ICLC Conference 2010 Proceedings

ICLC 2010 Proceedings
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The 2nd International Conference on Language and Communication "Dynamism of Language and Communication in Society" ICLC 2010 August 5-6, 2010
Proceedings
Graduate School of Language and Communication, Address: National Institute of Development Administration (NIDA), 118 Serithai Road, Klong Chan, Bangkapi, Bangkok 10240 Thailand Tel: 0-2727-3138, 3143, 45, 47, 52 Fax: 0-2377-7892 Website: http://lc.nida.ac.th/home/index.php
The 2nd International Conference on Language and Communication "Dynamism of Language and Communication in Society" ICLC 2010
August 5-6, 2010
Proceedings
ICLC 2010 Proceedingss

Organized Committees Organizing Committee in Chief Co-Coordinator Savitri Gadavanij, Ph.D. Associate Dean for Academic Affairs Asst. Prof, National Institute of Development Administration, Thailand ML. Jirapa Abhakorn, Ph.D., National Institute of Development Administration, Thailand Compol Swangboonsatic, Ph.D., of Associate Dean for Planning and Development Affairs, National Institute of Development Administration, Thailand
Co-Coordinator
Advisory Panel Saksit Saengboon, Ph.D., Dean & Asst. Prof, National Institute Development Administration, Thailand
Khwanchira Sena, Ph.D., Associate Dean for Administrative Affairs, National Institute of Development Administration, Thailand Reviewers Montri Tangpijaikul, Ph.D., Kasetsart University, Thailand Pornpavee Sukrutrit, Ph.D., University of the Thai Chamber Commerce, Thailand Wipada Prasansaph, Ed.D., Suan Sunandha Rajabhat University, Thailand Kanyarat Getkham, Ph.D., National Institute of Development Administration, Thailand Nareenoot Damrongchai, Ph.D., National Institute of Development Administration, Thailand Jaray Singhakowinta, Ph.D., National Institute of Development Administration, Thailand Bussaba Banchongmanee, Ph.D., Kasetsart University, Thailand
Navaporn Sanprasert, Ph.D., Kasetsart University, Thailand Suttinee Chuanchaisit, Ph.D., University of the Thai Chamber Commerce, Thailand Duangkamol Thitivesa, Ed.D., Suan Sunandha Rajabhat University, Thailand Hugo Yu-Hsiu Lee, Ph.D., National Institute of Development Administration, Thailand Natchaya Chalaysap, Ph.D., National Institute of Development Administration, Thailand Tewich Sawetaiyaram, Ph.D., National Institute of Development Administration, Thailand Yupaka Fukushima, Ph.D. Kasetsart University, Thailand
Proofreaders Hugo Yu-Hsiu Lee, Ph.D., National Institute of Development Administration, Thailand Thomas Hamilton, Ph.D. Candidate, National Institute of Development Administration, Thailand Andrew West, M.S., National Institute of Development Administration, Thailand Stanley Dean Taylor, M.Sc., National Institute of Development Administration, Thailand Editorial Board Editor in Chief
Associate Editor
Varasiri Sagaravasi Assoc. Prof, National Institute of Development Administration, Thailand ML. Jirapa Abhakorn, Ph.D., National Institute of Development Administration, Thailand
Associate Editor Cover File & Graphic Designer Interior File Designer
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Copyright 2011 the Graduate School of Language and Communication (GSLC) at the National Institute of Development Administration (NIDA), Bangkok Thailand and Authors/Contributors. All rights reserved. Address: National Institute of Development Administration (NIDA), 118 Serithai Road, Klong Chan, Bangkapi, Bangkok 10240 Thailand Tel: 0-2727-3138, 3143, 45, 47, 52 Fax: 0-2377-7892 Website: http://lc.nida.ac.th/home/index.php An Author/Contributor of these proceedings receives free CD-Rom proceeding. Publisher: The Graduate School of Language and Communication (GSLC), The National Institute of Development Administration (NIDA), Thailand Publishing Service: Scand-Media Corp. Ltd., Bangkok, Thailand
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Notes to Authors/Contributors of Proceedings:

1. Unless otherwise noted by the authors/contributors by email communications to the editorial board in advance that their works are subject to crown copyright, any manuscripts published in proceedings have been irrevocably copyrighted: Copyright 2011 by two copyright sharersthe authors/contributors and the Graduate School of Language and Communication (GSLC) at the National Institute of Development Administration (NIDA), Bangkok Thailand. The copyright transfer from authors/contributors to GSLC at NIDA covers all exclusive rights to store, reproduce, and distribute the contribution in part and as a whole by any means. By submitting an authors/contributors revised manuscript, even the crown copyrighted materials also grant GSLC at NIDA an exclusive right to publish, disseminate, and distribute in any forms including CD-ROM and in print. 2. By submitting a revised manuscript to be published in this proceedings mean that the authors/contributors have taken responsibilities to obtain permissions from the copyright owners and/or any legal representatives wherever a copyrighted text, photographs, tables, figures, and any kinds of materials are used in his/her manuscripts published in this proceedings. In other words, this is the author/contributors responsibility, instead of GSLC at NIDA, to ensure that these published manuscripts are copyrightable. 3. Except republication of the same and/or similar version of a manuscript in a conference proceedings, the authors/contributors retain his/her rights to reuse any portion of his/her work without any fee charges for future works of the their own including all other forms of publications, i.e., books, chapters in a volume, reprints, monographs, working papers, general journal papers, international referred journals as well as lectures and media presentations in educational- and/or academic settings that are at least 40% revised and expanded from his/her current edition published in this proceedings. A proper acknowledgement to quote and/or cite his/her original work published in these proceedings is highly recommended and appreciated.
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Notes to Readers/Users when using any portion of these Proceedings:

1. Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the authors/contributors and the editorial board has made their best efforts to ensure the quality of manuscripts published in these proceedings, they make no representations and no quality warranties in regard to the correctness and completeness in the contents of this publication. The editorial board has disclaimed any applied warranties of merchantability and/or fitness for any specific use of this publication. No warranties can be and should be created by marketing and sales representatives on behave of the editorial board. The authors/contributors and editorial board are neither responsible and nor liable for any losses and damages using this proceedings, because it may not be suited for your particular use. 2. Readers/Users should be aware that references and/or resources from Internet might have been changed, modified, or removed between the time these proceedings were prepared to be published on CD-ROM, and when it is read by you.
FOREWORD
The Graduate School of Language and Communication (GSLC), through research and teaching revolving around human communication, realizes that language and communication is pivotal to success in most, if not all, spheres of life in contemporary society. The testament to this very fact lies in its International Conference on Language and Communication (ICLC 2010) entitled Dynamism of Language and Communication in Society, which was held at the National Institute of Development Administration (NIDA) on August 5-6, 2010. The twoday event was well received by over 150 participants, essentially representing scholars Thais and Non-Thais alikefrom near and far. Papers and research presented at the conference have lent strong support to GSLCs conviction that language and communication are part and parcel of contemporary society, where acts of communicating and genres of language use never cease to become intertwined, thus redefining the traditional notion of human language as a scientific object and embracing a social turn in language that is ever-changing, perennially dynamic. All these have helped shape the communication terrain a great deal. Because of the great insights and development that the presentations have generated, GSLC has prepared this conference proceedings. I do hope that they will allow interested readers to savor this food for thoughtone that rightly reflects the dynamic interplay between language and communication in context. On this occasion, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to all the GSLC participants, and organizers for their hard work and effort in making all this successfully happen. I look forward to the next GSLC international conference in 2011.
Saksit Saengboon, Ph.D.,

Dean Assistant Professor Graduate School of Language and Communication National Institute of Development Administration (NIDA), Thailand
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FOREWORD
The Graduate School of Language and Communication firmly believes that dialogue and contributions from various perspectives would enhance a fruitful discussion and that would help pushing the boundary of the study in language and communication. The 2nd International Conference on Language and Communication was organized to serve as a platform where academics from all over the world could come and share their view on the issue. It was our pleasure to welcome scholars with various backgrounds and we thank everyone for enriching and broadening the theme of our conference Dynamism of Language and Communication in Society. We do hope that we would be able to welcome you again in the conferences to come. On behalf of the organizing committee, I would like to express my sincere gratitude for all participants, organizers and GSLC staff for making the 2nd ICLC 2010 an inspiring and memorable event.
Savitri Gadavanij, Ph.D.,

Associate Dean for Academic Affairs Asst. Prof, National Institute of Development Administration, Thailand Coordinator, 2010 International Conference on Language and Communication
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FOREWORD
We are pleased to present the Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Dynamism of Language and Communication in Society held August 5-6, 2010 at the School of Language and Communication, National Institute of Development Administration, Bangkok, Thailand. It was our great pleasure to welcome and accommodate experts from America, Australia, Europe, Middle East and Asia.
Our special thanks go to the Keynote speakers, Professor Dr. Chetana Nagavajira, and Professor Sachiko Ide for their contributions to the event. We also extend our heartfelt thanks to the authors for submitting their papers and the proofreaders who processed the submissions. The proceedings include a wide range of topics in language variations, translation, discourse, English language teaching, applied linguistics, and communication related to language learning.
We hope that the diversity of the proceedings will stimulate discussion and action on the roles of language and communication both inside and outside the classroom.
The Editors
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ICLC 2010 Proceedings CONTENTS

Foreword Dean Assist. Prof. Dr. Saksit Saengboon Foreword Associate Dean for Academic Affairs Assist. Prof. Dr. Savitri Gadavanij Foreword The Editors The Study of English Varieties as Perceived by the Korean Learner of English in an International Context Andee Pollard Democracy or Imperial Sovereignty?: A Critical Discourse Analysis of George W. Bushs and Tony Blairs Speeches on the War on Terror Chulamani Chantarawandi Recent Developments and Perspectives on Translation Studies in Thai Context Kazuharu Kazuharu Yamamoto Comparative Genre Analysis of English Argumentative Essays Written by English Major and Non-English Major Students at a Chinese University A Pilot Study Li Qian and Issra Pramoolsook A Comparative Study of Thai Children's Metalinguistic Awareness from Different Age Groups and Educational Programs Pornpimol Turbpaiboon and Chutamanee Onsuwan A Critical Discourse Analysis of Thai-ness in Childrens literatures: A Case Study of TK Park Childrens Books for the Southernmost Provinces of Thailand Nattapol Zupasit The Ability to Translate Verbal Complements from English to Thai: A case study of the 1st and 3rd year English Major Students Patchanok Kitikanan Authentic Articles for Integrated Skills Sebastian Brooke The Review Study: the Place of Culture in ELT Siros Izadpanah The Review Study : The Effect of Task-Based Approach on the Advanced EFL Learners' Narrative vs. Expository Writing Siros Izadpanah Unique Categories of Errors in Thai Spellings of English Thomas Hamilton, Richard Watson Todd, Ph.D., and Nuttanart Facundes, Ph.D. An Analysis of English to Thai Business Document Translation Patcharee Pokasamrit, Ph.D.
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Students' Perceptions of Engaging a Virtual World in a Communication Task Thanaporn Srisunakrua and Punjaporn Pojanapunya College Students' Perceptions of English as a Medium of Instruction Chadarat Hengsadeekul, Ravinder Koul, and Sittichai Kaewkuekool A Look at Changing Trends in Japanese Education: Teaching Licenses Peter Ferguson and Richard H. Derrah A Short History of Teacher Education in Japan Richard H. Derrah and Peter Ferguson Enhancing Reading Comprehension and Attitudes through 4MAT System and Background Music Nakonthep Tipayasuparat and Alisara Chuchart, Ph.D. Null Subject in a Chinese Learner of English's oral Production Varasiri Sagaravasi The Relationship between the Usage and the Understanding of Prepositions in Reading Comphrehension among Thai Students Natchaya Chalaysap, Ph.D. ELT Innovation : Students' Participation in Generating Academic Reading Materials Natchaya Chalaysap, Ph.D., Compol Swangboonsatic, Ph.D., Kanyarat getkham, Ph.D., Kasma Suwanarak, Ph.D., Ketkanda Jaturongkachoke, Ph.D., Khwanchira Sena, Ph.D., Natthinee Klamphonpook, Rujira Rojjanaprapayon, Ph.D., Saksit Saengboon, Ph.D., Savitri Gadananij, Ph.D., and Varasiri Sagaravasi Information Status Dynamics and English Cleft Constructions Jennifer A. Piotrowski Can Only Native English Speaking Teachers Teach Aural and Oral Skills? Kasama Suwanarak, Ph.D. Communication Strategies by Thai University Students in English Language Learning Sureepong Phothongsunan, Ph.D. Pidgin-English in the Nigerian Music and Films: the Benefits Opoola B.T., Ph.D and Opoola A.F. Health Discourse and Health Knowledge: a Preliminary Study of the Thai Rath Daily Newspaper Compol Swangboonsatic, PhD. The Acquisition of Connective Expressions in Japanese: The Case of Thai-Speaking Learners Tewich Sawetaiyaram, Ph.D.
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ICLC 2010 Proceedings The Study of English Varieties as Perceived by the Korean Learner of English in an International Context Andee Pollard (andeepollard@gmail.com) Curtin University of Technology
Abstract This paper attempts to identify which variety of English is considered to be the most suitable for the Korean learner of English. Suitability can be broken into several segments which primarily look at which variety of English is perceived as being the best while also factoring in perceived intelligibility of established English varieties by the participants. The English varieties subjected to assessment are General American English, British English, Australian English, Singaporean English and Korean English through the form of audio samples that utilize the standard spoken language. Questions have been raised in recent times relating to the practicality of international communication relying on native models such as General American English and British English whereas others have proposed the way forward is for further acceptance of English as a Lingua Franca within the ELT sector. What we must keep in mind, however, is that the end-user is the English learner, and we need to answer just which model of English is the most practical for their purposes. This study suggests that what is deemed as the best and what is interpreted as ideal for the Korean learner of English may indeed be two different entities. KEYWORDS: ELF, Korean English, TESOL, Intelligibility, Variety, Dialect Introduction It is common knowledge that English is a global language used in all corners of the world by people from all walks of life (Crystal, 1997; Kubota & Ward, 2000). It is therefore a necessity for English to be investigated on the levels of how it affects the lives of the people that use it (Kirkpatrick, 2007). Affects that need to be considered fall outside of the old arguments of native and non-native and now land within the realms of intelligible communication (Crystal, 1997; Elliot & Jenkins, 2010; Graddol, 2001; Jenkins, 2000). It is through intelligibility that successful communication can take place. It is therefore the focus of this paper to attempt to look into the notion of perceived intelligibility through the eyes of the Korean learner of English (KLE) and also how a selection of English varieties are perceived accentually by these same learners. Instead of prescribing to the learners which variety of English they should be exposed to, this paper will attempt to determine which variety of English they want exposure to. Idealistically speaking, this paper aims to bring the considerations of the learner into the equation and to determine that if the wants and needs of the learner are one and the same. Objectives of the Research Within Korea and the ELT sector in general there is a strong preference for L1 speakers of English to act as English teachers. The basis for this appears to be built on the assumption that L1 speakers offer the best model of English with respect to pronunciation and usage (Jenkins, 2006; Kirkpatrick, 2007; Shirazizadeh & Momenian, 2009). Within Korea particularly, there is often further discrimination in the shape of North American
pronunciation models being more widely regarded than all others. It is therefore an objective of this research to examine which English variety from those tested is perceived as the best for the KLE. Further to the argument of which pronunciation model is the best for the KLE, recent research suggests that the L1 speaker of English is often less intelligible than the L2 speaker of English when communication involves L2 speakers (Kachru & Nelson, 2001; Smith & Rafiqzad, 1979). It is therefore, an objective of this research to determine which variety of English from the varieties tested is perceived as the most intelligible for the KLE. Significance of the Research There is a substantial body of work already in existence that relates to which variety of English it is that learners should learn. This research is in contrast to this, however, as it is directed more toward which variety of English it is that the learner wants to learn. While according to Kirkpatrick (2007), it is educational policy that often dictates which variety of English learners will be exposed to, this research attempts to address if the policy makers have the best interests of their students English language odyssey at heart. If we are to look at numerous ELT job advertisements placed on the internet (Sperling, n.d.), we can assert that possessing an undergraduate degree, valid passport and native speaker membership is often all that is needed to enter the ELT sector. This wanton neglect for teaching qualifications can only hinder, not only the ELT sector, but also the learner of English. This is somewhat ironic if we consider that an educators foremost thought should be of their students. It is with this in mind that we can consider this research to be of significance throughout the ELT sector; from test writers, textbook writers and syllabus designers, to government bodies and policy makers, and all the way through to the grass roots level of teachers and students. It is through shedding light on the issue of which variety of English is perceived as the best by those that learn the language that we will be able to cater admirably to our students needs. Literature Review There are many notions surrounding English that predominantly appear within two domains. These domains being those that believe in English being norm-dependent, as in Standard English (Lippi-Green, 1997; Strevens, 1977), and those that believe in English being 'norm-developing', as in English as a Lingua Franca (Dauer, 2005; Elliot & Jenkins, 2010; Jenkins, 2000; Seidlhofer, 2002). According to Seidlhofer (2002), as English spreads and commands a higher priority on the world stage, the latter view of norm-developing appears to be taking the stronger position. However, as is suggested by Jenkins (2005), and Fauzia Sari and Yusuf (2009), the learners of English still appear to hold aspirations of being users of the norm-dependent variety of English. The aspirations of the learner of English possessing a norm-dependent variety of English are what Kachru and Nelson (2001) refer to as native speaker idolisation and falls within the realm of the traditionalist or imperialist view where the Native English Speaker (NES) is perceived as superior on a number of linguistic levels when directly contrasted with the Non-Native English Speaker (NNES) (Kachru & Nelson, 2001; Kirkpatrick, 2007; Shirazizadeh & Momenian, 2009). This view is in direct opposition with the more modern and idealistic approach where English is seen as a global entity. An entity, which according
to Lee (2005) and Selinker (as cited in Medgyes, 1992) now does not possess the polar positions of NES and NNES, but instead a continuum that is related to competence. The notion that the NES is superior to the NNES does still appear to have its supporters however. According to the literature, due to the intrinsic power of the NES, it is often enough for someone wishing to enter the ELT sector to have little more qualification than that of being an L1 English speaker (Jenkins, 2006; Kirkpatrick, 2007). This phenomenon can be seen in countless job advertisements on the internet (Sperling, n.d.), and is suggested by Kirkpatrick (2007) to be instigated by the Ministries of Education in their respective countries. In addition to the ideal of the native English speaker as teacher, there is still the widespread belief that any pronunciation that diverges from the standards of Received Pronunciation (RP) or General American English (GAE) are perceived as being incorrect (Jenkins, 2005, 2006; Lippi-Green, 1997). The issue with this, as Graddol (2001), and Jin and Cortazzi (2003) suggest, is the lack of consideration for the learner. The lack of consideration being that in an attempt to standardise the ELT industry, the learner is not consulted to establish just which variety of English will stand to be the most instrumental in serving their purposes (Graddol, 2001; Jin & Cortazzi, 2003). If the notion of what is correct or incorrect where pronunciation is considered is to be scrutinised, Jenkins (2000) makes the observation that for the adult learner in particular, it is often improbable to attain a native-like accent in their L2. This, according to Jenner (1989), places the onus on the teacher to accept the difference between perfection and acceptable; thus empowering the continuum of competence to which Lee (2005) and Selinker (as cited in Medgyes, 1992) refer. Furthermore, as Dauer (2005) notes, accentual variation is the norm in NNES and teachers should be capable of making a judgement call when it comes to their students' pronunciation. Moreover, if we consider that English as we know it is comprised of countless variations (Kirkpatrick, 2007), then who is truly capable of producing accentual perfection if even NES merely tolerate the varieties that one another utilise (Kachru & Nelson, 2001, p. 15). With the debate about English pronunciation norms appearing to be a never-ending one, the greater issue of intelligibility comes to the fore. The concern with mutual intelligibility across English users is considered by Jenkins (2000) to be moving away from the English speaker and onto the English listener. This switch in responsibility is an area that has been under analysis by a number of scholars (Crystal, 1997; Deterding & Kirkpatrick, 2006; Jenkins, 2000; Smith & Bisazza, 1982), with a prime factor of intelligibility being the relationship that a listener has with prior exposure and familiarity to any given English variety. The literature suggests that the greater the exposure and familiarity to an English variety, then the greater the degree of intelligibility (Crystal, 1997; Deterding & Kirkpatrick, 2006; Jenkins, 2000; Smith & Bisazza, 1982). With increased intelligibility claimed to be gained through increased exposure to an English variety, there is the suggestion that to facilitate communicative intelligibility, learners of English must be granted exposure to a multitude of English varieties (Crystal, 1997; Deterding & Kirkpatrick, 2006; Jenkins, 2000; Kubota & Ward, 2000; Smith & Bisazza, 1982). This raises the question for the need to enable greater exposure within the classroom. This is something that may not only assist in increased intelligibility, but also, as Neilsen (2004) notes, prioritise the language that the learner may encounter in the real world.
