Queen Mary University of London School of Engineering and Materials Science

11 December 2012 Laboratory Report

DEN4101 - Fluid Mechanics 1 Flow Rate Measurement Experiment

Eleanor Rajaratnam Student Number: 110629520

Abstract
The aim of this experiment was to compare the value of the mass flow rate of air calculated from the practical results obtained via an Venturi and manometer system and that derived from a velocity profile via a Pitot tube system, thus stating the reason if the two results differed.

Contents:

Abstract..Page 2

Introduction.Page 3

Background Theory.Page 3-5

Apparatus..Page 5-6

Experimental Method..Page 6

Results.Page 7-9

Discussion.Page 9-10

ConclusionPage 10

ReferencesPage 10

Introduction In 1738, Daniel Bernoulli [1700 1782: Wikipedia] finalised and published in his book Hydrodynamica key equations of fluid flow known as Bernoullis Principle that are still viable and used to this current day. The equation states that as fluid travels through a contained apparatus, the pressure acting on a specific point on the surface can be changed only if the velocity of the fluid flow is altered. This principle can be applied to numerous types of fluid flow; however it is most efficient when applied with incompressible fluids where the density is kept constant. Thus, as a small amount of liquid flows inviscidly, from one point to another, the total energy, which is the amalgamation of the potential, kinetic, and pressure energies, remains constant throughout displacement. This shows that the whole concept is derived from the energy conservation law, so at any point along the flow the mechanical energy is the same. Multiple scientists investigated using this equation, such as Giovanni Battista Venturi [1746 1822: Wikipedia] an Italian physicist who designed the Venturi experiment. The Venturi apparatus allows a fluid flow through it, however there is a section of decreased cross-sectional area, where the variables such as the pressure can be recorded using manometer between two points. The flow rate increases through the smaller area section of the apparatus due to the conservation of momentum. Thus, as the volume of fluid flow decreases the velocity must increase, using Bernoullis principle the static particle pressure against the tube must also decrease; this balances the equation and satisfies the conservation of energy where, the gain in kinetic energy of fluid particles is balanced by the loss in pressure [Munson et al, 2009]. This is proven in the experiment as the water level through the tube located within the minimised cross-sectional area of the apparatus shows a higher reading than that taken from the standard flow, where the higher pressure and slower velocity shows a smaller reading. When used for compressible fluids, pressure inside the Venturi can be subject to change, this can be used in gauges to calibrate fuel or combustion pressures in jet or rocket engines [Wikipedia] Another example is Henri Pitot [1695 1771: Wikipedia] who created a device that could calculate the speed of travelling ships using the flow pressure, this is known as the Pitot Tube. This apparatus, placed within an already steady flow of fluid, measures fluid flow velocity locally (not an average rate). Pressure can be measured as the flow slows to a complete halt within the tube as the water level rises to a constant due to the increase in dynamic pressure, this is also known as the stagnation pressure. It was then discovered using Bernoullis Principle that this stagnation pressure (total pressure) is equal to the static pressure, measured using the total flow, plus the dynamic pressure. The fluid velocity increase is proportional to the increase of dynamic pressure plus kinetic energy, and also to the decrease of static pressure plus potential energy which satisfies the conservation of energy and momentum.

Background Theory Calculations: Barometer (fig): The first calculations that we took during this investigation were the atmospheric pressure and the temperature of the surroundings: Pressure: 764mmHg Temperature: 19C = 292K Using these and a magnesium barometer one is able to find the density of air, which can then be used for integral calculations used later once all results have been obtained. Using the formula: P = RT Where: = Density of air R = Specific gas constant = 287.04 T = Temperature of air (Kelvin)

 = P/RT (1 mmWg = 9.81 Pa = 1 mmHO) T = 292K P = 764 mmHg

P = 13.534 (density of mercury used in barometer) x 9.81 x 764 = 101435.1646 Pa = 101.4 KPa (1 d.p.) = = 1.210217045 kg/m = density of air

Pitot Tube: The Pitot Tube (fig) system is used to find the velocity of air through the smaller cross-sectional area part of the whole Venturi system, thus using between points (3) and (4) (fig):

However, as h=0:

Where: V=Volume in the two different parts of the Venturi Pa=Density of air However, as occurs at a stagnation point, = 0 thus:

As, P = gh:

Thus: Where: = height difference (in this particular experiment, this is known is known as the altering manometer pressure reading which records the pressure of the differing heights of the fluids in the tube itself.)

