins
Improves dough handling
Increases product volume
Produces tigular grain







DTKFCPL Feb 03 18































S

S
HS-X
REDUCING AGENTS
Free L-cystine
S

S
SH
S-S-X
Disulphide
bands
Break band between protein chain
Reducing Agents :
Wakens dough structure by breaking
bonds between proteins
Allows shorter mixing time
Improves machine reliability
HS X
DTKFCPL Feb 03 19


Changes During Baking











































Mai Lard reaction/ broconing 121/350
Alpha Amylose
Starch Gelitinization
Slow
Begins starch geletinization
Protien
Thermal death point of yeast
CO2 liberated expanding cell
Mixing Makeup Proofing baking Cooling

200


180


160




140


120




100



80
93
o
C
79-80
o

60
0

49
o

DTKFCPL Feb 03 20




Some of the reducing agents and emulsifiers performance in bakery operations


Strength Soft
SSL (0.5%) +++ +++ Sodium stearoyl Lactate
CSL(0.5) +++ ++ Calcium stearoyl lactate
DATEM ++ + Diacetlge Tartrate ESTER of
EMG (0.5) +++ - Ethoxylated Monoglycicle
SE +++ 0 Sucrose Ester
Poly60 (0.5) +++ 0 Prysorbate 60
SMG + ++ succinylated Mono glyoxide
Hardamono - +++ Hard monoglycode
Soft Mono - +++ Soft Monoglyonde.

The reducing agents reacts during the mixing cycle and has infinite and limited reaction.
It should always be balanced with oxidizing agents. It helps to achieve proper mixing
and flour time.

Usage in rays for same important Ascobric acid 100200 ppm
Cystaine 10-90 ppm
Sodium bisulphate (bakery) 20- 100 mm
(Pie, crackers)


DTKFCPL Feb 03 21

Dough strengtheners/ Crumb softeners are also called emulsifiers or surface active
agents or surfacetants. They help to change surface tension. These emulsifiers have
both strengthening and softening effect upon the product. The most common softeners
are mono and triglycerides. They also help to increase shelf life. For breads, we need
hard monoglycerides and for cakes we need soft monoglycerides are used. The
percentage of alpha alpha monoglycerides is important as it has better dispersibility.
Softeners flows down starch retrogradation thereby inhibiting the staling process. It also
slows moisture migration and improves moistures retention.

In manufacturing process several bread softness have been used. This help to develop
the linkage with starch molecules and also provide help in retaining better moisture
which in togetherness give rise to very soft brand.

The Common Softners - Monoglycerides, starch glycerids

During baking process the flour and other constituents go under various changes. It is
important to understand these changes so as to be able take appropriate steps to
achieve better quality products.

The flour will affect the handling qualities of dough and all the quality factors that will be
evaluated in the product.

Water : The second largest ingredient in bakery operation is water. The main function is
hyderation. Gluten must be hydrated and for gelatinization of starch water is essential .
It also serves as dispersing agent and a medium for fermentation. Water is used to
control dough temperature. The total level of water in a bread dough is normally in the
DTKFCPL Feb 03 22
range of 55 to 65%. Water is the best cereal softener. Higher quantity of water can
dilute an otherwise good product.

Salt : The main function of salt is to bring out the flavor of the baked product. Its usage
levels range from 1.75to2.25%. Bread made out of 1.75% of salt, tastes bland and
bread made out of 2.25% of salt tastes very brackish. Salt also inhibits fermentation due
to osmatic pressure effect and it also toughens gluten . Salt lengthens mixing time.
Therefore addition of salt should be delayed to have proper mixing.

Bacterial analyses (180)
0
F Temperature at which these enzymes get
destroyed in baking operation
Fungal at (150)
0
F
(Cereal amylose) 170
0
F

In baking operation other than mixing other parameters like proof time, weight loss, P,
are responsible for loaf volume. Tables are provided to explain the correlation o these
parameter which is self-explanatory.