Methodology Instrument This research is essentially a quantitative study utilising a questionnaire that is essentially a ranking system that looks at the perceptions of the participants with regard to an English variety overall and how that same variety is perceived in terms of intelligibility. The English varieties that are subjected to testing number ten in total, with five differing origins. These origins consist of Australia, Korea, Singapore, United Kingdom and United States. All origins have been selected due to their relevance to this study. As this study is conducted within Australia and the participants are Korean, inclusion of these two origins is a necessity. United Kingdom and United States are responsible for the two giants of the English language RP and GAE and as a result, these origins are also included as necessity. Singaporean English speakers are what Kachru (1986) identifies as outer circle speakers, and as such, are included to complete the three circle paradigm. All ten speakers in the audio samples have been selected for their pronunciation. The two Australian English speakers represent either Standard Australian English or Cultivated Australian English. The two speakers from the United Kingdom represent a non-regional variety of what is often referred to as BBC English by the British general public. In reality these speakers could be described as users of a less marked form of RP. The two speakers from the United States represent non-regional varieties of GAE. The two Singaporean speakers range from a strongly marked Singaporean English to a weakly marked Singaporean English. The Korean speakers represent Korean English (KE), again as strongly marked and weakly marked. The audio samples themselves are between 25 and 40 seconds in length and consist of unscripted, natural speech targeted at the proficiency level of the participants. Participants The participants consist of a judgement sample that numbers 24, with the primary prerequisite for inclusion being Korean nationality. Secondary considerations are age 20 to 30 years and English proficiency. The participants level of English proficiency for inclusion in this study must be current enrolment in an Australian university program or technical college program. This is the equivalent of an IELTS band 5.5 or above. Procedure of Research The procedure of the research comprises of the participants listening to the ten audio samples via noise-cancelling headphones. For the purposes of more accurately completing the questionnaire, participants are informed that they may take notes relating to accent perception and perceived intelligibility during the listening of each respective audio sample. To further facilitate note-taking, the audio sample playlist is not continued until the participant is ready to do so. All audio samples are only played once as it is deemed that further exposure to any given sample may increase its perceived intelligibility level. Upon completion of listening to all audio samples participants complete a largely quantitative questionnaire (Appendix 1) that employs a two-fold ranking system. The aim of the questionnaire is to document the participants comparative perception of each respective speakers accent and perceived intelligibility level.
ICLC 2010 Proceedings Methods of Analysis
As the questionnaire is quantitative in nature, a statistical analysis of the data will take place. The analysis will focus on frequency, mean and standard deviation. As the sample size is a moderately small 24, it is deemed unnecessary to include probability findings. Data will be presented primarily in tabular format, however, radar charts will also be utilised in an attempt to show a correlation between accentual rankings and perceived intelligibility rankings. Findings and Analysis Firstly, it must be stated that the findings of this research are by no means conclusive due to the relatively small sample size and the quantitative nature of the methodology, however, the findings appear to reveal that trends are developing. These trends show that there are two audio samples coming to the fore where accentual preference is concerned. There is also evidence showing that two audio samples are standing out as those of nonpreference. If we are to look at Table 1.1, both US01 and KR01 show a high proportion of being ranked in the top two. A closer look will reveal that while the weakly marked KE speaker (KR01) shows a spread of ranking instances across nine of the ten positions, the rankings for US01 appear to consistently be in the top five of ten positions with the exception of a single instance of a number ten ranking; an instance we can interpret as an outlier. It is interesting to note that from one of the two audio samples of non-preference, a contrastive situation arises. The contrast being that while the weakly marked KR01 is emerging as a speaker of preference, the strongly marked KE speaker (KR02) is emerging as a speaker of non-preference. In Table 2.1 we can see that when perceived intelligibility is considered, however, there appears to be one stand-out audio sample in US01. KR01 is again becoming established as a forerunner, although the distance between KR01 and the remainder of the field is not as vast as is noted in the accentual ranking summary. NUMBER OF INSTANCES 1 AUDIO AU01 SAMPLE AU02 KR01 KR02 SG01 SG02 UK01 UK02 US01 US02 1 6 2 2 3 3 5 1 2 4 3 4 3 1 2 5 1 3 2 3 1 3 1 3 1 5 4 4 3 3 2 5 2 1 1 3 3 5 3 3 2 2 1 4 4 2 2 6 4 2 2 4 1 5 1 3 7 1 2 1 2 4 3 1 4 2 2 8 1 2 6 2 5 3 3 2 9 3 2 3 4 2 4 2 3 10 MEAN 3 3 4 1 6 2 2 1 2 5.61 5.43 4.22 6.78 5.79 7.78 5.17 5.65 3.3 5.74 SD 2.78 2.86 2.98 3.1 2.4 2.13 2.66 2.92 2.29 2.68 n=23
Table 1.1: Accent ranking; summary
NUMBER OF INSTANCES 1 AUDIO AU01 SAMPLE AU02 KR01 KR02 SG01 SG02 UK01 UK02 US01 US02 2 3 5 2 3 2 7 2 6 3 6 2 1 1 1 3 1 3 2 1 4 2 2 2 2 1 5 3 4 2 1 3 3 5 2 3 2 5 5 4 2 1 1 5 2 3 4 2 6 5 3 2 1 1 5 2 4 7 3 1 4 5 2 1 3 5 8 2 1 1 2 2 5 4 2 4 9 4 5 1 2 3 4 4 1 10 MEAN 1 3 1 2 2 4 3 4 4 5 6.46 3.96 5 5.79 7.04 5.5 6.46 2.83 6.71 SD 3.01 2.64 2.56 3.13 2.77 2.35 2.81 2.89 1.49 2.35 n=24
Table 2.1: Perceived intelligibility ranking; summary
When the speakers are combined into groups pertaining to nationality (see Tables 1.2 and 2.2), the findings present somewhat differently and show a greater degree of uniformity. NUMBER OF INSTANCES 1 AUDIO SAMPLE AU KR SG UK US 1 8 2 6 6 2 7 7 3 6 3 5 1 4 4 9 4 6 2 7 2 6 5 6 4 1 8 4 6 6 2 5 6 3 7 3 3 7 5 4 8 1 8 7 6 2 9 5 7 6 2 3 10 MEAN 5 4 7 4 3 5.52 5.5 6.65 5.41 4.52 SD 2.79 3.28 2.57 2.77 2.75 n=46
Table 1.2: Accent ranking; nationality NUMBER OF INSTANCES 1 AUDIO SAMPLE AU KR SG UK US 2 8 2 5 7 2 9 8 1 2 4 3 3 6 4 3 8 4 3 6 7 5 5 5 4 3 6 5 6 6 8 3 1 7 4 7 3 5 7 4 5 8 3 3 7 6 4 9 9 3 7 4 1 10 MEAN 4 3 6 7 4 5.73 4.48 6.42 5.98 4.77
SD 2.89 2.88 2.62 2.86 2.76 n=48
Table 2.2: Perceived intelligibility ranking; nationality
It is notable that when considered individually, US01 is being perceived as the most intelligible, however when combined with US02 the intelligibility ranking becomes considerably lower. In fact, the combined KE speakers have risen to the fore as being perceived as the most intelligible by the participants of this study. Discussion As this research is based on the previously conducted pilot study (Pollard, 2010a) in which a GAE model of English is perceived as the most intelligible of those queried it is best to commence this discussion with the current findings relating to perceived intelligibility. As the current study appears to indicate, US01 is emerging as being perceived as the most intelligible for Korean learners of English with a perceived intelligibility ranking of M: 2.83 (SD: 1.49). The second ranked speaker is KR01 with a ranking of M: 3.96 (SD: 2.56). These figures rapidly become closer should we combine the speakers by nationality, with the findings suggesting that two KE speakers are marginally more intelligible than the GAE speakers; M: 4.48 (SD: 2.88) as opposed to M: 4.77 (SD: 2.76). It is possible to link the reasons behind GAE and KE emerging as the two varieties of English perceived as being the most intelligible to the notion of familiarity. Familiarity is the notion where it is claimed that the more exposure one receives to a particular variety of language, the more intelligible it can become (Crystal, 1997; Deterding & Kirkpatrick, 2006; Jenkins, 2000; Smith & Bisazza, 1982). As KLE obviously receive large amounts of exposure to KE, it stands to reason that KE should be perceived as the most intelligible variety of English. It is also possible to understand how KLE receive large amounts of exposure to GAE. The exposure not only comes from the ESL/EFL materials that are used by learners throughout the country in public schools, private academies and universities, but it also comes from the number of American teachers present in Korea and the abundance of American television shows aired nationally. In regard to which speaker is the best where accent and pronunciation is concerned, US01 holds a ranking M: 3 (SD: 1.8) once a solitary outlier is removed. When compared to the other nine audio samples, this speaker is emerging as the best. This sits in line with what Kachru and Nelson (2001) suggest is the idolisation of the native speaker. It is dangerous to do so, but if we are to assume that the participants of this study see the best accent as being the model they wish to acquire, there is a suggestion that these participants are similar to those participants in the Jenkins (2005), and Fauzia Sari and Yusuf (2009) studies. The overall consensus in those studies appears to be that the learner is aiming at native-like pronunciation (Fauzia Sari & Yusuf, 2009, p. 125). However, as is noted, these trends are only partially emerging. There is an argument against these considerations if with are to firstly consider speaker KR01. This weakly marked KE speaker is offering close competition in several areas and is consistently perceived as being amongst the best in terms of accent (M: 4.22 (SD:2.98)). If we are to consider what Kirkpatrick (2007) suggests, in that, through the adoption of a NES model and employing NES teachers, the gap between the learner and the concept of an attainable model widens. This leaves the question that while a NES model is being perceived as the best, are they in actuality, the ideal? As we have seen in Table 1.2, when the speakers are merged into nationality groupings, there is no genuine consensus pertaining to which accent is emerging as the best.
This is strengthened further should we group the three inner circle varieties (Kachru, 1986) together as one: NUMBER OF INSTANCES AUDIO SAMPLE 1 AU, UK, US* KR SG 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 9 10 MEAN 5.15 SD 2.79 13 16 18 14 18 15 12 10 12
8 2
7 -
1 4
2 7
4 1
2 5
3 7
8 7
7 6
4 7
5.5 6.65
3.28 2.57
Table 1.3: Accent ranking; circle model
n=46, *n=138
NUMBER OF INSTANCES AUDIO SAMPLE 1 AU, UK, US* KR SG 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 MEAN 5.49 SD 2.87 14 15 14 13 15 19 12 13 14 15
8 2
8 1
6 4
6 7
3 6
3 1
5 7
3 7
3 7
3 6
4.48 6.42
2.88 2.62 n=48,
Table 2.3: Perceived intelligibility ranking; circle model *n=144
Where the findings appear to indicate that while accentual preference still marginally lies with the inner circle speaker over the KE speaker M: 5.15 (SD: 2.79) as opposed to M: 5.5 (SD: 3.28) the perceived intelligibility lie in favour of the KE speaker M: 4.48 (SD: 2.88) as opposed to M: 5.49 (SD: 2.87). There is a suggestion that the model of pronunciation that is deemed to be the most suitable for the student needs to be considered (Graddol, 2001; Jin & Cortazzi, 2003), even if it deviates from what are the desired models of GAE and RP (Jenkins, 2005, 2006; LippiGreen, 1997). This is an idealistic stance that may show the students having a preference for a NNES teacher if the model is the most suitable for their needs. One of the key ingredients to successful language learning is likely to be the ability to comprehend the teachers utterances, particularly within the ESL context. If we are to consider the findings of the research, there does appear to be a relationship between perceived intelligibility and what constitutes the best accent. Figure 1.1 suggests that a speakers pronunciation is rated according to the perceived intelligibility levels, or vice versa, with the only exception being the strongly marked KE speaker (KR02) who presents figures of M: 6.78 (SD: 3.1) and M: 5 (SD: 3.13) for accentual preference and perceived intelligibility respectively. This is a discrepancy that we can assert comes from the
participants' ability to identify him as a fellow KE speaker. Evidence of this can be found in Pollard (2010b), where interviews conducted on the subject include participant responses stating that as the speaker is Korean it is not good or that he may only be understandable to fellow Koreans.
US01
10
AU02
7 US02 4 AU01
1 UK01 KR02
UK02
KR01
SG01
SG02
Accent
Perceived Intelligibility
Figure 1.1: Accent and Intelligibility correlation; summary n=23
Support for this phenomenon is also provided by Jenkins (2005), and Fauzia Sari and Yusuf (2009), who suggest that L2 speakers of English are able to identify their own English pronunciation limitations when contrasted with L1 speakers of English. This tends to suggest that while the KE speakers may be perceived as being highly intelligible for the participants, they may not be perceived as the best due them being identifiable as Korean. This is a concept that appears to partially tie in with native speaker idolisation (Kachru & Nelson, 2001). Conclusion This research suggests that as KLE appear to receive a large amount of exposure to both KE and GAE, then these two varieties of English are perceived as both being the best and the most intelligible. It is problematic, however, to draw the conclusion that the KLE considers GAE to be the best as an entity. This is largely due to the fact that when grouped according to nationality, Korean English speakers appear to perform marginally better than their GAE counterparts. There are more than just the perceptions of the participants at play here, with a greater notion needing to be explored. The idea that best and ideal are in competition with one
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another is a strong one. On the one hand we have the perceptions of best, where a single GAE speaker (US01) is sitting, and the interpretations of ideal, where a weakly marked KE speaker (KR01) is sitting with the support of a strongly marked KE speakers (KR02). We need to further develop these notions for the benefit of the learner of English, as it may become apparent that the ideal English variety may indeed be a weakly marked local variety where the learner of English receives exposure to not only an intelligible variety of English, but also a variety that is attainable without the native speaker idolisation being present (Kachru & Nelson, 2001). It is evident that this paper focuses on the perceptions of the KLE and draws on the notion of attainability, although, perhaps there exists the possibility to transcend the boundaries of Korea. Where ELT is present throughout the world, there exists the dichotomy of NES and NNES teacher. However, this research has shown that there is a trend developing that appears to suggest that a weakly marked local variety is the ideal, and therefore, the NNES is perhaps the best for the learner of English. It is bold to suggest that each and every ELT community around the globe will conclude that a weakly marked local variety is the ideal in their respective contexts, however, in this age of global communication, it is nave to suggest that the NES is automatically the best. References Crystal, D. (1997). English as a Global Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Deterding, D., & Kirkpatrick, A. (2006). Emerging South-East Asian Englishes and Intelligibility. World Englishes, 25(3/4), pp. 391-409. Dauer, R. M. (2005). The Lingua Franca Core: A New Model for Pronunciation Instruction? TESOL Quarterly, 39(3), 543-550. Elliot, D., & Jenkins, J. (2010). An Interview with Jennifer Jenkins. Retrieved 7 May, 2010, from http://acorn-eikaiwa.chicappa.jp/Audio_Darren/audio_darren_an_ interview_ with_jennifer_ jenkins.mp3. Fauzia Sari, D., & Yusuf, Y. Q. (2009). The role of attitudes and identity from nonnative speakers of English towards English accents. English as International Language Journal, 4, 110-128. Graddol, D. (2001). English in the future. In A. Burns & C. Coffin (Eds.), Analysing English in a Global Context (pp. 26-37). London: Routledge. Jenkins, J. (2000). The Phonology of English as an International Language. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Jenkins, J. (2005). Implementing an international approach to English pronunciation: The role of teacher attitudes and identity. TESOL Quarterly, 39(3), 535-543. Jenkins, J. (2006). Current perspectives of teaching World Englishes and English as a Lingua Franca. TESOL Quarterly, 40(1), 157-181. Jenner, B. (1989). Teaching Pronunciation: The Common Core. Speak Out!, 4, 2-4. Jin, L., & Cortazzi, M. (2003). English language teaching in China: A bridge to the future. In H. W. Kam & R. Y. L. Wong (Eds.), English language teaching in East Asia today (pp. 131-145). Singapore: Times Academic Press. Kachru, B. B. (1986). The power and politics of English. World Englishes, 5(2/3), 121-140. Kachru, B. B. & Nelson, C. L. (2001). World Englishes. In A. Burns & C. Coffin (Eds.), Analysing English in a global context (pp. 9-25). London: Routledge. Kirkpatrick, A. (2007). World Englishes: Implications for international communication and English language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kubota, R., & Ward, L. (2000). Exploring linguistic diversity through World Englishes. English Journal, 89(6), 80-86.