Once results have been achieved, and the graph (V(r).r) has been plotted, the area under this curve is known as the mass flow rate.

Venturi: Using Bernoullis equation between the points (1) and (2) (fig), and the earlier velocity ( ) calculated from the pitot tube, one can find the initial velocity of air travelling through the Venturi system, and once combined with the equation of continuity, the mass flow rate can also be found. As density is constant throughout: = Thus:

Where:

= Cross-sectional area (point 1) = Cross-sectional area (point 2)

This can then be combined with the equation of continuity to find the mass flow rate: Where:

= Density of air = Volume = Cross-sectional area

Apparatus Thermometer (fig): Used to measure the temperature of the surroundings, prior to experiment. Barometer (fig): The barometer balances the weight of the mercury within against the atmospheric pressure outside. If the weight of the mercury is less than the atmospheric pressure the level of the mercury rises and vice versa. An advantage of this method is the high accuracy rate. (weather.about.com) A system to blow the air through the entire experiment is also needed. It must be fully adjustable so varying results can be recorded. Venturi Metre (fig): This apparatus allows a fluid flow through the varying cross-sectional areas between two points. As the cross-sectional area decreases, the rate of flow through this section increases. A manometer is used to measure the pressure between these two points. The advantage of measuring the flow in this particular way is that the method produces accurate results, however the apparatus is expensive to produce. Pitot Tube (fig : This system measures the velocity of the flow of fluid through it at a specific point. A manometer is also used in this case to produce a pressure reading of the fluid as well. An advantage of this method is there are low losses of the recordable pressure and infact it guarantees you a precise result, however they are quite ineffective when used with lower velocities.

Manometer (fig): This piece of equipment is an analogue fixture which is used to measure the pressure created by a fluid. The high sensitivity produces good accurate results, however only when read correctly, as one can be subject human error on such a device. Pressure transducer (fig): An electronic tool which can also calculate values of fluid pressure. However being electronic it is prone to produce anomalies if not zero calibrated or due to battery defects.

Experimental Method: Firstly the entire apparatus of the experiment must be set up correctly, according to the image below: Fig:

Then, the temperature, atmospheric pressure and varying areas are recorded initially, using the appropriate tools as mentioned in the apparatus section. During this stage of set up, one must also make sure that the Manometer is correctly calibrated to zero to prevent zero error, however if this cannot be achieved, which is sometimes possible on analogue objects, you must be consistent on where you take readings, and deduct from results accordingly. You must also make sure that the part of the Pitot tube which is directly in contact with the air stream is correctly placed in line with the fluid flow. The results recorded for the Pitot tube (which is usually taken first) must be done three times, each with the Manometer and the Transducer of varying radii (to give variation). The system is then switched to the Venturi where once again, three times both sets of results are needed. The speed of the air flow must then be altered (can be done numerous times) and the results taken down once again.

Results: The raw data of the results collected are contained within the Appendix section of this report. Pitot Tube: Using the raw data that was collected, and the formula: One is able to obtain the numerous different velocities found at the point of which the Pitot tube is located within the Venturi system. The tables created for each set of results can be found within the appendix section. Air flow velocity: 20mmH0 Average = 19.4 Air flow velocity: 40mmH0 Average = 27.3 Air flow velocity: 60mmH0 Average = 33.6 From here we then worked out the radial velocity (V(r).r) by multiplying the velocity found by the altering distance from the Pitot tube to the centre origin of the Venturi system. Air flow velocity: 20mmH0

20mmH0
0.5 V(r).r (ms-1) 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 Radius from Centre (m)

Velocity ( ) 19.8 19.8 19.9 19.8 19.9 19.8 16.9

Radius from Centre (m) 0.000 0.004 0.008 0.012 0.016 0.020 0.024

V(r).r ( ) 0.000 0.079 0.159 0.238 0.318 0.396 0.406

Once this graph was produced we took the area under the linearly proportional section the graph (in all cases I ignored the last point of each set of results as this seemed like an anomaly which was consistently occurring) and combined this result with the density of air and 2 to thus find the mass flow rate: E.g.: 1.210217045 kg/m x x = 0.0301119111