Effect of proofing Temperature on proof time loaf volume

Temp OC Time (min) Volume Lb
Ml
21.1 120 2200
30.0 60 2280
35.0 50 2270
40.0 47 2290
46.1 41 2260
DTKFCPL Feb 03 23


Effect of proofing time on loaf volume PH of bread and loss of weight in baking.

Proof line Volume lb PH of Bread Loss in baking (g)
of bread
(ml)
0 1270 5.49 46
15 1610 5.46 52
30 1980 5.41 61
60 2640 5.34 72
75 2780 5.31 73
90 3030 5.26 80
120 3550 5.16 88
150 4090 5.13 89



Effect of humidity during proofing on proof time , loaf volume and yield.

RH Proof Loss in Volume / lb
% Time Proofing + of bread
(min) Baking
35 57 74 2230
50 52 72 2320
60 54 71 2230
80 49 64 2150
90 46 64 2270
DTKFCPL Feb 03 24


Average Proof condition

Straight dough dry bulbs wet bulb RH
F C
100 - 110 37.8-43.3 5-8 2.8-4.5 75 -80
Continuous Process 115 -120 46.1 48.9 3-5 1.7 -2.8 80 -90


Correlation between time and Temperature is shown to help bakers to achieve better
product quality.



Effect Baking rolls

a) Rigid in 10 mts. But danger
In crest coloration

b) Rigid in 14min no coloration
Considered

c) Roll Rigid should have been
Removal at 17 min.

d) Barely rigid difficult to remove
From pan

e) No rigid rolls collapsed dough
or doughy





0 5 10 15 20
210


170


150
Rigid roll
225
o
F
200
o
F
275
o
F
280
o
F
250
o
F
1 2
3
4
5
Minutes of baking
DTKFCPL Feb 03 25
Some of the bread rolls characteristics are presented below to draw our attention to
their uniqueness..

Hard Rolls : American Hard
Jewish
Kaiser or crown rolls
Italian or French
All are made almost from same type of dough . the dough is left until is light enough to
be flattened by Shimmy Machine
Flour Water Yeast KBro
3
Diastatic moulten
60 33 36 2 -3 -0.0375 0-2


Italian Bread : Lean Formula
(Normal Composition Flour, Water, yeast, salt, V. less sugar)
Incorporate Old Dough. Proof bread is provided with smell certs. To appear shell like
bread different shapes, twist S, must have hard, thick crust with dry crumb. Sometimes
the bread is proofed in oven so that it will be crusted when it goes to oven thus
producing heavier crust on the baked loaf.


French Bread : Made from old fermented dough, it is thick, hard crust
and characteristic taste. Fermentation line 3/4 to 1
1/2
hrs. Molding should be tight with
tight skin without tearing. Gain character is open. Proofing should be just to the point
where it will receive cut and open slightly not over proofed should be baked with low
pressure steam. Steam should be left in the oven for sometime (5mt.) No definite temp
and time of baking is recommended. slow baking produces better results.

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Bread Faults

Deviations from the normal bread quality standards, whether perceived subjectively or
determined by objective measurements, are designed by the collective terms bread
faults. They arise from two principal sources : inferior ingredients and improper
processing. in many instances bread faults result from a combination of various factors
so that it is more convenient to classify them into broad categories and indicate the
possible causes that may be involved in each.

Pelshenke has made the very succinct observation that every bakery encounters as
many bread faults as it deserves. This implies that bread faults can be held to a
minimum by paying close attention to the quality of the ingredients and by accurate
control of the production process. It is often quite difficult to the correct diagnose the
immediate cause of a given bread fault and to apply the appropriate remedial action.
However , bread faults will manifest themselves less frequently and their effect will
generally be less serve if an adequate quality control program is adopted and effectively
implemented .Adequate
Quality assurance implies that proper steps are taken at all times to ensure that only
ingredients of satisfactory quality are used, that errors in formulation are avoided, that
proper environmental conditions are consistently maintained. That proper time
temperature and humidity requirements are satisfied without fail at all stages of dough
processing and baking , and that the equipment us maintained in optional operating
condition at all times.