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Lee, J. J. (2005). The native speaker: an achievable model. Asian EFL Journal, 7(2), 152163. Lippi-Green, R. (1997). English with an accent: Language, ideology, and discrimination in the United States. London: Routledge. Medgyes, P. (1992). Native of non-native: Whos worth more? ELT Journal, 46(4), 340-349. Neilsen, R. (2004). The Role of the Teacher. In C. Conlan (Ed.), Teaching English Language in Australia (pp. 157-170). Perth: API Network. Pollard, A. (2010a). English and the Korean Learner: A Question of Wants, Needs and Intelligibility. TESOL Review, 2, 75-96. Pollard, A. (2010b). The Good, the bad, and the intrinsically best: How learners of English pass judgement on speakers of English. Paper presented at The Second Asian Conference on Education, Osaka, Japan, 2-5 December, 2010. Seidlhofer, B. (2002). The shape of things to come? Some basic questions about English as a Lingua Franca. In C. Meierkord & K. Knapp (Eds.). Lingua Franca Communication (pp. 269-302). Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. Shirazizadeh, M., & Momenian, M. (2009). From EFL to ELF: Spotting the blind spots. English as International Language Journal, 4, 44-65. Smith, L. E., & Rafiqzad, K. (1979). English for cross-cultural communication: The question of intelligibility. TESOL Quarterly, 13(3), 371-380. Smith, L. E., & Bisazza, J. A. (1982). The comprehensibility of three varieties of English for college students in seven countries. Language Learning, 32(2), 259-269. Sperling, D. (n.d.). The ESL Job Center. Retrieved September 26, 2010, from http://www.eslcafe.com/jobs/. Strevens, P. (1977). New orientations in the teaching of English. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Appendix You will hear one person speaking at a time and ten people in total. When you are listening, please think of the way that they sound to you. How does their accent sound? How easy are they to understand? 1. Please rank the speakers based on their accent. (1= best accent; 10= worst accent) Speaker 1 Speaker 2 Speaker 3 Speaker 4 [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] Speaker 6 Speaker 7 Speaker 8 Speaker 9 [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
Speaker 5 [ ] Speaker 10 [ ]
2. Please rank the speakers based on your understanding of their speech. (1= easiest to understand; 10= hardest to understand) Speaker 1 Speaker 2 Speaker 3 Speaker 4 Speaker 5 [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] Speaker 6 Speaker 7 Speaker 8 Speaker 9 Speaker 10 [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
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ICLC 2010 Proceedings Democracy or Imperial Sovereignty?: A Critical Discourse Analysis of George W. Bushs and Tony Blairs Speeches on the War on Terror Chulamani Chantarawandi
Background and Rationale In the context of post 9/11, the relationship of the United State with Great Britain Americas closest allyhas played a critical role in determining their leadership style in the worlds affairs. George W. Bushs and Tony Blairs administrations fought back against the instigators of the 9/11 attacks and their allies in the midst of their rhetoric of power on a war on terror, claiming to make every effort to advance democracy in world affairs. However, the military intervention in Afghanistan in 2001 and more centrally with the attack on Iraq in 2003, the rebirth of US and British imperial power has been cited as the actual agenda. This research concentrates on language use in the politics behind the war on terror. Thus it intends explore how the discourse of the two democratic government leaders has been employed and has seemingly succeeded in revealing change in the political paradigm. These complicated characteristics of the rhetoric and discourse practice generate three research questions: 1. How have the discourses (macrostructures) in which the security narratives and premises of democracy of George W. Bush and Tony Blair turned out to be discourses of imperialism? 2. What kind of discursive features (microstructures) are used in promoting the war on terror to earn public attention and support? How are these features achieved? 3. What are the distinctive manners of George W. Bush and Tony Blair? How do these manners reflect American and British political cultures? Analytical Framework The research embraces the critical discourse analysis (CDA) perspective as the pivot of the study. It takes two levels of analytical frameworks into consideration: the macro and micro analyses, which were first adopted by Gandavanij in 2002. At the macro analysis level, the research employs a combination of Faircloughs CDA and van Dijks Sociocognitive Approach (SCA) to develop the most effective tool in revealing the sociocultural practice and political aspects that constitute the discursive practice. At the micro analysis, the research consists of Van Dijks ideological discourse analysis, politeness theory and speech act theory in order to investigate the discursive features in the text to expose the speakers positions and the strategies the speakers use to produce the language of politics. Data Twenty-six transcripts relating to the war on terror which were delivered from 2001 to 2007 by George W. Bush and Tony Blair were analyzed. The selection of Bushs and Blairs transcripts was based on the adjoining period of their speeches release, which transpired from 2001 to 2007. The availability and sources of transcripts used as the corpus of this research can be seen in Table 1:
ICLC 2010 Proceedings The availability and sources of transcripts George W. Bush The White The Online The National The New York House NewsHour Review Times Website Website Website Website 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 1 Table 1: The availability and sources of transcripts
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Year
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
Tony Blair The 10 Downing Street Website 2 1 3 2 1 2 2
Findings 1. Macrostructure Analysis In the Macrostructure Analysis, the sociocultural practice, discourse practice, and general features of texts will be analyzed to reveal the overall picture regarding the war on terror. 1.1 Sociocultural Practice of the Speeches on the War on Terror 1.1.1 The Nature of the Speeches on the War on Terror Since politics is a social practice which constructs a range of positions for the people involved (Fairclough, 2000), the speeches on the war on terror were conventional sort of language that Bush and Blair used in order to speak on behalf of their nations; as a result, this sort of language is not exclusively based on a personal characteristics. The speeches have entailed great prominence for language and world politics because Bush and Blair both play the role of institutional actors in the political domain and do politics by engaging in global action in order to perform political acts, as well as to be representatives of their respective nations. 1.1.2 The Audience of the Speeches All of the speeches were accessible by the public through the newspaper, broadcasting and Internet diffusion. Thus, it can be said that the public is the audience of the speeches. The audience is heterogeneous, including those that are the wars patrons, those that are adversaries of the US and its allies, those that are opposed to the concept of warfare, and those that are apathetic toward the war. As such, the speakers need to make the most of this chance in showing that they are capable of performing their leadership duties in national and international politics. 1.2 Discourse Practice As society has an influence on discourse in the form of knowledge, the cognitive representation of social situations becomes a critical element of the process of discourse production and consumption. Based on van Dijks SCA, social cognition is considered to be the socially shared mental strategies and representations that reflect the construction and interpretation of discourse. As such, social cognition is formed from attitudes about different
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social issues which may reflect the same basic opinions, comparable explanations and, especially, the instantiation of the same general norms or values. 1.2.1 The Production of Text The processes of the production of the speeches are overwhelmingly managed and promoted by the commission of Bushs and Blairs governments. The committees of Bushs and Blairs governments are most likely to take control of the direction of the speeches that is unquestionably in line with the government. In addition, they aim at wining political support for particular visions by which the world can act. At this point, one can see that the process of discourse production is the means of having access to or control over public discourse (Bourdieu, 1977, 1984, Bourdieu & Passeron, 1977, van Dijk, 1989, van Dijk, 1996; cited in van Dijk, 2003). 1.2.2 The Consumption of Textcc Based on van Dijks SCA, when consuming a text, the cognitive representation of the social situations becomes a critical element of the process of discourse comprehension because it is a mental construct of the audience. This mental construct consists of the individually variable interpretations of the ongoing social situations. Hence, the speeches of Bush and Blair on the war on terror play an important role in influencing peoples perception and belief in terms of how they form and reform each cognitive representation of the audience. Some people that are the patrons of the war may become anti-war, and some people that are insensitive toward the war at the start may be judicious toward the matter at the end. 1.3 General Features of Text and Schemata of Text The speeches on the war on terror can be categorized into five phases: ritual beginning, preface to the statement, statement, conclusion, and question-answer. 2. Microstructure Analysis In the microstructure analysis, speech act theory, politeness theory, and ideological discourse analysis will be analyzed to reveal the discursive features of the spoken text. 2.1 The Analysis of Speech Acts Speech act theory is a sentence-based and speaker-oriented means of analysis (Brown, & Levinson, 1987). In this paper, the analysis of speech acts of Bush and Blair are analyzed by means of Searles concept of IFIDs in accordance with the five phases of the schemata of the text in order to reveal the intended illocutionary force in the speeches on the war on terror. The example of the analysis of Bushs speech acts is illustrated as follows: 1. Ritual beginning Line 1 thanks the addressees
2. Preface to statement Line 1-5 states that the theme of the speech is to remind people of the attack on September 11, 2001
ICLC 2010 Proceedings 3. The statement Line 6-22 emphasizes that it is important for Congress to pass laws and to confirm nominees that will help the government defend the country and defeat terrorists and radicals
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4. Conclusion Line 47-49 tells the audiences that it is the end of the speech, thanks the audience, and lets the audience know that he will answer some questions if they have any
5. Question-Answer Section Line 50-52 Line 53-65 Challenge 1: asks President Bush why he will not let Judge Mukasey say whether he thinks that water boarding is illegal torture explains that the Congress and members of the Senate and House have been briefed on the law (President Bush Previews War on Terror Speech on November 1, 2007) The example of the analysis of Blairs speech acts is illustrated as follows: 1. Ritual beginning None 2. Preface to statement Line 1-6 raises the issue of the losses in Iraq and Afghanistan and reminds people of Britains Armed Forces commitments and courage in order to ask them to be proud of the armed forces
3. Statement Line 27-30 4. Conclusion Line 345-348 concludes his point by saying that the struggle is about values and urges people to fight for these values 5. Question-Answer Section Line 351-352 Challenge 1: asks Tony Blair whether Britain can take the lead in speaking to Iran and Syria directly Line 353-364 explains that the message is absolutely clear and expresses anxiety about the way people lack the will to do what they need to do (Speech to the Los Angeles World Affairs Council on August 1, 2006) states the purpose of the speech to the addressees
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ICLC 2010 Proceedings 2.2 The Analysis of George W. Bushs and Tony Blairs Intrinsic FTAs
In this section, Bushs and Blairs intrinsic FTAs will be analyzed, respectively, in two terms: 1) threats to the addressees face and 2) threats to the speakers face. The aim of this section is to define each intrinsic FTA of the speaker and describe its potential functions. The example of the analysis of Bushs Intrinsic FTAs is illustrated as follows: And these resolutions are clear. In addition to declaring and destroying all of its weapons of mass destruction, Iraq must end its support for terrorism. It must cease the persecution of its civilian population. It must stop all illicit trade outside the Oil For Food program. It must release or account for all Gulf War personnel, including an American pilot, whose fate is still unknown (President Bush outlined Iraqi Threat, line196-207). Bush uses recurring expressions of order, Iraq must end, It must cease, It must stop, and It must release in order to stop the enemy from being involved in weapons of mass destruction, support for terrorism, the persecution of its civilian population, illicit trade outside the Oil For Food program, and all Gulf War personnel. Bush therefore threatens the enemys NF because he impedes the addressees freedom of action. The example of the analysis of Blairs Intrinsic FTAs is illustrated as follows: But Saddam is not the only issue. We must restart the Middle East Peace Process. We must work with all concerned, including the US, for a lasting peace which ends the suffering of both the Palestinians in the Occupied Territories and the Israelis at the hands of terrorists. It must be based on the twin principles of an Israel safe and secure within its borders, and a viable Palestinian state (Prime Ministers speech to TUC conference in Blackpool, line 102-106). Blair makes some ordering statements, We must restart the Middle East Peace Process, We must work with all concerned, and It must be based on the twin principles, in order to predicate some future act of the addressees. In doing so, he puts pressure on the addressees to do what he wants. Thus, Blair threatens the addressees NF. The table summarizes intrinsic FTAs used by each speaker is demonstrated as follows: Speakers Intrinsic FTAs 1. Threats to the addressees face 1.1 Acts that threaten the addressees NF a) orders and requests b) suggestions and advice c) remindings d) threats, warnings, dares e) offers f) promises g) compliments, expressions of envy or admiration h) expressions of strong (negative) emotions George W. Bush Tony Blair
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Speakers Intrinsic FTAs 1.2 Acts that threaten the addressees PF a) expressions of disapproval, criticism, contempt or ridicule, complaint and reprimands, accusation, insults b) contradictions or disagreements, challenges c) expression of violent (out-of-control) emotions d) irreverence e) bringing of bad new about the addressees or good news about the speaker to cause distress to the addressees f) raising of dangerously emotional or divisive topics g) blatant non-cooperation in an activity h) use of address terms and other status-marked identifications 2. Threats to the speakers face 2.1 Acts that offend the speakers NF a) expressing thanks b) acceptance of the addressees thanks or the addressees apology c) excuses d) acceptance of offers e) response to the addressees faux pas f) expression of unwilling promises and offers 2.2 Acts that directly damage the speakers PF a) apologies b) acceptance of a compliment c) breakdown of physical control d) self-humiliation e) confessions f) emotion leakage
George W. Bush
Tony Blair
Table 2: Summary of Speakers Usage of Intrinsic FTAs According to the table, it can be seen that the intrinsic FTAs that are predominantly used by both speakers are acts that threaten the addressees face. In terms of the acts that threaten the addressees NF, one can notice that whereas Bush uses all of the acts to threaten the addressees NF, Blair avoids using the acts of threatening, offering, and expressing strong (negative) expression to threaten the addressees NF. However, when threatening the addressees PF, Bush and Blair use similar acts, such as expressions of disapproval, criticism, complaints, ridicule and expressions of contradiction or disagreement. Apart from the threats to the addressees face, the acts that threaten the speakers face are also used by both speakers. However, there is a difference between the acts that Bush and Blair use to threaten the speakers NF. Blair is more likely than Bush to offend his NF. As one can notice that
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whereas Blair employs expressions of thanks and excuses, Bush only employs an expression of thanks. Additionally, neither speakers employ acts that directly threaten their PF. 2.3 Ideological Analysis of Discourse In the succeeding section, Van Dijks analysis of discursive strategies based on ideological discourse is employed in order to provide reflective insight on the goal and orientation of the speakers in rhetoric of the war on terror. Here, some of the discursive strategies, which are norm and value violation and presupposition, will be presented as the examples of analysis. First, norm and value violation is the means of establishing a distinction between them and us. In this way, the speaker describes ourselves in benign terms and them in disparaging terms in order to indicate that the Others have violated the norms and values shared by our group. The examples below are the use of norm and value violation of Bush: Americans are asking, why do they hate us? They hate what we see right here in this chambera democratically elected government. Their leaders are self- appointed. They hate our freedomsour freedom of religion, our freedom of speech, our freedom to vote and assemble and disagree with each other (Address to a Joint Session of Congress and the American People, line 106-109). This new enemy seeks to destroy our freedom and impose its views. We value life; the terrorist ruthlessly destroy it. We value education; the terrorist do not believe women should be educated or should have health care, or should leave their home. We value the right to speak our minds; for the terrorists, free expression can be grounds for execution. We respect people of all faiths and welcome the free practice of religion; our enemy wants to dictate how to thinks and how to worship even to their fellow Muslims (President Discusses War on Terror, line 45-51). The next example is the use of norm and value violation of Blair: I believe it[s] cause is an ideology, a world-view, derived from religious fanaticism and that had we taken no decisions at all to enrage it, would still have found provocation in our very existence. They disagree with our way of life, our values and in particular in our tolerance. They hate us but probably they hate those Muslims who believe in tolerance, even more, as apostates betraying the true faith (line 84-89). From these examples, it can be seen that when the very norms and values are violated by Others, they intuitively place themselves outside the realm of humanity. Second, presupposition is the means of implicitly highlighting our good entities and their bad ones. The speaker infers that our good entities are generally recognized, and hence they are universal values and common sense. The below example is the use of presupposition of Bush: This is not, however, just Americans fight. And what is at stake is not just Americas freedom. This is the worlds fight. This is civilizations fight. This is the fight of all who believe in progress and pluralism, tolerance and freedom. We ask every nation to join us Perhaps the NATO Charter reflects best the attitude of the world: An attack
ICLC 2010 Proceedings on one is an attack on all. The civilized world is rallying to Americas side. They understand that if this terror goes unpunished, their own cities, their own citizens may be next. Terror, unanswered, can not only bring down buildings, it can threaten the stability of legitimate governments. And you know what- were not going to allow it (Address to a Joint Session of Congress and the American People, line 165-179).
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Throughout the statement, Bush emphasizes this is the worlds fight, This is civilizations fight and This is the fight of all who believe in progress and pluralism, tolerance and freedom. In this way, Bush indirectly says that our good entities are generally recognized, and hence they are universal values; thus, our presupposed entities are less liable to critique from those of Others who have questions about or do not practice the entities propagated by us (the speakers in-group members). Bush then presupposes that An attack on one is an attack on all and says that The civilized world is rallying to Americas side. He ignores the fact that although other civilized nations do not want to take part in this fight, it cannot be said that those nations are uncivilized. The next examples are the used of presupposition of Blair: In the first, I argued that the global terrorism that menaces us, can only be defeated through pulling it up by its roots. We have to attack not just its methods but its ideas, its presumed and false sense of grievance against the West, its attempt to persuade us that it is we and not they who are responsible for its violence. In doing so, we should stand up for our own values, asserting that they are not Western but global values, whose spread is the surest guarantee of our future security (PMs foreign policy speech- third in a series of three, line 2-8). The answer to terrorism is the universal application of global values. The answer to poverty is the same. Without progress- in democracy and in prosperity- security is at risk. Without security, progress falters (PMs foreign policy speech- third in a series of three, line 182-184). Here, Blair emphasizes our own values as global values. In this way, our presupposed entities are less liable to critique from those of the Others that have questions about the entities propagated by us (the speakers in-group members). Moreover, Blair also presupposes that global values exist and there is the universal application of global values to be abided by. He overlooks the fact that no one or no institution has ever inscribed what global values are constituted of. The table summarizes the discursive strategies involved in the ideologically-based description of Others used by each speaker is demonstrated as follows:
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Speakers Discursive Strategies George W. Bush Involved in Ideological Based Description of the Others Negative Lexicalization Hyperbole Compassion Move Apparent Altruism Move Apparent Honesty Move Negative Comparison Generalization Concretization Alliteration Warning Norm and Value Violation Presupposition Table 3: Summary of Speakers Usage of Discursive Strategies Involved in Ideological Discourse From the findings, it can be seen that both speakers employ remarkably high degree of the discursive strategies involved in ideological discourse. Ten out of twelve discursive strategies are used by both speakers. Only one discursive strategy, which is the use of hyperbole, is not used by either speaker. Note that whereas another strategy that is not used by Bush is the use of apparent honesty move, another strategy that is not used by Blair is negative comparison. With a greater variety of strategies, the speakers discourse is able to perform more functions. Therefore, it can be said that both Bush and Blair are able to enact underlying ideologies and to use essentially powerful means of persuasion that influence preferred mental models and preferred attitudes and ideologies. Discussion of the Three Research Questions Discussion of Research Question 1: True to American and British Democratic Ideals? Based on the findings, the US and UK have asserted the power of imperialism by means of imposing the set of institutions and values of the superior states on the imperialized states or societies through the use of language. The forces of power functioning in and through the mechanism of the imperial power have been sold in a package of democratic Tony Blair
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ideals. Although the USs and UKs constitutions are founded on the basis of freedom, the two states have constituted the world of their empire, a world of their values and laws. Discussion of Research Question 2: They, Evil, We, Good Discursive strategies based on ideological discourse have been used by Bush and Blair to an immense degree (see the findings of Ideological Discourse Analysis). The strategies which have been used are based on in-group and out-group polarization in order to give preferentiality to the in-group and to show inconsiderateness to the out-group. In Bushs and Blairs rhetoric, a polarization between evil, evil doers, the axis of evil and decent, civilized doers, the axis of good has been constructed throughout the speeches. When labeling the Others as evil through the use of discursive strategies, Bush and Blair simply exempt themselves from giving an explanation as to why the Others act as they do, feel infuriated or subjugated, aim for suicidal terror rather than protest or political engagement. Therefore, the scheme in the face of the description of evil simply loads antagonism rather than analysis of mutual understanding and conciliation. Discussion of Research Question 3: The Rhetoric of Bush and Blair -The Mirror of American and British Political Culture Based on the microstructure analysis of Bush and Blair, the dissimilarity between the styles of Bush and Blair reflects the distinctiveness between American and British political cultures. During the epoch of the war on terror, American policies for achieving powerbased foreign policy strategies are largely coercive ones. Although the democratic ideal is the core value that the US has claimed to stand for in the world, the nation aims at becoming a universal dominion of right. On the other hand, during the era of the war on terror, British political culture has been in sync with the doctrines of the international community. Blair simultaneously carries on his ambitious form of internationalism and plants the seeds of ideological discourse in his rhetoric in a courteous, circuitous manner. Blair does not shrink from using power, but always chooses to do it to maintain the implicit hegemony. References Acharya, A. (2007). State Sovereignty After 9/11: Disorganised Hypocrisy, Political Studies 55, 274296. Retrieved January, 11, 2008, from Blackwell Synergy database. Bjrgo, T. (2005). Conclusions. In T. Bjrgo (Ed.), Root Causes of Terrorism: Myths, Reality, and Ways Forward, (pp. 256-264). New York: Taylor & Francis. Bourdieu, P. (1982). The Production and Reproduction of Legitimate Language. In L. Burke, T. Crowley & A. Girvin (Eds.), The Routledge Language and Cultural Theory Reader, (pp. 467-477). London and New York: Routledge. Brown, P., & Levinson, C. S. (1987). Politeness: Some universals in language usage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Brown, S. (1995). New Forces, Old Forces, and the Future of World Politics: Post- Cold War Edition. New York: HarperCollins College Publishers. Chandler, D. (2003). Rhetoric without responsibility: the attraction of ethical foreign policy. British Journal of Politics and International Relations 5 (3), 295316. Retrieved November 19, 2007, from the Blackwell Synergy database. Charoensinolarn, C. (2006). Nation-State and the New World (Dis) Order [rathchat kap kuamrairabiap lok chut mai]. Bangkok: Wiphasa.