Air flow velocity: 40mmH0

40mmH0
0.6 0.5 V(r).r (ms-1) 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 Radius from Centre (m) 28.0 28.0 28.0 28.0 27.9 27.5 23.4 Velocity ( ) Radius from Centre (m) 0.000 0.004 0.008 0.012 0.016 0.020 0.024 V(r).r ( )

0.000 0.112 0.224 0.336 0.446 0.550 0.562

Mass flow rate: 0.04182209876 Air flow velocity: 60mmH0

60mmH0
0.8 V(r).r (ms-1) 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 Radius from Centre (m)

Velocity ( ) 34.5 34.3 34.3 34.2 34.2 34.0 29.4

Radius from Centre (m) 0.000 0.004 0.008 0.012 0.016 0.020 0.024

V(r).r ( ) 0.000 0.137 0.274 0.410 0.547 0.680 0.706

Mass flow rate: 0.0517073221 Venturi Firstly, we calculated the differing cross-sectional areas using the equation :

Diameter ( 0.145 0.051 Thus using the above mentioned formula:

Cross sectional area 0.016513(A1) 0.002043(A2)

And results of the density of air(as shown above): 1.210217045 kg/m, plus the mass flow rate formula:

Where has been found as the average velocity from the Pitot readings, we were able to achieve the value for in this cases , and subsequently using this result, the mass flow rate.

Flow Speed ( 20mmH0 40mmH0 60mmH0 Discussion Air Speed

Velocity ) 2.388 3.378 4.157

Mass flow rate ( ) 0.048 0.068 0.083

Venturi Mass flow rate ( ) 0.048 0.068 0.083

Pitot Mass flow rate ( ) 0.030 0.042 0.052

20mmH0 40mmH0 60mmH0

As one can see, the results that I derived above from both the Pitot and Venturi experiments do slightly differ to each other, one of the main reasons for this could be that the Pitot generally takes more accurate readings as the range of results are smaller, however there are other causes for error. For example, as stated above problems such as human errors can arise from using a manometer as it is an analogue tool, this can create particular anomalies, however with the manometer if it cannot be zero calibrated and one is not consistent with where they take the readings, this can cause a system error across the results. Another cause of error can occur within the graphical section of the Pitot tube results. When taking the area under the curve, I treated this as a directly proportional linear correlation (ignoring the last results for each set) finding the area by , however this curve may not of been a true straight line. If I used a correct graphical program I would have found the gradient of this curve and used integration to find the most accurate value for the area A final cause for error is the chance of turbulent flow within the actual Venturi apparatus. This is quite prone to happen as any irregularity (however small) located within the fan or the air blower system can cause turbulence which builds up over distance travelled.

Thus, due to this turbulence the flow of the fluid along the edge is less than the flow along the centre of the system, this can cause irregularities in results taken as the range of velocities within a turbulent flow differ widely while a laminar flow would give a truer and more reliable set of results. Percentage Difference Average = Therefore percentage difference =

Air Speed
20mmH0 40mmH0 60mmH0

Average 0.037 0.055 0.068

Percentage Difference 48.6 47.3 45.6

This high percentage difference shows that either one or both of the experiments were flawed, as stated above, this could down to the different types of errors the test can be prone to or the turbulence caused in the Venturi system. Conclusion: All in all I believe that this experiment is flawed as the percentage difference (as worked out in the example above) was large, thus proving that either I had made mistakes or the system was defective. However I was pleased with the results obtained from the Pitot experiment as the graphs produced all had a good line of linear proportionality. References [Wikipedia] all accessed 12/11/11: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Pitot http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Bernoulli http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Battista_Venturi http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venturi_tube#Venturi_tubes [Muson]: Munson B.R., Young D.F., Okiishi T.H., Huebsh W.W., Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics: SI Version, 6th ed, Wiley, Hoboken, 2009.

Accessed: 10/01/12

http://weather.about.com/od/weatherinstruments/a/barometers.htm

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