DTKFCPL Feb 03 27
The table below is a list broad classes of common bread faults, together with their
probable causes.

Bread Faults

External Faults
Lack of Loaf Volume
Immature or green Flour
Wrong type of flour.
Insufficient absorption
Insufficient Yeast
Poor quality or mishandled yeast.
Excess salt
Excessive diastatic activity
Lack of shortening
Improper mixing over or under termented dough
Over mentioned or under fermented dough
Dough temperature too low.
Insufficient pan proof.
Insufficient dough weigh for size
Hot Oven
Excessive Loaf Volume
Overaged Dough
Insufficient salt
Over proofing
Overscaling for pan size
Cool oven
Pale crust colour
DTKFCPL Feb 03 28
Insufficient residual sugar
Deficiency in diastatics activity
Excessive mineral yeast food.
Fermentation temperature too high
Old dough
Insufficient humidity in final proof
Cool oven
Low top heat in oven
Under baking
Dark Crush Colour
Excessive sugar in formula
Immature milk Products in formula
Excessive milk products in formula
Hot oven
High top heat in oven
Over baking
Blisters Under Crust
Undermixing
Young dough
Careless moulding
Excessive steam in final proof
Over proofing
Rough handling at oven
Excessive oven steam ( condensation)
Excessive vacuum at depanner (separation)



DTKFCPL Feb 03 29

Thick Crust
Insufficient sugar and shortening in formula
Insufficient milk in formula
Deficient diastatic activity
Old Dough
Insufficient humidity in final proof
Low oven temperature
Over baking
Shell Tops
Immature Flour
Deficient diastatics activity
Inadequate oxidation
Young dough
Insufficient humidity in final proof
Too tight moulding (low pressure board)
Excessive to heat in oven
Insufficient Oven
Wild Break and Shred
Slightly overaged dough
Overmixing
Inadequate oxidation
Insufficient STEAM IN OVEN
Improper moulding (low Pressure Board)




DTKFCPL Feb 03 30


Absences of break and Shred
Weak Flour
Undermixing
Excessively diastatic activity
Over oxidation
Excessive final proof
Excessively hot Oven
Internal Faults

Gray Dull Crumb Color
Excessive diastatics
Overmixing or undermixing
Young Dough (round , thick, cells)
Old dough (open Cell structure)
Improper sheeting and moulding
Underweight dough for pan size.
Excessive proof
Low oven temperature
Streaked Crumb
Improper dough mixing
Excessive dusting flour.
Too much trough grease or divider oil.
Insufficient shortening
Dough crushing during termination and final proof


DTKFCPL Feb 03 31


Improper use of rework dough
Excessive pan grease
Poor Gain
Weak flour
Overly stiff dough
Overly slack dough
Overmixing
Young dough
Improper moulding
Insufficient dough weight for pan size
Low oven temperatures
Poor Texture :
Overly stiff dough
Improper mixing
Excessive diastatic activity
Insufficient Shortening
Old Dough
Crushing of sponge or dough fermentation
Crushing of sponge or dough during fermentation
Over Proofing
Insufficient dough weigh for pan size
Low over heat.




DTKFCPL Feb 03 32
Holes in breads
Immature or weak flour
Unbalanced formula
Improper mixing either over or under mixed
Old dough, young dough
Crusting of sponge or dough during fermentation
Excessive dusting four or divider oil.
Improper moulding
High final proof temperature
Insufficient Oven steam
Poor Flavor
Poor quality ingredients
Improper storage of ingredients
Unbalanced formula
Insufficient salt
Old dough , young dough
Insanitary plant conditions
Old trough and pan grease
Over or underbaking
Poor Keeping Quality
Unbalanced formula
Lean formula
Poor quality ingredients
Improper mixing
Overfermentation
Under proofing
Low oven temperature
Excessive cooling before wrapping.