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Chilton, P., & Schffner, C. (1997). Discourse and Politics. In A. T. van Dijk (Ed.), Discourse as Social Interaction, (pp.206-230). London, California, and New Delhi: Sage. Cohen, J. (2006). Deliberation and Democratic Legitimacy. In R. E. Gooding & P. Petti (Eds.), Contemporary Political Philosophy: An Anthology, (pp. 159-170). MA, Oxford, and Victoria: Blackwell Publishing. Chomsky, N. (1992). Deterring Democracy. New York: Hill and Wang. Cutting, J. (2002). Pragmatic and Discourse: A resource book for students. London and New York: Routledge. Dallmayr, R. F. (1984). Language and Politics: Why Does Language Matter to Political Philosophy?. Notre Dame and London: University of Notre Dame Press. Dupont, A. (2005). Transnational Violence in the Asia- Pacific: An Overview of Current Trends. In P. J. Smith (Ed.), Terrorism and Violence in Southeast Asia: Transnational Challenges to States and Regional Stability, (pp. 3-18). New York: M.E. Sharpe. Duranti, A. (1997). Linguistic Anthropology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Elters, J. (2006). The Market and the Forum: Three Varieties of Political Theory. In R. E. Gooding & P. Petti (Eds.), Contemporary Political Philosophy: An Anthology, (pp. 144-158). MA, Oxford, and Victoria: Blackwell Publishing. Fairclough, N. (2003). Analysing Discourse: Textual Analysis for Social Research. London and New York: Routledge. Fairclough, N. (n.d.). Blairs contribution to elaborating a new doctrine of international community. Retrieved January 4, 2008, from http://www.ling.lancs.ac.uk Fairclough, N. (n.d.). Critical discourse analysis. Retrieved January 4, 2008, from http://www.ling.lancs.ac.uk Fairclough, N. (n.d.). Critical discourse analysis in trans- disciplinary research on social change: transition, re- scaling, poverty and social inclusion. Retrieved January 4, 2008, from http://www.ling.lancs.ac.uk Fairclough, N. (n.d.). The Dialectics of Discourse. Retrieved January 4, 2008, from http://www.geogr.ku.dk/courses/phd/globe-loc/papers/phdairclough2.pdf Fairclough, N. (2000). New Labour, New Language?. London and New York: Routledge. Fairclough, N., & Wodak, R. (1997). Critical Discourse Analysis. In A. T. van Dijk (Ed.), Discourse as Social Interaction, (pp. 258-284). London, California, and New Delhi: Sage. Gadavanij, S. (2002). Discursive Strategies for Political Survival: A Critical Discourse Analysis of Thai No- Confidence Debates. Leeds: University of Leeds Press. Glassner, I. M. (1993). Political Geography. New York, Chichester, Brisbane, Toronto, and Singapore: John Wiley & Sons. Grice, H. P. (1975). Logic and Conversation. In Cole, P. & Morgan, J. L. (Eds.). Syntax and Semantics vol.3: Speech Acts, (pp. 41-58). New York: Academic Press. Gumperz, J. J. (1992). Discourse Strategies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Gupta, K. D. (2005). Exploring roots of terrorism. In T. Bjrgo (Ed.), Root Causes of Terrorism: Myths, Reality, and Ways Forward, (pp. 16-32). New York: Taylor & Francis. Holm, H. H., & Srensen, G. (1995). Whose World Order?: Uneven Globalization and the End of the Cold War. Boulder, San Francisco, and Oxford: Westview Press. Hobson, A. J. (1954). Imperialism: A Study. London: George Allen & Unwin. Huntington, P. S. (1996). The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking World Order. London, New York, Sydney, Tokyo, Toronto, and Singapore: Samuel P. Huntingdon. Kegley, Jr, W. C., & Raymond, G. (1994). A Multipolar Peace?: Great-Power Politics in the Twenty-first Century. New York: St. Martins Press.
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Kellner, D. (2007). Bushspeak and the Politics of Lying: Presidential Rhetoric in the War on Terror. Presidential Studies Quarterly 36 (4), 622-645. Retrieved November 19, 2007, from the Blackwell Synergy database. Ladi, Z. (1998). A World Without Meaning: The Crisis of Meaning in International Politics. London and New York: Routledge. Levinson, C. S. (1983). Pragmatics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. McLean, C., & Patterson, A. (2006). A Precautionary Approach to Foreign Policy? A Preliminary Analysis of Tony Blairs Speeches on Iraq. Political Studies Association 8, 351-367. Retrieved November 19, 2007, from the Blackwell Synergy database. Mohammad, A. (2005). Roots of terrorism in the Middle East: Internal pressures and international constraints. In T. Bjrgo (Ed.), Root Causes of Terrorism: Myths, Reality, and Ways Forward, (pp. 103-118). New York: Taylor & Francis. Phillips, L., & Jrgensen, W. M. (2002). Critical Discourse Analysis. Discourse Analysis as Theory and Method. London, California, and New Delhi: Sage. Sadock, J. (2004). Speech Acts. In L. R. Horn & G. Ward (Eds.), The Handbook of Pragmatics. (pp. 53-73). MA, Oxford, Victoria: Blackwell Publishing. Sarangi, S. (2001). A comparative perspective on social theoretical accounts of the languageaction interrelationship. In N. Coupland, S. Sarangi, & C. N. Candlin (Eds.), Sociolinguistics and Social Theory, (pp. 29-60). London: Pearson Education Limited. Silberstein, S. (2004). War of Words: Language, Politics and 9/11. New York: Routledge. Slater, D. (2007). Imperial Geopolitics and the Promise of Democracy. Development and Change 38 (6), 1941-1054. Retrieved January, 11, 2008, from Blackwell Synergy database. Smith, N. (Ed.). (2004). Chomsky: Ideas and Ideals. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Tuathail, O. G., & Luke, W. T. (1994). Present at the (Dis)integration: Deterritorialization and Reterritorization in the New Wor(l)d Order. Annals of the Association of the American Geographers 84(3), 381-398. Retrieved November 19, 2007, from the Blackwell Synergy database. Tugwell, M. (1987). Terrorism and Propaganda: Problem and Response. In P. Wilkinson & A. M. Stewart (Eds.), Contemporary Research on Terrorism, (pp. 409-418). Aberdeen University Press. van Dijk, T. A. (1997). Cognitive Context Models and Discourse. In M. Stamenow (Ed.), Language Structure, Discourse and the Access to Consciousness, (pp. 189-226). Amsterdam: Benjamins. Retrieved January 4, 2008, from http://www.discourses.org van Dijk, T. A. (1995). Discourse Analysis as Ideology Analysis. In C. Schffner & A. Wenden (Eds.), Language and Peace, (pp. 17-33). Aldershot: Dartmouth Publishing. Retrieved January 4, 2008, from http://www.discourses.org van Dijk, T. A. (2003). Critical Discourse Analysis. In D. Schiffrin, D. Tannen, & H. E. Hamilton (Eds.), The Handbook of Discourse Analysis, (pp. 352-371). MA, Oxford, Victoria: Blackwell Publishing. van Dijk, T. A. (1993). Discourse and Cognition in Society. In D. Crowley & D. Mitchell (Eds.), Communication Theory Today, (pp. 107-126). Oxford: Pergamon Press. Retrieved January 4, 2008, from http://www.discourses.org van Dijk, T. A. (2001). Discourse, Ideology and Context. Folia Linguistica, xxx (1-2), 11-40. Retrieved January 4, 2008, from http://www.discourses.org van Dijk, T. A. (1996). Discourse, power and access. In C. R. Caldas- Coulthard & M. Coulthard (Eds.), Texts and Practices: Reading in Critical Discourse Analysis, (pp. 84104). London: Routledge. Retrieved January 4, 2008, from http://www.discourses.org
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van Dijk, T. A. (1995). Ideological Discourse Analysis. In E. Ventola & A. Solin (Eds.), Special issue Interdisciplinary approaches to Discourse Analysis, (pp. 135-161). Retrieved January 4, 2008, from http://www.discourses.org van Dijk, T. A. (2002). Political discourse and political cognition. In A. P. Chilton & C. Schffner (Eds.), Politics as Text and Talk, Analytical approaches to political discourse, (pp. 204-236). Amsterdam: Benjamins. Retrieved January 4, 2008, from http://www.discourses.org van Dijk, T. A. (1993). Principles of critical discourse analysis. Discourse & Society 4 (2), 249-283. Retrieved January 4, 2008, from http://www.discourses.org van Dijk, T. A. (1989). Social Cognition and Discourse. In H. Giles & R. P. Robinson (Eds.), Handbook of Language and Social Psychology, (pp. 163-183). Chichester: Wiley. Retrieved January 4, 2008, from http://www.discourses.org van Dijk, T. A. (1981). Studies in the Pragmatics of Discourse. The Hague, Paris, and New York: Mouton Publishers. van Dijk, T. A. (2005). War rhetoric of a little ally: Political implicatures and Aznars legitimatization of the war in Iraq. Journal of Language and Politics 4(1), 65-91. In L. Chouliaraki (Ed.), Special issue The Soft Power of War: Legitimacy and community in Iraq war discourses. Retrieved January 4, 2008, from http://www.discourses.org Wilkinson, P. (1987). Terrorism: An International Research Agenda. In P. Wilkinson & A. M. Stewart (Eds.), Contemporary Research on Terrorism, (pp. xi-xx). Aberdeen University Press. Wilson, J. (2003). Political Discourse. In D. Schiffrin, D. Tannen, & H. E. Hamilton (Eds.), The Handbook of Discourse Analysis, (pp. 352-371). MA, Oxford, Victoria: Blackwell Publishing. Websites http://www.number10.gov.uk (The 10 Downing Street Website) retrieved on November 20, 2007. http://www.whitehouse.gov (The White House Website) retrieved on November 20, 2007. http://www.pbs.org (The Online NewsHour Website) retrieved on November 20, 2007. http://www.nationalreview.com (The National Review Website) retrieved on November 20, 2007. http://www.nytimes.com (The New York Times Website) retrieved on November 20, 2007.
ICLC 2010 Proceedings Recent Developments and Perspectives on Translation Studies in Thai Context1
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Kazuharu Yamamoto2
Abstract This study investigates characteristics of recent developments in Translation Studies (TS) in a Thai context with no specific language pairs, institutions for publishing research, or research types. This study deals with bibliographic databases at the National Library of Thailand (NLT) and the Research Library of the National Research Council of Thailand (NRCT) and resulted in 201 studies from the period of 1982 to 2009 being found. The results of the survey indicate the various wide-range and long term research trends concerning translation in the Thai context that have been proposed by various institutions. It provides insights that have the potential for researchers interested in the field of TS to discuss and further research in the future. However, it may become necessary for a suitable educational environment to be established as soon as possible in order to continue to research at the doctoral level in the field of TS studies within a Thai context. Key Words: Translation Studies, Thai context, Translation programs and education Introduction TS has spread to target areas and languages including Asian contexts1. Encyclopedia of TS (Aveling & Yamada, 2008) is a most authoritative book in this field. However, TS in a Thai context has been only mentioned as a part of the Southeast Asian tradition, and is only highlighted in the religious and literary aspects. Little has been explained about TS itself. In the text Asian Translation Traditions (Hung & Wakabayashi, 2005), the term Thai was not found at all. Although TS within a Thai context could be a relatively uncharted research area, Srisunthornthais study (2006) does indicate the general characteristics of TS within a Thai context. It is a valuable study because no researcher has ever previously attempted to tackle this subject, especially analysis of research methods, and analysis of approaches demonstrated the growing TS within a Thai context. However, there are limitations in the Srisunthornthais study on publication types, language pairs, and institutions for publishing research. This study attempts to investigate characteristics of the recent developments of TS in the Thai context with no specific publication types, language pairs, and institutions. In
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The earlier version of this paper was presented at the 2th International Conference of Language and Communication (ICLC) held at National Institute of Development Administration (NIDA) in Bangkok on 6 August 2010. 2 Kazuharu Yamamoto is a Thai-Japanese based translator and interpreter. He is also a doctoral student at Global Human Studies Program, Graduate School of Human Sciences, Osaka University, Japan. His research interests include community interpreting and translation, cross-cultural communication, and language education. E-mail: kazuharu120@gmail.com 1 The term context focuses on not only language as objects of the study but also the specific regional culture and society as discourses.
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comparison with the Srisunthornthais survey, this study intends to extend the survey of the earlier research in scope . Context of this study Recently published academic texts in the field of translation within an Asian context includes the aforementioned 2005 publication edited by Hung and Wakabayashi. However, there is no examination of the Thai tradition in their discussion. As for other Asian contexts, there are some texts translated into Asian languages such as Mundays Introducing Translation Studies (2008) and Pyms Exploring Translation Theories (2009), which have helped to develop TS at a local level. Recently, there have been many international conferences held in Asian countries for TS scholars. For instance, the Asian Translators Forum is held every three years, and which was held in Macau in 2010. Thailand also will have a First International Conference on Translation and Interpreting Studies in 2010. This implies that TS and the community of TS scholar has been growing in Asia. The field of TS in the Thai context has also been growing. From a point of educational backgrounds, TS programs in Thailand have made an impact on increasing the amount of published research concerned with TS, especially masters thesis and independent study as publication types. TS programs for masters degrees have been begun since the 1990s2. For example, the first TS program was offered at Thammasat University in 1993, and a program at Ramkhamheang University was established in 1995. TS programs at Mahidol University and Chulalongkorn University also were offered in 1990s. Language pairs in these TS programs are English and Thai or French and Thai. There are still no Asian language pairs. Research in the field of TS in a Thai context has mainly been created as TS programs at the master degree level. Method The method adopted for this study is a literature survey using a quantitative approach. Three main items of analysis are publication types, institutions, and research contents. The research contents include language pairs, research categories, genre of translation works, areas of research contents, and research categories by year. Regarding the framework of the research categories, I refer to the Holmess map3 of the TS (Holmes, 2004 & Toury, 1995) and Srisunthornthais study (2006). This study deals with data from NLT and the NRCT conducted over the 28-year period from 1982 to 2009 in order to discover the relational research by searching the titles and subjects. Keywords4 for searching, which were collected from terms of Palumbo (2009) were used in both Thai and English. As a result, 201 samples were found.
See Uehara (2008) for more information, which reports and analyzes translation education at masters level in Thailand. 3 This concept consists of pure areas and applied areas of research and has subsequently been presented by Toury. 4 Hitting keywords on databases in English are translation, translations, translating, and translator. Their keywords in Thai are (translation), (translator) (translation book), and (translation work). On the other hand, no hitting keywords are translated, traduction, translatability, equivalence, domestication, and subtitle.
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As for the scope and limitation in this survey, TS research which was not hit in the databases is not addressed. In addition, TS research which did not register on the databases is also beyond the scope of this survey. Results and Discussion Publication types Figure 1 shows percentage of publication types which were published from 1982 to 2009. Masters theses account for 62.7% (n=126) of publication types, followed by journal articles and the independent studies, with each accounting for 14.4% (n=29). Although there are no specialized TS journals in Thailand, these articles were found in journals published by universities. As for dissertations, there seems to be fewer than other publication types because there are no TS programs at a doctoral level in Thailand.
Fig. 1 Percentage of publication types which were published from 1982 to 2009
Figure 2 indicates the amount of each publication types by year. From this chart, it clearly appears that the amount of research at the masters level has been dramatically increasing over the last 10 years. TS programs started during the 1990s could have had a significant impact on the research amount. Although Srisunthornthais study focused on the masters thesis as publication types, this study needs to take into account the independent study and the articles when discussing TS in a Thai context.
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Fig. 2 Amount of each publication types, breakdown by year Publishing Institutions Figure 3 summarizes the amount of published research by different institutions. The bars are arranged from the institution with the highest number of published research to the institution with the lowest number of published research, with the most at the top. Research written in Thai and English are both illustrated.
Fig. 3 Amount of published research (n=201) by institutions
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It can be seen that the highest number of published research is from Mahidol University (n=66). The next is Thammasat University (n=44). The third is Chulalongkorn University (n=29). These top three universities opened TS programs in 1990s. However, the other various institutions which have no TS programs also collectively published as much research as universities with TS programs. This result are worthy of attention. How do students at universities which have no TS programs progress their researches? The potential of TS in a Thai context could be greater than previously considered. Research contents Figure 4 presents the language pairs or combinations in each research as objects of the research. English and Thai pairs take up the highest percentage (73.5%), and the second highest percentage in language pairs is French and Thai (15.0%). These main language pairs are the same as language pairs in TS programs. Language pairs between Asian languages such as Japanese or Chinese and Thai are still uncommon.
Fig.4 Percentage of language pairs or combinations (n=147) as objects of the research Figure 5 examines the breakdown of research categories of each research. Contents analysis accounted for 43.8% (n=88) of research categories, which was first in rank. Contents analysis usually adopted a linguistic approach, and tended to analyze based on the notion of equivalence. Translation works account for 25.4% (n=51), ranking second. Translation work means a study of translating something as a work and they are typically an independent type of study. On the other hand, TS in terms of sociology or cultural studies accounts for only 6.5% and 4.5% respectively. Translator act accounts for only 4% (n=8) in spite of receiving heavy results from the keywords of community translation, localization, and cognitive.
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Fig.5 Percentage of research categories (n=201) in each research Figure 6 shows the breakdown of the translation work by genre. Literature accounted for 73.1% (n=38), which was the most popular genre. The second rank was audio visual translation which accounted for 15.4% (n=8). In contrast, the other genres of politics policy, poem, song, legal, and history are still uncommon, and represented only within the range of 1.9% (n=1) to 3.8% (n=2) of translation work's total of 51 researches.
Fig.6 Percentage of translation work (n=51) by genre Figure 7 reflects the breakdown of contents analysis by area. In this case, literature accounted for 53.4% (n=47), which is the highest percentage. The second highest percentage was audio visual translation with 13.6% (n=12). This result is similar to the results of the breakdown of translation works by genre. In general, journals concerned with TS have recently discussed comic, community, and audio visual translation as a topic. Furthermore, in the areas of medical and tourism in a case of TS in Thai context can be addressed by researchers in the future.
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Fig.7 Percentage of content analysis (n=88) by area Figure 8 illustrates the changes for research categories between each four year period. The first research case was found in 1982. There was a sharp but sustained increase from 1982 to 2005, followed by a further rise to reach a peak in the period 2002 to 2005, followed by only a small dip in the period 2006 to 2009. As can be seen, translation work has increased significantly to the end of 2009. This is due to the offer of TS programs by the various institutions, which is shown in Figure 3. On the other hand, the contents analysis research categories reached peak during the period 1998 to 2001 and then steadily declined to the end of 2009.
Fig. 8 Changes in the research categories (n=201), breakdown for each four year
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Translation aid or translator act rose from 1998, which contributes to diversity of TS in Thailand, with new categories including translation cultural studies and translation training which have gradually spread over the last decade. This may indicate the development and widening of perspectives in TS within a Thai context. Conclusion and Recommendations TS in a Thai context has been proposed by various institutions over a long period, especially during the 2000s. As for diversity of research types, in recent years, journal articles have also been found. Nevertheless, research has been primarily undertaken at a masters level. Not only language pairs or combinations but also research categories including research areas and genre continue to be unbalanced. Finally, I would like to suggest possible directions for TS in a Thai context in the future. Firstly, it would be necessary to start a doctoral program that is specifically designed for TS, otherwise Thai students wishing to continue to study at a doctoral level will have to look for institutions outside of Thailand. Without a doctoral program within the country, it is far more problematic for Thai students to continue to study at a doctoral level. Secondly, TS researchers need to cooperate with researchers in other fields such as language education. This will result in TS becoming more interdisciplinary and useful. Finally, it would be necessary to undertake further discussions and communication to develop TS within a Thai context. It is my hope that this study helps build the momentum to deepen future study in the field of TS. Acknowledgements I would like to thank the anonymous reviewers who provided valuable comments and suggestions. I would also like to thank Assoc. Prof. Dr. Savitri Gadavanij, Dr. Compol Swangboonsatic, Dr. Khwanchira Sena, and Dr. Nareenoot Damrongchai at NIDA for organizing ICLC 2010. Needless to say, the responsibility for any errors and any opinions expressed in this paper are those of the author. References Aveling, H. & Yamamda, T. S. (2008). Southeast Asian Traditions In Encyclopedia of Translation Studies. Mona Baker and Gabriela Saldanha (eds.), pp 527-532. 2nd edition. London and New York: Routledge. Holmes, J. S. (2004) 'The name and nature of Translation Studies' In: Venuti, L. (ed.) The Translation Studies Reader. London and New York: Routledge. pp 180-192. Hung, E. & Wakabayashi, J. (eds). (2005). Asian Translation Traditions. Manchester and Northamptom: St.Jerome. Munday, J. (2008). Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. translated by Torikai, K (ed). 2009. 2nd edition. London and New York: Routledge. Palumbo, G. (2009). Key Terms in Translation Studies. London and New York: Continuum. Pym, A. (2009). Exploring Translation Theories. translated by Takeda, K. 2010. London and New York: Routledge.
ICLC 2010 Proceedings Srisunthornthai, J. (2006). A Synthesis of Research in Translation. During 2541-2546 B.E.. Unpublished Master's Thesis. Faculty of Graduate Studies. Mahidol University. Toury, G. (1995). Descriptive Translation Studies: And Beyond. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Uehara, M. (2008) Tai no daigakuin ni okeru tsuyaku honyaku kyouiku no genjou to kadai [Interpreting and Translation Education of the Graduate Schools in Thailand] Interpreting and Translation Studies, 8, pp 337-354.
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A Comparative Analysis of English Argumentative Essays Written by English Major and Non-English Major Students at a Chinese University A Pilot Study LI Qian and Issra Pramoolsook School of English, Suranaree University of Technology, THAILAND
ABSTRACT Argumentative writing has long been regarded as an essential mode of written discourse. However, argumentative writing is a difficult type of text for students, especially for nonnative learners. Despite some studies on argumentative essays across ages, grade levels, cultures and languages, research has not yet been conducted on writers from different disciplines in the Chinese context. The purpose of this pilot study was to test whether the selected model is workable or not for the main study with a bigger corpus. Two sets of corpus of English argumentative essays written by Tongren University students were built, 10 from English majors and the other 10 from non-English majors. A selected analytical framework was used to analyze the move-step structure of the essays and some linguistic features were also investigated. Results revealed that the majority of the argumentative essays were found to follow the three stages set in the model. Findings also showed some differences in terms of move-step structure between the essays written by these two groups of students. Therefore, the selected model is workable in this pilot study. And this model will continue to be used in the main study. Keywords: Argumentative essay, Genre analysis, Move-step structure, Linguistic features, English and non-English major students INTRODUCTION Argumentative writing has long been highly regarded as an essential mode of writing discourse and it plays an important part of second language learners academic experience at the university level (Zhu, 2001). Argumentative texts are required to be produced in a variety of contexts. First, in academic settings, argumentative writing is an important instrument for students who face the task of writing research papers before finishing their university careers (Crowhurst, 1991). Next, for test-takers, argumentative essay is a required genre to produce in different tests or exams, ranging from national level tests (College English Test [CET] and Test for English Majors [TEM] in China) to international tests (TOEFL and IETS). Finally, in the workplace, individuals may need to persuade others to support their proposals or opinions. Given the importance of argumentative writing, it is clear that argumentative writing plays a significant role both for academic success and for general life purposes (Crowhurst, 1990). Therefore, finding a suitable way to teach writing of this text type will prepare the students, especially non-native speakers of English, to handle this writing task well and successfully for the academic and professional purposes. However, argumentative writing is a difficult type of text for students to produce. One weakness is poor organization associated with a lack of knowledge of argumentative structure. The student writers have inadequate exposure to argumentative writing structure, and have little knowledge of this genre. Normally, their writing lacks clear organization, and they may produce inappropriate style of writing by using inappropriate language, and wrong
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connectors (Crowhurst, 1987). Several studies have mentioned this problem exists in a variety of contexts (e.g. Ferris, 1994; Hyland, 1990; Connor, 1990; Crowhurst, 1990, Crowhurst, 1991, etc.). Chinese ELT learners have been reported to suffer with this difficulty as well (e.g. Gao, 2007). However, more study in particular ELT context is needed to enrich the existing findings. This pilot study is a part of the main study that will be conducted at Tongren University (TU). With a student population of about 7,000, TU is situated in Tongren city, which lies in the east of Guizhou, China. It is a newly founded local comprehensive university, and it provides English language programs for both English majors and non-English majors. College English is a required basic course for all first and second year undergraduate non-English major students at TU. The objective of College English is to develop students ability to use English in a well-rounded way (CMOE, 2007). Normally, in the College English classroom, every English teacher is required to teach all four skills, the practice is known as the one-teacher-package-class model in the Chinese ELT context (Lu, 2007). Unsurprisingly, in three hours per week teaching, compared with instruction in listening and reading, much less attention has been devoted to writing. Inadequate attention to writing attributes to large class size, time constraint, students relatively low English proficiency, and the teachers limited training in teaching writing (You, 2004). For English majors, a writing course is offered to them only in term seven with two hours per week. The writing course aims to improve students writing ability and help them compose good pieces of writing. The textbook for this course consists of eight chapters arranged in the order from word, sentence, and paragraph level to essay level. Normally, writing instruction follows the textbook based on the principle of from simplicity to difficulty. However, one substantial flaw of this textbook is the absence of writing an argumentative essay in the essay composition chapter, which would lead to the students unfamiliarity with the structure of argumentative essay. Obviously, most English and non-English majors at TU are struggling with composing argumentative essays. Writing an argumentative essay is a demanding task for them due to inadequate exposure to this genre, insufficient explicit instruction, and unfamiliarity with the structure of argumentative writing. Gao (2007) confirmed the problem of the lack of input of genre knowledge in teaching English writing at Chinese universities. Traditionally, grammatical competence has been given the most important place in the teaching of languages, but generic competence has been overlooked. Neither the writing course nor the textbooks put enough weight on genre teaching. As a result, learners are not sensitized to the generic conventions concerning why the texts are written as they are and how they work. The major purpose of the main study is thus to investigate current rhetorical patterns of argumentative essays produced by English and non-English major students at TU, so that the weaknesses of their writing can be identified, and therefore improvement can be suggested. The second purpose is to explore current linguistic features of the argumentative essay written by English and non-English major students at TU so that information about language use can be obtained. The third purpose is to reveal the similarities and differences by comparing the argumentative essays written by these two groups of students, so that the teachers can adapt in different ways when teaching different groups of students this genre. The last purpose is to explore a possibility of using the findings from this research to
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compliment the good argumentative essay framework to propose a more suitable model for Chinese students in this particular context. In this paper, the pilot study which was conducted to test whether a selected argumentative essay model is workable or not was reported. The result will help the researchers make a sound decision to adopt the selected model for the main study. METHODOLOGY 1. Data and Data Collection The analysis of a genre based on data obtained from a small corpus of texts has become a widely used method of obtaining information about language use (Henry and Roseberry, 2001. p. 93). This statement provides a reason for the data collection method for this pilot study. With the intention to obtain information whether the selected model is workable for the main study, one possible way is to try this model with an analysis of a small corpus. In this study, 20 students were selected based on their good performance as reflected from their test scores from College English for non-English majors and Intensive Reading and Writing Classes for English majors. Among them, 10 are English majors and the other 10 are nonEnglish majors. These 20 selected students were required to write an argumentative essay on the given topic of Online Evaluation to Teachers with at least 200 words in one hour. In the task sheet, the Instructions part provides some background information about the topic as well as the requirements of length, content and basic elements needed to be present in the argumentative essay (See Appendix A for the task sheet used for data collection). Finally, these 20 written texts were complied to create the corpus for this pilot study. 2. Data Analysis Analytical framework Despite the availability of four other argumentative essay analysis frameworks proposed by Toulmin (1958), Veel (1997), Lock and Lockart (1998), and Derewianka (1990), Hylands model (1990) was chosen as a framework for the analysis of these 20 argumentative essays for the following reasons. First, Hylands framework is a comprehensive model for analyzing argumentative essays, It provides a detailed description of each stage and move, which offers a clearly explained rhetorical structure of an argumentative essay that can be used as a suitable sample model for analysis, while Veel (1997) just provided the generic structure of this genre without giving detailed description of each stage of the genre of exposition. The second reason for using this model is because of its validity. This framework has proved valid because Hyland arrived at it by analyzing 65 top 10% of essays submitted for a high school matriculation in English. Finally, this framework has been employed to analyze the texts produced by non-English speakers, which are similar to the target writers in this present study, while the other available models except Lock and Lockarts (1998) aim at analyzing texts written by native speakers. According to this model, the English argumentative essay is characterized by a structure with three stages, namely: Thesis, Argument and Conclusion. The Thesis introduces the proposition to be argued; the Argument discusses grounds for the thesis; and the Conclusion synthesizes discussion and affirms the validity of the thesis. Each stage contains several moves, which are either obligatory or optional. The structure of the argumentative essay proposed by Hyland (1990) is presented in Appendix B.
ICLC 2010 Proceedings Analysis Procedure
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Genre analysis consists of moves analysis and linguistic features identification. Both the corpus categorization and the corpus analysis took a coding system. Two corpora were categorized according to students majors. One set of corpus was coded EM which stands for English major, while the other was coded NEM which stands for non-English major. The texts from these two corpora were labeled from EM01 to EM10 and from NEM01 to NEM10, respectively. As for move analysis coding system, I stands for Information, P for Proposition, etc. The advantage of using a coding system is that the information can be interpreted easily and correctly even by using some simple codes. Both analysis of move structure and linguistic features were conducted manually. This may lead to low reliability of the results. To alleviate this problem, the inter-rater method was used as suggested by Crooks (1986) to obtain higher reliability. Two researchers firstly worked independently and separately on conducting move and linguistic features analyses. Then, they convened to work collaboratively and had the analysis finalized by comparing and discussing their results. Whenever different opinions occurred, they negotiated until the agreement was reached on a case by case basis. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Some interesting results emerged after the 20 texts were analyzed. In general, 19 out of the 20 texts were found to follow the three-stage structure proposed by Hyland (1990). The results are reported here from two perspectives: move analysis and linguistic features. Appendix C summarizes the results of the move analysis. 1. Move Analysis 1.1. Moves that are not used at all Gambit move in the Thesis stage According to Hyland (1990), the Gambit is attention grabber. The function of this move is to capture the readers attention, rather than to inform. None of the students texts is found to contain this move. The reason may be that the students lack such background knowledge about the function of this move, and also the move requires certain skills which are beyond students awareness and ability. Evaluation move in the Thesis stage The Evaluation provides a positive comment on the proposition, and it may follow the proposition to give a brief support. However, all students stated their own standpoints and stopped there, and none of the texts contain the move of Evaluation. It is assumed that subconsciously students would rather give reasons later in the Argument stage. This may result from their lack of confidence because they worry about having nothing to say in the Argument stage which is supposed to provide reasons for acceptance of the proposition. Restatement move in the Argument stage The Restatement is a repetition of proposition. The move functions as a reminder of the subject. The reason why students did not use it is probably because restatement is regarded as something unnecessary and tedious in the Chinese tradition. Therefore, the students tried to impress the reader that they were skilled writers by avoiding this unnecessary move.
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1.2. Moves that are always or mostly present Information move in the Thesis stage Information is almost a universal feature in the argumentative writing. This move usually presents background materials for topic contextualization. All the texts contained this move. One possible reason is L1 transfer. People usually tend to provide necessary background information before the proposition is presented in Chinese culture. Therefore, the students used the Information move easily and naturally. Another reason may be the information provided in the instruction section was sufficient. When the topic was given to the students, some related background information was also provided in Chinese. The students possibly borrowed these ideas and presented them as the Information move. Proposition move in the Thesis stage According to Hyland (1990), the Proposition is the central move in the Thesis stage, and it is the only obligatory move in this stage. The function of this move is to state the writers position and delimit the topic. Among the 20 texts, only one text failed to present this move. When writing an argumentative essay in Chinese, the writer is expected to state clearly his or her viewpoint about a specific topic. Thus, they can transfer this skill and knowledge from the Chinese tradition. This could explain the presence of this move as an obligatory move as well. Claim move in the Argument stage A central move in the Argument stage is the Claim. This move states reason for acceptance of the proposition. 18 out of 20 texts had the move of claim in the first move cycle. The high frequency may result from the same reason discussed for the Proposition. In the Chinese tradition, where there is the proposition, there is a claim. However, the number of claims in the third move cycle was reduced to seven. That is to say, most students could only offer two reasons to explain why they accepted the proposition. The failure of giving insufficient reasons and support may result from the lack of particular knowledge related to the topic. 1.3. Differences between EM and NEM essays Marker in the Argument stage The Marker indicates the sequence, and functions as the connector between the steps in the argument and the proposition. It signals the introduction of a claim and relates it to the text. A significant difference between EM and NEM essays lies in the use of markers in the Argument stage, which consists of possible three move cycles. This is to say that the four moves in the Argument stage formed a cycle repeated in the order of Marker, Restatement, Claim and Support. In the first move cycle, eight texts written by English majors presented the move of marker, while only two by non-English majors have this move. Interestingly, the density of the marker becomes lower and lower as move cycles go on. This difference between EM and NEM may result from two factors. Firstly, English majors are more aware of the use of markers than non-English majors because they have more exposure to the English language, including more hours of English classes and more tasks outside the classroom. The second reason has something to do with students language competence. Even though these 20 students were considered to have good performance in their groups, their level of performance is different because of the different disciplines they belong to. Generally speaking, English majors have better English language proficiency than non-English majors on
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average, so they know how to connect two sentences coherently and cohesively and how to indicate a topic change by shifting to a new sequence with the use of markers. 1.4. A Non-Argumentative Essay There is an extreme case that needs to be mentioned here. NEM07 has only one move (the information move) in the whole text. Strictly speaking, this piece of writing cannot be viewed as an argumentative essay because it fails to have basic components and features of this genre. It is assumed that the writer of NEM07 has no schemata of argumentative writing. He or she does not know what an argumentative essay is, or how it is structured. He or she did not even realize the clues from the instruction given. Also, this may reflect the untouched area in composition teaching at TU. 1.5. New Move Contradiction move in the Argument stage The Contradiction move, a new move which does not exist in Hylands model, provides a contradictory claim to the original proposition. The function of this move is to give a positive perspective of something that has been stated negatively. EM03 presented the contradiction move which appeared in the Thesis stage to state the advantages of online evaluation. However, the writer originally held the point that he or she disagreed with the online evaluation, and already provided two reasons as claims to support the proposition. The third claim, nevertheless, is contradictory to the standpoint which the writer held. The presence of this new move is probably attributable to the neutral personality of the Chinese people who hold a neutral attitude towards people or things. They tend to seek eclectic pathways and rarely take the risk of standing firmly on one side. Example: (EM03) Its advantages are the students neednt worry about their evaluation to be known by anybody and it shows the equality between teachers and students. 2. Linguistic Features The analysis of linguistic features was concerned with tenses, specific functional words (attitudinal stance) and auxiliary verbs. Due to the large number of the moves in Hylands model, these three aspects were just mentioned in three moves: Information, Proposition, and Claim. The selection of these moves is based on two criteria. The first is moves with high frequent presence in students texts and the second is moves with the status as central moves according to Hyland (1990). 2.1. The Information Move Present tense or present perfect tense is used in this move to indicate the liveliness and contemporary relevance to the thesis to be argued. In addition, adverbs of time such as recently and nowadays were used to correspond with the tenses used in the Information move. 100% of texts used present tense or present perfect tense, and 50% contained the words such as recently and nowadays.
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Examples: (EM01) Recently, the problem of whether should evaluate teachers by students without sign their names online has aroused public concern. (NEM04) Nowadays, some universities encourage students to evaluate teachers through the Internet to promote teaching quality. 2.2. The Proposition Move The writers usually express their standpoint linguistically by using such words or phrases as follows: A in my opinion, personally speaking, when it comes to me, B I strongly disapprove of, I agree with, I prefer to support the former one,
The phrases in group A listed above signal the coming of the writers position of a particular controversial issue. These phrases that 90% of students used help to prepare the reader that the writer is going to state his or her proposition. Also, the functional words in group B such as agree, disapprove, and support were used to signal the writers stance. Such words appeared in 55% of the texts. One function of these words is to claim ownership of the proposition. Some examples are given below. (EM08) As far as Im concerned, I prefer to support the former one. (EM10) However, I strongly disapprove of this way of evaluating. (NEM03) Personally speaking, I support the former one. (NEM08) As for me, I agree to the former one. 2.3. The Claim Move Auxiliary verbs such as can and will were used in this move. For can, it helps the writer illustrate the potential of the online evaluation. Can was used in the Claim move in 18 texts (90%) and it appeared 37 times in total. The writer uses will to indicate the probability and possibility the online evaluation may bring. Will was present only in 8 texts but appeared 15 times altogether. Some examples are given below: (EM02) The students can express their ideas freely about the way of teaching. (NEM02) I believe the feedback from students will enclose the relationship between students and teachers. The results reported in this section are analysis results from trialing Hylands model (1990) with the pilot corpus. It was found that the model provides sufficient explanations for the current rhetorical patterns of AE produced by students at TU. The findings from the main study on both rhetorical structure and linguistic features will benefit teaching materials design
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and writing classroom practice in order to equip TU students with genre knowledge and assist them in composing such crucial but ignored genre of argumentative essay. CONCLUSION The results of the analysis of two corpora of 20 English argumentative essays by English major and non-English major students at TU showed that almost all the texts have three stages, and the majority contain the central moves which are Proposition and Claim, which correspond well with Hyland model (1990). Results also showed that similarities and differences exist between the texts by English majors and non-English majors, and a new move, Contradiction in the Argument Stage, has been found as well. In conclusion, Hylands model can be used to explain the rhetorical structure of the pilot corpus effectively and it yields interesting findings. Therefore, it is workable as an analytical framework for argumentative essays in this pilot study. Hylands model will continue to be used in the main study, and more interesting and valid findings are expected. References Chinese Ministry of Education (CMOE). (2007). College English Curriculum Requirements. Beijing: Peoples Education Press. Connor, U. (1990). Linguistics/Rhetorical measures for international persuasive student writing. Research in the Teaching of English. 24 (1), 67-87. Crookes, G. (1986). Towards a validated analysis of scientific text structure. Applied Linguistics, 7(1), 351-358. Crowhurst, M. (1987). Cohesion in argument and narration at the three grade levels. Research in the Teaching of English. 21, 185-201. Crowhurst, M. (1990). Teaching and learning the writing of persuasive/argumentative Discourse. Canadian Journal of Education. 15 (4), 348-359. Crowhurst, M. (1991). Interrelationships between reading and writing persuasive discourse. Research in the Teaching of English, 25(3), 314-338. Derewianka, B. (1990). Exploring How Texts Work. Rozelle, New South Wales: Primary English Teaching Association. Ferris, D. R. (1994). Rhetorical strategies in student persuasive writing: Differences between native and non-native English speakers. Research in the Teaching of English, 28 (1), 45-65. Gao, J. (2007). Teaching writing in Chinese universities: Finding an eclectic approach. Asian EFL Journal, 20, 18-33. Henry, A. and Roseberry, R. (2001). Using a small corpus to obtain data for teaching a genre. In Ghadessy, M., Henry, A. and Roseberry, R. (eds.). Small Corpus Studies and ELT Theory and Practice. (pp. 93-133). Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company. Hyland, K. (1990). A genre description of the argumentative essay. RELC Journal, 21(1), 67-78. Lock, G. and Lockhart, C. (1998) Genre in an academic writing class. Hong Kong Journal of Applied Linguistics, 47-64. Lu, M. J. (2007). ELT in China and a China English Model. English Today, 86 (28), 45-51. Toulmin, S. E. (1958). The Uses of Argument. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Veel, R. (1997). Learning how to mean scientifically speaking: apprenticeship into scientific discourse in the secondary school. In Christie, F. and Martin, J. R. (eds.). Genre and Institution: Social processes in the workplace and school, pp. 161-195. Continuum Studies in Language and Education.
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You, X. Y. (2004). The choice made from no choice: English writing instruction in a Chinese University. Journal of Second Language Writing, 13 (2), 97-110. Zhu, W. (2001). Performing argumentative writing in English difficulties, processes, and strategies. TESL Canada Journal, 19(1), 34-50.
ICLC 2010 Proceedings Appendix A Instruction for the Writing Task
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In order to improve the quality of our education, students are encouraged to give evaluation to their teachers online during or at the end of the courses in some universities. Some people think it is a good idea because it provides feedback to teachers and they can adjust the way of teaching so as to achieve good teaching quality. However, other people feel it will cause the loss of respect and discipline in the classroom. Whats your opinion about this? Write an argumentative essay with 200-250 words in 1 hour on the topic Online Evaluation to Teachers. Your essay should cover: 1. your own opinion about the evaluation to the teachers; 2. supporting details to support your idea; 3. conclusion to your statements. Online Evaluation to Teachers(200-250 200)1. 2. 3. Appendix B: Elements of Structure of the Argumentative Essay Hylands Model (1990)
Stage 1. Thesis Introduces the proposition to be argued. Move (Gambit) Attention Grabber controversial statement of dramatic illusion. (Information) Presents background material for topic contextualization. Proposition Furnishes a specific statement of position. (Evaluation) Positive gloss brief support of proposition. (Marker) Introduces and /or identifies a list. Marker Signals the introduction of a claim and relates it to the text. (Restatement) Rephrasing or repetition of proposition. Claim States reason for acceptance of the proposition. Support States the grounds which underpin the claim. (Marker) Signals conclusion boundary Consolidation Presents the significance of the argument stage to the proposition. (Affirmation) Restates proposition. (Close) Widens context or perspective of proposition.
2. Argument Discusses grounds for thesis. (four move argument sequence can be repeated indefinitely)
3. Conclusion Synthesizes discussion and affirms the validity of the thesis.
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Note: Bracketed elements are optional components in the structure and indicate that such a move need not occur but will appear in that position if it does. Examples of Moves I. The Thesis Stage 1. The Gambit Move Many foreign employers complain about the sub-standard graduates produced in PNG. 2. The Information Move Since independence PNG has spent a lot of money financing the tertiary system and has not obtained good value for its money. 3. The Proposition Move I strongly propose the idea that our rural community schools be given first priority in terms of government funding. 4. The Evaluation Move This is primarily because it is the base of our education system. 5. The Marker Move There are a number of reasons for increasing assistance to community education. II. The Argument Stage 1. The Marker Move Another way to improve the standards is to 2. The restatement Move The second reason why more money should be directly at the tertiary sector is 3. The Claim Move With the basic skills we learn from community schools it would be easier for us to understand the trade and economy of our country. 4. The Support Move all children should be allowed a basic education. III. The Conclusion Stage 1. The Marker Move To conclude 2. The Consolidation Move Thus the quality of the graduates is improved and the various sectors of the community are satisfied. 3. The Affirmation Move To sum up, I strongly advise that more money should be spent on the primary sector. 4. The Close Move The future of the country will be jeopardized if nothing is done to improve this sector.
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A Comparative Study of Thai Childrens Metalinguistic Awareness from Different Age Groups and Educational Programs
Pornpimol Turbpaiboon, Department of Linguistics, Thammasat University pturbpaiboon@gmail.com Chutamanee Onsuwan, Department of Linguistics, Thammasat University consuwan@tu.ac.th Abstract This study explores Thai childrens metalinguistic awareness in phonological, lexical, and syntactic-semantic domains across age groups (5-6 and 8-9 years old) and educational programs (regular and international programs). Data were collected, using 10 different tests created for examining metalinguistic awareness, from 40 Thai children at the ages of 5-6 and 8-9, attending regular (Thai) and international (Thai/English) programs. Overall, both age groups and educational programs performed best in syntactic and semantic domains but worst in lexical domains. Among the 5-6 year olds, the regular program group outperformed the international program group in phonological and lexical domains while among the 8-9 year olds, the regular program group did better in phonological and syntactic-semantic domains. However, these differences were not statistically significant. In both programs, the 8-9 year olds performed significantly better than the 5-6 year olds in all tasks except for the test on onset - coda identification and those on word arbitrariness. The findings suggest that metalinguistic awareness of monolingual children and of those with sequential bilingualism does not differ. Importantly, bilingualism (at least in these age groups) does not seem to inhibit the development of their mother language. BACKGROUND AND MOTIVATION Not only do humans possess the ability to use language but they also have the ability to recognize language as systematic patterns. Speakers of a language can analyze language use. They are able to tell if it is consistent with the languages grammatical rules and correct it if necessary. This type of language ability, namely, metalinguistic awareness, is quite different from basic language skills and is generally acquired afterwards (Cazden, 1976; Bialystok, 1991; Romaine, 1997). In fact, in this study, Thai children aged 5-9 years could correctly produce /b,,h,t,l,and r/ in the onset position, but they had difficulty identifying these onset phonemes in real words (a metalinguistic task) regardless of whether they are from monolingual or bilingual classroom settings. One of the most important features of human language is Cultural transmission (Hockett, 1960). Specifically, infants are able to (consciously or unconsciously) acquire more than one language without any disruption. Using the age of language acquisition as a criterion, bilingualism can be categorized into 2 groups: simultaneous bilingualism and sequential bilingualism. The former occurs when a child is exposed to two languages simultaneously mostly within the first three years. The latter occurs when a child learns a second language after having acquired the mother language. This usually occurs between the ages of 3 and 12. Sequential bilingualism is sometimes called second language acquisition, a process which can be influenced by different environments. For example, in the Philippines, a child might learn one of the 70 dialects at home before being exposed to English and Tagalog.
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In some languages, contradicting findings have been reported regarding metalinguistic awareness in bilingual children. A number of studies suggested that bilingual children possess a higher level of metalinguistic awareness (especially in lexical arbitrariness domain) than monolingual children (Leopold, 1961; Vygotsky, 1986), although Ben Zeev (1977) Cummins (1978), Edward and Christopherson (1988) suggested the contrary. Those who supported the bilingual advantage supposition believe that because bilingual children have words in two different languages to refer to the same thing, they can more easily grasp the concept of the arbitrariness between word and referent, and can understand that the sound of a word has no relation to the meaning. Moreover, the fact that bilingual children see a language as one system among many might lead them to be more aware of the different phenomena in each language (Leopold; 1961, Vygotsky; 1986). Research conducted on metalinguistic awareness has focused on many linguistic domains, i.e. phonological, lexical, and structural domains. For phonological domain, relations between phonological metalinguistic awareness and childrens reading skills have been reported (Carroll, 2004). Moreover, with bilingual children having more phonological awareness, one can deduce that bilingualism lends itself to better reading skills. Durgunolu, Nagy, and Hancin-Bhatt (1993) conducted a study on native Spanishspeaking students who are learning English as a second language and found that phonological awareness and word recognition skills in Spanish can predict word recognition skills in English. The study concluded that there is cross-language transfer. However, Bialystok, Majumder, and Martin (2003) argued that Spanish and English share a number of similarities, which could be mistaken for phonological awareness. They carried out a new study which showed that Spanish-speaking children have more phonological awareness of English, but native Chinese-speaking children do not develop the same phonological awareness of English. As for the lexical domain, Yelland, Pollard and Mercuri (1993) explored the awareness of referential arbitrariness of kindergarten and Year 1 students in Australia. They tested the childrens understanding of how the length of word for an animal has no relation to the size of the actual animal. For example, caterpillar is a long word that refers to a tiny insect while whale is a short word that refers to a large animal. The results show that English-Italian bilingual children did better on the test than monolingual children. Even children who had just started learning a second language surpassed the monolingual group on the same test. In the structural domain, Ricciardelli (1992) compared structural metalinguistic awareness in Year 1 English-Italian bilingual students and English-speaking monolingual students. The students were asked to correct ungrammatical sentences said by a puppet. The results show that balanced bilinguals had more metalinguistic awareness than unbalanced bilinguals. Most of the findings previously mentioned lend support to claims of a bilingual advantage. Therefore, the main focus of this work is to investigate if those assumptions are substantiated among the Thai monolingual and Thai/English bilingual population. Of interest here is metalinguistic awareness in the Thai bilingual population. Although bilingualism has become a common phenomenon in Thai society, issues in bilingualism of Thai (and other languages) have not been fully investigated. The scope of this study includes metalinguistic awareness of Thai children in three domains: phonological, lexical, and structure-meaning across age groups. It is generally assumed that different stages of cognitive
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development could explain the difference in development of language skills. This study takes this into account and therefore divides subjects into two age groups: 5-6 year-old and 8-9 year-old. According to Piaget (1959), the cognitive ability of the 5-6 year-olds is in the preoperational stage, which is when the child starts using symbols, develops memory and uses imagination. At this age, the child starts to develop full linguistic abilities, although logical thought and the ability to look at a situation from another persons viewpoint are still not achieved. The 8-9 year-olds have their cognitive ability in the concrete operational stage, which is when the child learns to use symbols in a concrete, systematic and logical way, and can adopt other peoples viewpoints when looking at a situation. It is noteworthy that the intention of using educational programs as a variable in this study, rather than the number of acquired languages, is to represent a realistic language/ bilingual situation in Thailand. Specifically, a large number of Thai bilinguals might be considered unbalanced bilinguals with Thai being their dominant language and English their second language. Thai children who are enrolled in international programs are influenced by the two languages, unlike those enrolled in regular schools who are mainly exposed to Thai in the classroom. METHODS I. Subjects Subjects are 80 Thai students attending Grades 1 and 4 at Kasetsart University Laboratory School (Bangkok). They all took Ravens Coloured Progressive Matrices test (designed by John C. Raven). This test was designed to overcome the language and culture limitations of 5-12 year-old children. Out of 80 students, 40 students within designated ranges of age and levels of IQ (Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children) were selected. Their WISC scores are shown in Table 1. Regular program (RP) 5-6 years old (G1) (20 children) 8-9 years old (G4) (20 children) 89 - 104 98 - 106 International program (IP) 91 - 106 99 - 106
Table 1. Wechsler Intelligence Scale of 40 children participated in the study With regard to language use in the classroom, Thai students in the regular program are taught in Thai in all classes, except in their English classes which they start learning from Year 3 onwards. Thai students in the international program have English as a medium of instruction, except in their Thai language classes. They usually start learning and using English from pre-primary school. II. Testing materials The research included ten tests testing three metalinguistic domains of the Thai language: phonological, lexical, and structural-meaning. All tests were conducted individually for each subject and performed in Thai in a game-like manner with short familiarization sessions. 1) Three phonological tests: a rhyme-tone detection, a phoneme identification, and a phoneme substitution
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1.1 rhyme-tone detection (adapted from Ho, C.S. and Bryant, P. (1997)) (6 test items: 3 for rhyme and 3 for tone) Students are asked to choose one of the two words that has the same rhyme and tone as that of the first word. The test takes around 4 - 5 minutes. Example: first word /tk/ choice I /kk/ choice II /k/
1.2 phoneme identification (32 test items: 16 for onset and 16 for coda) Students are asked to identify an onset (or a coda) of each given word. The test lasts about 6 - 10 minutes. Examples: onset identification test coda identification test test word /taw/ target phoneme /t/ /w/
/aw/
1.3 phoneme substitution (adapted from Bialystok, E., Majumder, S., and Martin, M.M. (2003)) (10 test items: 5 for onset and 5 for coda) Students are asked to substitute an onset (or a coda) in the second word with that of the first word. The test takes around 14 - 18 minutes. Examples: onset substitution test coda substitution test first word /ton/ second word /li/ target answer /ti/
/jip/
/tet/
/tep/
2) Four lexical tests: a noun classifier test and three referential arbitrariness tests 2.1 noun classifier test (15 test items) Students are shown a set of pictures and asked to justify and correct a noun classifier of each word. The test takes about 2 - 5 minutes. Example: noun given classifier target classifier
/kra-tok/ mirror
/baj/ classifier for tree leaf, fruit, document, and container
/ban/ classifier for mirror and window
2.2 referential arbitrariness: three different tests including Lelu-Bobe (2 test items), Sun-Moon (3 test items), and Dog-Cat (3 test items) (adapted from Osherson, D.N., and Markman, E. (1975)). Each test takes no longer than five minutes. Example: a picture of a leaf is shown and subjects are asked if it can be called snow. If yes, what color would it have? (the correct answer is yes because we can use any word including snow to refer to the referent leaf and it wouldnt affect the color (green) of the referent (the leaf). 3) A structure-meaning test (23 test items) A set of pictures is shown and students are asked to justify and correct syntactical structure and meaning of each given sentence. The test takes about five minutes.
ICLC 2010 Proceedings Example: given sentence target sentence
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thief chase policeman A thief is chasing a policeman.
policeman chase thief A policeman is chasing a thief.
All tests were carried out such that the subjects start with the less complicated tasks and progress to the more complicated ones, i.e. the structural-meaning domain, the lexical domain, and the phonological domain respectively. They were divided into two sessions on two separate days. The first session tested the subjects structural and lexical awareness. The second session tested the subjects phonological awareness. Each session lasted about 20-30 minutes. For the classifier and structural-meaning tests, apart from analyzing the students responses, error corrections made by each student were collected and categorized for further investigation. RESULTS Figure 1 compares the test results across three different language domains. It shows that all age groups in all programs have the highest awareness in the structure-meaning domain, followed by the phonological domain. The lexical domain is the domain in which all the subjects showed the lowest metalinguistic awareness.
RP-G1
100 85 85 75
IP-G1
RP-G4
89
IP-G4
96 90 94
62 61 41
55 57 37
50
25
0
phonological lexical structure-meaning
RP average (phonological: 73.5 , lexical: 48 , structure-meaning: 89.5) IP average (phonological: 73 , lexical: 47 , structure-meaning: 95)
Figure 1: Percent average correct responses from 3 metalinguistic domains (pooled across 10 tests)
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I. Phonological domain
rhyme-tone detection coda identification coda substitution
100 76 75 50 25 0 RP-G1 IP-G1 RP-G4 IP-G4 45 52 40 56 48 18 95 85 58 96
onset identificatiom onset substitution

100 95 98 76 60 98 94 80
91
Figure 2: Percent average correct responses from 5 phonological tests Overall, as shown in Figure 2, every group performed best in the onset identification test and worst in the coda identification test. A notable difference in test scores in the test of coda substitution was found between the two programs (RP: 58 vs. IP: 49). However, no statistically significant difference was reported between the two educational program groups (RP: 73.5 vs. IP: 73 as shown in Figure 1). Moreover, the 8-9 year olds from both programs showed significantly higher test scores in the onset substitution and coda substitution tests than the 5-6 year olds. II. Lexical domain
Classifier
100 78 75 50 30 25 7.5 0
RP-G1
Lelu-Bobe
Sun-Moon
90 87 70 58
Dog-Cat
71 50 36 41
76 63
0
IP-G1
0
RP-G4
0
IP-G4
Figure 3: Percent average correct responses from 4 lexical tests As shown in Figure 3, every group did best on the classifier test and worst on the LeluBobe test. The 8-9 year olds from both programs showed significantly higher test scores in the
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noun classifier test than the 5-6 year olds. No statistically significant difference between the two educational program groups was found (RP: 48 vs. IP: 47 as seen in Figure 1). III. Structure-meaning domain
100 75 50 25 0 89 90 96 93
RP-G1
IP-G1
RP-G4
IP-G4
Figure 4: Percent average correct responses from structure-meaning test The two educational programs showed no statistically significant difference in the structure-meaning test score (RP: 92.9 vs. IP: 91.9 as seen in Figure 1). Moreover, the 8-9 year olds of regular program had significantly higher test scores in the structure-meaning test than the 5-6 year olds of the same program. When correcting linguistic errors, most children succeeded, and very few failed to correct classifiers that are not frequently used. Likewise, most of them could correct clearly unacceptable meanings and syntactic errors. Only a few did not succeed in correcting complex sentences. In fact, some justifications and corrections from the children did not identically match the target answers, yet they were suitable with the use of words and structures which are possible and more familiar. DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSION Even though the findings do not support the argument that bilingual children possess higher metalinguistic awareness in any linguistic domain than monolingual children, they strongly suggest that sequential bilingualism does not inhibit development of the mother language (Thai). Moreover, stages of metalinguistic development of the two groups (regular and international programs) do not seem to differ. From these findings, the metalinguistic development seems to emerge first age wise in structure-meaning domain, then phonological, and lastly lexical as shown in Figure 1. Interestingly, at around the ages of five and six, Thai monolinguals and bilinguals show a strong level of metalinguistic awareness in structuremeaning domain. That is, they not only are able to produce grammatical sentences, but also have the knowledge of syntactic rules, consistent with previous studies on other languages (Carroll, 2004). In both educational programs, the 8-9 year olds performed significantly better than the 5-6 year olds in all tasks except for the test on onset - coda identification and those on word arbitrariness. Different stages of cognitive development as proposed by Piaget (1959) might explain different levels of metalinguistic awareness found between the two age groups.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are grateful to Kasetsart University Laboratory School Center for Education Research and Development for allowing and assisting us in the data collecting process. A complete version of this work was the first authors MA thesis (2010) at Department of Linguistics, Faculty of Liberal Arts, Thammasat University. References Ben Zeev, S. (1977). The influence of bilingualism on cognitive strategy and cognitive development. Child Development, 48, 1009-1018. Bialystok, E. (1991). Metalinguistic dimensions of bilingual language proficiency. In E. Bialystok (Ed.), Language processing in bilingual children (pp. 113-140). Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. Bialystok, E., Majumder, S., and Martin, M.M. (2003). Developing phonological awareness: Is there a bilingual advantage? Applied Psycholinguistics, 24, 27-44. Carroll, D.W. (2004). Psychology of language (4th ed.). Belmont: Thomson/ Wadsworth. Cazden, C. B. (1976). Play with language and metalinguistic awareness: One dimension of language experience. In J. S. Bruner, A. Jolly, and K. Sylva (Eds.), Play: Its role in development and evolution (pp. 603-608). New York: Basic Books. Cummins, J. (1978). Bilingualism and the development of metalinguistic awareness. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 9, 131-149. Durgunolu, A.Y., Nagy, W.E., and Hancin-Bhatt, B.J. (1993). Cross-language transfer of phonological awareness. Journal of Educational Psychology, 85, 543-465. Edward, D., and Christopherson, H. (1988). Bilingualism, literacy, and metalinguistic awareness in preschool children. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 6, 235-244. Gass, S. M., and Selinker, L. (2001). Second language acquisition: An introductory course (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Ho, C.S. and Bryant, P. (1997). Development of phonological awareness of Chinese children in Hong Kong. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 26, 109-126. Hockett, C.F. (1960). The origin of speech. Scientific American, 203, 88-96. Leopold, W.F. (1961). Patterning in childrens language learning. In S. Saporta (Ed.), Psycholinguistics: A book of readings (pp. 351-358). New York: Holt. Osherson, D.N., and Markman, E. (1975). Language and the ability to evaluate contradictions and tautologies. Cognition, 3, 213-226. Piaget, J. (1959). Language and Thought of the Child (13th ed.). London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Raven, J. C. (1976). Standard progressive matrices: Sets A, AB, and B. Oxford: Oxford Psychologists Press. Ricciardelli, L.A. (1992). Biligualism and cognitive development in relation to threshold theory. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 21, 301-316. Romaine, S. (1997). Bilingualism (2nd ed.). Oxford: Blackwell. Vygotsky, L.S. (1986). Thought and Language (revised edition). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Yelland, G.W., Pollard, J., and Mercuri, A. (1993). The metalinguistic benefits of limited contact with a second language. Applied Psycholinguistics, 14, 423-444.
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A Critical Discourse Analysis of Thai-ness in Childrens literatures: A Case Study of TK Park Childrens Books for the Southernmost Provinces of Thailand Nattapol Zupasit
Abstract This paper aims to analyze the representations of Thai-ness and Malay Muslim identity in the childrens books published for the deep south of Thailand. Based on Faircloughs CDA and van Dijks ideological square, the analysis reveals that there are discursive strategies of positive representation of Thai-ness (Us) and the assimilation of Malay Muslim identity (Them) into the mainstream Thai culture subtly enacted at both textual and visual levels. The strategies at textual level include: nominalization; the use of the Muslim voice to express the appreciation of Thai-ness; the use of the terms Thai, Thai Buddhist, and Thai Muslim which connotes unequal representation; the misrepresentation of the Muslim; and legitimization of Thai-ness as normalcy in disguise of reconciliation. The visual strategy includes the signification of the sense of inferiority and minority of the Muslims and their Islamic way of life displayed in the pictures of the books. Keywords: Thai-ness, Malay Muslim Identity, deep south, assimilation, hegemony, racism, childrens literature, Critical Discourse Analysis Introduction This study aims to analyze the representation of different cultural identities in the collection of childrens literature, especially published for the children in Yala province in the South. The collection is a part of the childrens literature project for its local branches in four main regions of the country initiated by Thailand Knowledge Park (TK Park). In general, the books are aimed as a tool to develop reading habits of children in Yala and other neighboring districts in the deep south. In specific, the books can be classified as multicultural childrens literature. They are intended to encourage those children to learn more about their own unique local history and culture in order to promote a better understanding of cultural diversity, and develop a sense of harmony among three different ethnic groups; Muslims, Thai Buddhists, and Sino Thais, living together amid the current tension in the southernmost provinces of Thailand. Given the current situation there, it is apparent that childrens books, designed especially for Yala children and published in 2007 by TK Park, are also aimed as a medium to help reduce conflict, create trust and bring back a united and multicultural environment into the regions. The books, then, should not be considered as a simple narrative, but a discourse articulated with specific intentions and ideologies, thus making them political in nature. As a product of state agency under direct supervision of The Office of the Prime Minister, it is possible that the books could serve as a political tool of the central Thai government to cultivate a certain perspective among the readers in the region. Their narratives might presuppose a certain set of knowledge, beliefs and ideologies which lead to the reproduction of ethnic prejudice, discrimination and racism in a subtle manner. It is in this sense that the books are worth studying. Here, the asymmetrical representations and relationships of the books about Thai-ness or Thai National identity (as based on the three pillars of Nation, Buddhism and Monarchy) and Malay Muslim identity (which is grounded
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on the Malay race, Malay language, and the Islamic religion) will be focused on as the main scope of this paper. Analytical Frameworks: Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) Considering language as social practice, Critical Discourse Analysis (and henceforth CDA) is an interdisciplinary approach to the study of discourse or language in use, mediating between language, mind and society under critical perspective. CDA, then, emphasizes the role of language in the production and reproduction of social reality (Fairclough, 1992, 2003, cited in Kjr and Palsbro, 2008:606). It primarily focuses on the relationships between discourse, power, dominance, and social inequality (van Dijk, 1993:249, cited in Mayr, 2008:8) which are enacted, produced, reproduced and challenged by text and talk in social and political context (van Dijk, 2003:352). An important goal of CDA, then, is to uncover the implicit arguments and meanings in texts which tend to marginalize non-dominant groups, while justifying the values, beliefs, and ideologies of dominant-hegemonic groups in a given society (Ricento, 2003:615). It is in this sense that CDA is best applicable for the purpose of this study in order to expose the hidden set of ideology expressed by means of textual and visual signs of these childrens literatures. Data Description: the General Characteristics of the Books The collection of childrens literature subjected in this study is made up of 12 volumes: six of them are published in a form of picture books, and another six in a form of chapter books. The picture books are written for the children at the age 6-9 years old below, whereas the rest is composed for those at the age 9-12 years above. Of all twelve volumes, there are four books that are adapted from the local Malay Muslim oral folktales. The rest of them are newly invented, and intricately grounded much on the basis of Nation, Buddhism, and Monarchy of Thai-ness as channeled through various forms of discursive features in these books. In terms of authorship, it is interesting to note that, from all of the total of twelve books here, there are 7 writers who are Buddhists, in comparison to only one Muslim writer; and there are 4 Buddhist illustrators compared to 3 who are Muslims. Such facts seem to not correspond to the fact that the books are aimed at Yala children who are made up of Muslims as the majority, and can be seen as a very first signification of asymmetrical representation, as focused in this research. Discourse Analysis The analysis of discourse shows that there is a trace of asymmetrical representation and relationship between Thai-ness and Malay Muslim identity which can be explained in a form of strategies as guided by van Dijks Ideological Square, i.e., the positive representation of Us (Thai-ness) and the negative representation of Them (Islamic/ Malay Muslim identity). And since the childrens literatures here are composed of both linguistic and visual signs, the discursive strategies in this analysis can be divided into two main levels; the textual and the visual levels.
ICLC 2010 Proceedings Textual Analysis Positive representation of Us: Nominalization Extract 5 ......(, 2550:84)
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The extract here is the most apparent case for the legitimate strategy of Thai-ness. As can be noticed, you might see that the agent of the action in this passage is left out and turned into circumstance instead. Here the action of King Rama V is transformed or nominalized into the noun improvement or . The word here can also be seen as a euphemism employed to project a more positive sense of his actions. In fact, the word is used to mitigate and legitimize the negative actions of the Siam court i.e. the intervention, or seizure of the former Pattani Malayu dynasty, not improvement. Negative representation of Them Extract .. 2002 2020 (, 2550:90-91) As can be seen, the passage seems to emphasize the negative action of the Malacca army as the intruders through verb actions seized , destroyed . In addition, the adverb disastrously and completely put in the passage also function as a modalizer which helps evaluate and amplify the actions of the Malacca soldiers here in a more negative light. The symbols of Thai national identity, i.e. images of Buddha and the Thai state, are represented as the victim of them, or the Malacca who were Muslim. The then governor of Pattani is also to blame here, since he converted himself to Islam and cannot resist the action of the Malacca troops. So, the Muslim and Islam are implicitly represented as the other who intruded into Thai territory, and also destroyed the national Buddhist treasures, which are the major discursive elements of Thai-ness. Apart from these aforementioned examples, there are also the more subtle forms of asymmetrical representations of Us and Them as follows:
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Use of the Voice of the Muslim character in Favor of Thai-ness Extract ( , 2550:48-49) At facial value, the excerpt seems to be multiculturalism since it tries to lead us to value the notion of cultural diversity. In fact, as described at the end of this excerpt, the passage is latently aimed at emphasizing and legitimizing the concept of the Four Signs in Buddhism as universal and primacy. This is shown by the word choice everybody and the syntactical modal choice which suggest a high level of certainty of the speaker. It is apparent that the idea of Buddhism, as one of the most important pillars of Thai-ness, here is asserted and promoted through the voice of the Muslim character who affirms and represents such ideas as absolute truth. The Unequal Representation of terms Thai, Thai-Buddhist, and Thai-Muslim Throughout the books, it is interesting to note that The Muslims are always represented as Thai-Muslims. This can be seen as an attempt to cultivate the sense of Thainess and, in turn, suppress and exclude Their authentic Malay ethnicity, which is considered to be the threat to the unity of Thai-ness. Besides, it should be noted that the use of this term also reflects unequal representation, since the word Thai-Muslim is the marked term, whereas the term Thai is unmarked and pragmatically referred to as Thai-Buddhist only. This resonates the idea of Thai-ness i.e. to be Thai is to be Buddhist as shown in the example. Extract .. 2490 ... (, 2550:10) 4-5 (, 2550:11) Misrepresentation of the Muslims Extract ( , 2550:70)
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..... ... ( , 2550:80) As can be seen in the extract here, PawChee, the Muslim character, is narrated as he is casting some forms of magic. In fact, the use of magic can be seen as shirk or sinful in Islam, and thus strongly forbidden for the Muslims. The role ascribed to PawChee here is not only misrepresented as deviant to the norm and principle of Islam, but also inclined to conform to the beliefs in Animism, or Brahmanism, and Buddhism of Thai-ness. Legitimization of Buddhism as normalcy in disguise of reconciliation Extract ( , 2550:9) As can be seen, the passage seems to legitimize the action of PawChee, joining the Buddhist temple fair, as preferred. It argues that all the Muslims can and should visit the Buddhist temple since it is the opportunity for them, the Muslims, to socialize with the others in order to be included and accepted. However, it also can be seen that this should be the responsibility of those Muslims to push themselves in the mainstream community of Thai people for the sake of reconciliation. In order to maintain social relationships and restore peaceful conditions, it is obviously not the job of our Thai people to make such an effort, but it is Their duty. By this, the asymmetrical representation of Us and Them is signified. Image Analysis As visual signs can also be seen as a matter of choices in the semiotic system made by the illustrators, the analysis shows that, in some cases, there are certain choices that can be interpreted as a part of the asymmetrical representation of Us and Them. Though the Muslims are included, the sense of inferiority and minority can always be connoted from such representations. The sense of inferiority of the Malay Muslim identity can be connoted when the discursive features of Buddhism and Chakri Monarchy are asserted in; whereas the sense of minority is signified when they are relatively represented with Thais, or Buddhists included in the same picture. Due to the limited space of this paper, only one picture will be taken and analyzed as follows:
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Figure 1 Cover of the book titled Muang Na Yu Ti Nu Rak . As can This picture is taken from the cover of the picture book titled be seen, the image includes the iconic signs which represent different ethnic groups of people. There are 4 Muslims, followed by a Chinese, a Sagai man, as identified by their clothes and other physical appearances. The rest are presumed to be ethnic Thai. In general, it can be said that the picture connotes a sense of harmony and multiculturalism among the different ethnic groups of people in Yala province, which is informed by their gestures, such as the way they are holding hands, talking to each other, and also their smiles. But, conversely, the way in which the Muslims hands are led by the Thais and the Chinese might connote that they are inferior and bound to be led by the others. It also should be noted that there is a relatively smaller number of Muslims included in this picture than those of the Buddhists. The city gate is also the most salient essence of the picture connoting that this is a Yala city, but a part of Thailand under the protection of the Thai monarchy, as symbolized by the picture of two war elephants beside the gate. So it is in this sense that the sense of inferiority and minority of the Muslims is signified. Conclusions This study is an interdisciplinary effort which provides a political and critical investigation into the power of language used in TK Park childrens literature as an educational media text. The analysis shows that though the books are intended to promote the notion of cultural diversity and mutual acceptance, they indirectly create asymmetrical representations by favoring Thai-ness as superior to Islamic and Malay Muslim identity. This, in turn, leads to a subtle form of discrimination and racism against the Malay Muslim minority under the cover of multicultural and reconciliatory discourse.
ICLC 2010 Proceedings References Kjr, A. L. and Palsbro, L. (2008). National identity and law in the context of European integration: the case of Denmark. Discourse &Society 19(5): 599-627 Mayr, A. (2008). Language and power : an introduction to institutional discourse. London ; New York : Continuum. Ricento, T. (2003). The Discursive Construction of Americanism. Discourse & Society, 14(5): 611-637. van Dijk, T. A. (2003). Critical Discourse Analysis. In the Handbook of Discourse Analysis. D. Schiffrins et al (Eds.). Mass: Blackwell. Pp. Pp. 352-371. (2550). . : (2550). . : (2550). . :
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ICLC 2010 Proceedings The Ability to Translate Verbal Complements from English to Thai: A case study of the 1st and 3rd year English Major Students Patchanok Kitikanan3
Abstract According to Givon (1990), verbal complements are propositions functioning in the role of either subject or object argument of the verb. They are often found in academic texts, rather than common texts. For cross-cultural communication, verbal complement translation is important, as it helps the texts to be understandable and coherent. To translate verbal complements, translators should have adequate proficiency of both the source language and target language. This study aims at investigating the levels of verbal complement translability of the first- and third-year English major students of Naresuan University, Thailand. Sixty participants: 30 first-years and 30 third-years, who have taken translation courses, were asked to translate 21 sentences containing verbal complements. The result shows that the thirdyears have a little higher extent of ability in translating verbal complements than the firstyears; however, the statistic result shows that there are no significant differences between these two groups. Nevertheless, there is a significant difference of translability of verbal complements which follow modality verbs of these two groups of participants. It is hoped that this study will be beneficial in terms of verbal-complement-translation teaching, and applyed with other general translation pedagogy. Keywords: verbal complement, translability, functional syntax Introduction A verbal complement sentence is defined as a complex sentence where a clause (the complement clause) functions as an argument of a predicate (Noonan, 1985: 42). Defined semantically by Givon (1990: 515), sentential complements are propositions functioning in the role of either subject or object argument of the verb. They often display a nominalized form. For example, in the sentence He wants to eat., to eat is a verbal complement functioning as an object of the verb wants. The occurrence of complement is not irrational or accidental. Verbal complement clause types and complement-taking predicates are interrelated systematically (Ransom, 1986). Particular complement-taking predicates can only take particular complement clause types (Cristofaro, 2008). For example, in English, knowledge predicate such as know generally takes only indicative complements, while desiderative predicates like want mostly take infinitive complements. Cristofaro added that the meaning of complement clause can be changed depending on the complement clause types of a predicate. For instance, in English, utterance predicates, e.g. tell, have a different meaning, as the indicative complements are used to report statements, while infinitive complements are used to make a command or a suggestion. Since a verbal complement refers to subordinate construction completing a verb in a more complex sentence, it is not easy to acquire complement knowledge, even for the native
3
Lecturer of English and Student of Linguistics, Humanities Faculty, Naresuan University, Thailand
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speakers. According to Clark (2003), children usually lack the complementizer such as that in their speech. For instance, And I think <pause> we need dishes (Clark, 2003: 255). The missing of a complementizer in such a case indicates that it takes time for young native speakers to form their understanding towards verbal complements, which is an essential element in the complex conversation. Although native speakers of English might be able to judge whether the use of verbal complements is correct or not, they are unable to explain the rationale of the uses of verbal complements, and even grammarians classify verbal complements as an unteachable part because of its complexity (Bourke, 2007). For non-native speakers, in the same way, to distinguish the meaning of verbal complements is a difficult task. Verbal complement interestes theorists and teachers of English as a second language since verbal complements were sometimes the problem for non-native speakers (Duffley and Tremblay, 1994). For example, a Japanese teacher of English wrote a letter to one of Duffley and Tramblay and asked for the explanation of the differences between try and infinitive, and try and gerund. An additional study that adds to the list is the study of Altenberb and Granger (2001). They investigated the use of high frequency verbs, and focusing on the use of the complement-taking verb make by EFL learners: Swedish- and French-speaking learners. Their article emphasizes what proves to be the two most distinctive uses of make, which are the delexical and causative uses. Their results advocated that EFL learners have many difficulties in using make. From the above point, verbal complements are difficult to acquire for both native and non-native speakers. Although Thai students study English as a Foreign Language (EFL), it might not be too difficult for them to understand verbal complements of English, as the construction of words in a sentence between Thai and English is mostly similar: SOV. However, to translate to their native language, the ability in selecting appropriate choices of complementizers and Thai verbal complement construction is important. Sometimes, the constructions of English verbal complements cannot apply with Thai ones, as they will sound like English expressions, rather than Thais. For instance: (1) chan I ru waa c ket a-rai kn up
know COMP
will happen what
I know what will happen. From the example above, the verbal complement of I know what will happen. is transferred to waa ch ket a-rai kn which is the construction of waa + verb-phrase. As there has been no study about translability of verbal complements before, it is worth conducting the research study with this focus. Therefore, the objective of this study is to investigate the levels of verbal complement translability of the first and fourth year English major students, Naresuan University, Thailand, and find some reasons beyond the results. Hopefully, this study will be beneficial in terms of being applied to translation pedagogy for the students, and designing teaching materials suitable for the proficiency levels of the translability of students. Purpose of the study This study aims at investigating the levels of verbal complement translability of the first and third year English major students, Naresuan University, Thailand.
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Scopes of the Study The scope of the study is divided into two parts. Firstly, this study was conducted in the first semester of the year 2009, and the participants of this study were sixty English major students: thirty third-years, and thirty first-years studying at Naresuan University. Their ages were ranged from nineteen to twenty-two years old, approximately. Secondly, another scope of the study is the data used as a tool to collect translation ability of students was drawn from Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, written by J.K. Rowling and published by Scholastic Press, a division of Scholastic Inc. in the year 1999, and the Thai translated sentences, used to compare sentences of students and the professional translator, are from the Thai version of Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, translated by Sumali Bamrungsook and published by Nanmeebooks in the year 2000. The use of this English novel is due to its popularity and the contemporary language in the text; moreover, its Thai version was used as a possible way of translating to check if the translated sentences of participants are close to the original translated sentences since it has got the Honorable Mention Award of Translated Book for Children of the year 2001 by the Committee of National Book Development. Preliminary Study Some scholars have studied Thai verbal complementation such as Singnoi (2000), Prasithrathsint (2009); nonetheless, there is no research study describing aspects of Thai verbal complementation in depth. To answer the research question, therefore, I have selected four Thai journals by purposive sampling method to find the aspects of Thai verbal complement aspects. From the data, ten aspects of Thai verbal complements have been found as follows: 1) nominalized verbal complement; 2) verb-phrase verbal complement; 3) wa followed by verb-phrase verbal complement; 4) hy followed by verb-phrase verbal complement; 5) thi followed by verb-phrase verbal complement; 6) thi-ch followed by verb-phrase verbal complement; 7) sentential verbal complement; 8) wa followed by sentential verbal complement; 9) hy followed by sentential verbal complement; 10) wa followed by direct quote. Related Theory and Literature Verbal Complement Theory According to Givon (1990), verbal complements are propositions functioning in the role of either subject of object argument of the verb. Verbs usually followed by verbal complements are categorized into three types: modality verbs, cognition and utterance verbs, and manipulative verbs. These three major classes of verbs; namely modality, cognition and utterance and manipulative verbs. Givon (1990) elaborated in detail on the definitions of these complement-talking verbs as follows: 1) Modality Verbs A modality verb is a verb whose subject is identical to the subject of the main verb, so the subject of the verbal complement, or the equi-subject will not be repeated it is deleted.
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For example, John wants to work. From the example, the main clause is John wants. [to do something], and the complement clause is John (will) work [is what John wants to do]. The semantic definitions of modality verbs are; the main verb codes inception, termination, persistence, success, failure, attempt, intent, obligation or ability vis--vis the complement state/event, and the subject of the main clause is obligatorily also the subject of the complement clause. 2) Cognition and Utterance Verbs Generally, cognition and utterance verbs have their complements which are surface sentences. As the subject of a complement sentence is not necessarily the same as the subject of the main clause, it usually appears overtly within the complement sentence. For example, John knew that Mary left, thus the main clause is John knew ..[that something], and the complement clause is Mary left [is what John knew]. The complements of cognition and utterance verbs are sub-divided into three groups: Indirect quote complements, Direct quote complements and Embedded question complements, according to the types of complements they take. Semantic definition of cognition-utterance verbs; the main clause contains a verb of perception, cognition, mental attitude or verbal utterance, the complement clause codes a proposition that in turn represents a state or event that is the object of the mental or verbal activity coded by the main verb, and no coreference restrictions hold between arguments of the main and subordinate clauses. 3) Manipulative Verbs As manipulative verbs usually have a human/animate object, this object is a conscious participant. Not only does the participant play a role of manipulee object of the main clause, it also takes a role as a manipulating agent of the complement clause. For example, She forced him to leave. Semantic definition of manipulative verbs; the main clause codes a manipulation by one agent of another potential agent, the manipulating agent is coded as the subject of the main clause, the manipulee as its object, the complement clause codes the target performed or to be performed by the manipulee, and the manipulee is the subjectagent of the complement clause. Thai verbal complementation For verbal complementation in Thai, there are some scholars who study Thai verbal complements. For example, according to Singnoi (2000), there are four types of complementation which are categorized on the basis of their syntactic characteristics. Each construction is different from one another according to complement-taking verbs, complementizers and the occurrence of complementizers. The first type of complement is called finite/bare complementation since there is no marker and the predicate of complement bare grammatical relation in the main clause. In addition, complements of this type occuring with the verb mii exist in the verb-subject construction. The second type of complement is called waa-complementation which takes wa (say, scold) as its marker. This complementation generally occurs with cognitive verbs and utterance verbs. The third type of complement is called hay-complementation which takes hy (give) as its marker. This type of complement often occurs with causative, manipulative, and modal verbs. As the subject of the complement clause is the same as the object of the main clause (equi-subject), the subject in the complement is sometimes deleted. The fourth type of complement in Thai is called thi-cha (in order to, to). It usually occurs with two verbs to make the complement more prominent. Another extra complement is called nominalized complement. Khwaam or kaan has been put in the front of the verb to nominalize a verb.
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Prasithrathsint (2009) examined three complementizers in Thai: thii, waa, and hy. It was found that the complementizer hay to give occurs with directive verbs: verbs of causation, e.g. pen-het to cause, and verbs of pressure, e.g. sng to order. Waa is a complementizer occurring with communicative verbs such as verbs of saying (e.g. phuut to say), verbs of thinking and cognition (e.g. kht to think), verbs of feeling (e.g. klua fear), verbs of seeing (e.g. duu to look at), verbs of hearing (e.g. day-yin to hear) and verbs of acting (e.g. see-seang to pretend). Lastly, thii complementizer occurs with emotive verbs such as verbs of feeling (e.g. sia-cay to be sad), verbs of intention (e.g. tang-cay to intend), verbs of mental character (e.g. cing-cay to be sincere), and verbs of possibility (e.g. pen-pay-daay to be possible). Nevertheless, the study of Complementizers and verb classification in Thai has some limitation; it does not include the zero complementizer and compound complementizers in Thai. The zero and compound complementizers are of the same extent of significance as other categories of Thai complementizers. Although, Singnoi and Prasithrathsints studies are similar in categorizing Thai verbal complements according to complementizers, they have some parts that are different. First, Prasithrathsint focuses only three complementizers, ignoring compound and zero complementizers, e.g. thi-ch, and examine the type of verbs they occur with. According to Singnoi, the study on Thai complementation does not provide distinctive account of verbal and nominalized complementation. Rather, the study comprises finite/bare complementation, waa-complementation, hy-complementation, thi -ch complementation, and nominalized complement. Methodology Participants As this study is a cross-sectional study, I would like to test whether the period of English exposre affects the level of proficiency in translating. Therefore, this study included sixty students of English major, Naresuan University, Thailand who are thirty first-year and thirty third-year students, who enrolled in the second semester of the year 2009. For the firstyears, they had passed two English compulsory courses Fundamental English and Developmental English courses, and other four major courses. Their ages ranged from 19-20 years of age. They did not have any official experience in translating, neither from Thai to English, nor English to Thai. For the third-years, even though they had passed two English compulsory courses, they had also studied almost twenty English major courses. They were between the ages of 20 to 22. The third-years had studied Translation I course for almost a semester, so they had some experience in translating various texts both from English to Thai, and from Thai to English. However, these two groups studied English as a Foreign language (EFL) with the English texts for their major courses. However, some major courses were taught in Thai, and some were in English depending on teachers consideration. Research Instrument This study is a mixed research study both quantitative and qualitative. The research tools of this study are questionnaires which comprise open-ended and close-ended sections. For close-ended questions, each participant was asked to fill in their name, surname, student code, age, year of studying, overall GPA, year of English studying started, their favorite skill in language learning, English daily activities, own-assessment towards English proficiency, chance to read Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, language they read Harry.,
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chances of traveling abroad. For open-ended questions, 21 questions, which were drawn from English-version novel according to three types of main verbs manipulative, modality, and cognition and utterance verbs, were provided for participants to translate them to Thai. An example is shown in Table 1, and all questions of verbal complement translation are presented in Appendix. Table 1 Sample of English sentence containing verbal complement ___________________________________________________________________________ George tried to signal to Wood and stop the Bludger breaking Harry's nose at the same time. ___________________________________________________________________________ To prevent participants from gaining the points by chance, there were no multiple choices in this part. Thus, the participants were allowed to freely translate twenty-one English sentences containing verbal complements in any way they wanted. Data Collection Procedures After reviewing related literatures and studies in both Thai and English verbal complements, and conducting the preliminary study, twenty-one-question questionnaires to measure the ability of translating and the Thai version of translated sentences were proofread by three teachers who were teaching Translation courses to ensure each Thai and English sentence matched one another. Then, the questionnaires were provided to the first-year and the third-year participants. The period of time for doing the test was one hour. The participants were allowed to use dictionaries: either electronic, or paper, except for a dictionary in a mobile phone, to prevent them sending some clues of the answers to their friends. To make sure participants would do the best they could, they were told that this test counted ten percent of all scores. Next, the researcher collected all questionnaires, and drew sixty questionnaires by random sampling method: thirty of the first-years, and thirty of the third-years, to have the same number of questionnaires for each group of particiapnts. All quantitative and qualitative data were collected and analyzed systematically by the use of software called, Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). For the qualitative data, they were analyzed to investigate the participants knowledge towards their translability of verbal complements. All of the processes were conducted in the second semester, year 2009. Data Analysis Procedures As there were no theories or frameworks in verbal complement translation strategies, the researcher has employed the constructions of verbal complements gained from the preliminary to analyze the translated verbal complements by Sumali Bamrungsook. Therefore, the correct constructions have two components: a complementizer and verbal complement construction. For example, no one need ever know we flew the car. is translated as follows: (2) my mii ta thi khai ch no have way prep who FUT ao rd pay bin maa] take car go fly come] No one need ever know we flew the car. ru [wa raw know [COMP we
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From this example, the verbal complement is wa + sentence, thus participants had to write a Thai translated version using this construction to get the point. If they wrote in other constructions, such as wa + verb-phrase, thi + sentence, hy + sentence, and so forth, their point for this question would be zero. Findings and Discussion As the aim of this study is to investigate the levels of verbal complement translability of the first- and third-year English major students, their overall level of translating ability is shown in table 2. Table 2: Overall levels of translability of two groups Group of students first-year students third-year students Mean Score 10.23 10.80 Std. Deviation 3.664 2.551
From the table above, the mean score of the third-year students is little higher than the first-year students as they got 10.80, and 10.23 respectively. However, when considering the independent samples test, it is found that there is no significant difference between these two groups of participants, as shown in table 3. Table 3: Significant difference of overall mean scores t-test for Equality of Means t Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed 0.05. -.699 -.699 Degree of Freedom 58 51.312 Sig. (2-tailed) .487 .488 Mean Difference -.57 -.57
* There is no significant difference because the obtained 2 tailed-value is higher than
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Table 4: The mean scores of verbal complements of each complement-taking verbs by both groups Type of verbal complements of complement-taking verbs Manipulative Verbs Modality Verbs Cognition-utterance Verbs
Students First-year students Third-year students First-year students Third-year students First-year students Third-year students
Mean Score 3.67 4.10 2.10 2.73 4.47 3.97
Std. Deviation 1.729 1.583 1.296 1.015 1.502 0.928
From the total scores of 7 for verbal complements of each type of complement-taking verbs, the mean scores of the first- and the third-year students are not much different; however the translabilitys mean scores of verbal complements of manipulative verbs by these two groups are different; the mean score of the third-years is higher than the mean score of the first-year students, 4.10 and 3.67 respectively. The mean scores of verbal complements of modality verbs by both groups of participants do not reach half of the total mean scores. Moreover, the mean score of verbal complement of cognition-utterance verbs of the thirdyear students is, surprisingly, lower than the first-year students as shown in Table 4. In addition, when comparing verbal complements following three types of complement-taking verbs: modality, manipulative, and cognition-utterance verbs; there is a significant difference of translability of verbal complements which follows modality verbs of the first- and the third-year students as illustrated in table 5. Table 5: Significant difference of verbal complements following different types of complement-taking verbs Type of complementtaking verbs Manipulative Verbs t-test for Equality of Means t Degree of Freedom Sig. (2-tailed) Mean Difference
Equal variances -1.012 58 .316 -.43 assumed Equal variances -1.012 57.558 .316 -.43 not assumed Modality Equal variances -2.108 58 .039* -.63 Verbs assumed Equal variances -2.108 54.848 .040* -.63 not assumed CognitionEqual variances 1.551 58 .126 .50 utterance assumed Verbs Equal variances 1.551 48.311 .127 .50 not assumed * There is a significant difference because the obtained 2 tailed-value of verbal complements following modality verbs is lower than 0.05.
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From all verbal complements of different complement-taking verbs, it is discovered that the mean scores of the verbal complements of modality verbs of both groups do not reach half of the overall score since the first-year students got 2.10, and the third-years got 2.73; while the mean scores of verbal complements of other types of complement-taking verbs exceed half of the overall scores. There are some possible reasons why the scores of verbal complements of modality verbs of these two groups are quite low. First, the translator of Thai version of Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets does not employ Thai verbal-complement constructions to transfer the source text to the target text. Rather, she uses no Thai verbal-complement constructions, and chooses other syntactic constructions according to the contexts, for example: (3) khw k kr-joon khn aw ha chk kb na-t ya-r PRO FUR leap up take head knock with window forcefully He leapt up and started banging his head furiously on the window.
khun Norris ya-ko duu-man wa ph tok jb sa-taf wy duu len PRO Norris still seem COMP just PAS touch sturr PAR look play Mrs. Norris continued to look as though she had been recently stuffed. * The bold words are complement-taking verbs.* Moreover, another possible reason accounting for the under-half mean scores of these two groups when translating verbal compelments of modality verbs is the changing of the use of complement-taking verbs of translator, for instance: (4) (5) phuak-khaw may ym haay phom phk an nay ton rk they not let COMP PRO rest work in section first They didnt agree to suspend me in the first place.
From the above instances, the translator transferred agree which requires thicomplement to let (ym) requiring haay-complement. The changing of the main verb led to the changing of verbal complement construction. Most students translated this sentence directly by maintaining agree (hen-dwy) with thi followed by verb-phrase complement; thus the score of most students for this question is zero. From the observation, the translator does not employ the verbal-complement constructions in transferring verbal complements of modality verbs, nor maintain the directtranslated main verbs of this type of verbs, yielding the changing of verbal-complement construction. It is not surprising that most students could not opt the similar main verbs, or constructions. Apart from that, we see that there is a significant difference of translability of verbal complements which follow modality verbs of these two groups. This can be accounted for by the transfer of training (Odlin, 1989) which is the influences that arise from the way a student is taught. As the third-year students have enrolled in a few translation courses, they tend to give more consideration to the translation context which is truly important, particularly in novel translation, than the first-year students. The translations of verbal complement of modality verbs rely mainly on context; therefore, they are mostly translated
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without the use of Thai verbal-complement constructions, and often changed the main verbs, resulting in the changing of complementizers and other verbal complement constructions. Although, the scores of two groups are not high when translating verbal complements of cognition-utterance verbs, they are the highest among three types of verbal complements, especially the seventh question, He understood why he kept making odd things happen without meaning to, it appeared that most participants: 26 out of 30 of the first-year students, and 25 out of 30 of the third-year students, gained a score for this question. This may be due to the similarity of this type of Thai and English verbal-complement construction. For similarity, the verbal complement of cognition-utterance verbs can be directly translated, for example: (6) khw khw-cay wa tham-may khw PRO understand COMP why he He understood why he
From the above illustration, the verbal complement of cognition-utterance verbs of this English clause has the exact order as Thais; that is wa followed by sentence. With the similar constructions between Thai and English, Thai students could translate this kind of verbal complement with ease. This is in line with Odlin (1989) claiming that learners tend to have less difficulty when the syntactic structures of their own language are the same as the ones in the target language. However, it is surprising that the third-year students had lower scores in translating verbal complements of cognition-utterance verbs than the first-year students. The reason for this incident might be due to the third-years individual differences. Two-third of third-year students transferred Harry tried to find out what would happen using direct construction from the source text, which is an English expression as follow: (7) * Harry pa-yaa-yaam khn wa a-rai ch ket-khn Harry try find COMP what FUT happen Harry tried to find out what would happen To translate to Thai Expression, this statement should be translated to: Harry pa-yaa-yaam khn wa ch ket a-rai khn
(8)
The inversion of ch, ket, a-rai and khn is the main difference in construction between Thai and English indirect quote. In Thai, a-rai in this context, should be in the object position of the complement clause following the verb ket (occur); however, most Third-year students misunderstood that what would happen can be directly translated to Thai using waa followed by sentential verbal complement; while the first-year students correctly perceived and produced in Thai expression: waa followed by verb-phrase verbal complement. Conclusion and Implication Professional translation requires experience and vocabulary repertoires of both source target and target language. Although the third-year students could do better in translating verbal complements of modality verbs, as they have more context-consideration than the first-years, the overall scores of both groups barely exceed half of the total scores. This implies that Thai university students need to have more translation experience, and the teachers should provide, or assign learners to be exposed to more various translating contexts.
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Nevertheless, this study has some limitations that should be noted. First, the translability of students might need more considerations of the content and language. It is possible that a student gets the score by selecting the appropriate complementizer, and the same verbal complement construction as the translator of Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets employed. Second, the source text can possibly be translated in various ways which have the same meaning, and yield successful communication. Thus, the use of other translated text by students might refer to similar content as the source text, and the translator; however, a participant loses points because of the differences of complementizers and verbalcomplement constructions. To sum up, this study is just an attempt to combine the syntactic and semantic constructions to measure the translability of students. It might not be able to generalize that the participants have low proficiency in translating, or cannot translate verbal complements from English to Thai at all. References Altenberg, B., & Granger, S. (2001). The Grammatical and lexical patterning of make in native and non-native student writing. Applied Linguistics, 22(2), 173-195. Bourke, J. M. (2007). Verbal complementation: A pedagogical challenge. Reflections on English Language Teaching, 6, 35-50. Clark, E.V. (2003). First language Acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Cristofaro, S. (2008). A Constructionist approach to complementation: evidence from ancient greek. Linguistics, 46(3), 571-606. Duffley, P. J. and Trembly. (1994). The infinitive and the ing as complements of verbs of effort. English Studies. 6, 566-575. Givon, T. (1990). Syntax: A Functional Typological Introduction. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company. Noonan, M. (1985). Complementation. In Language Typology and Syntactic Description:Volume 2: Complex Constructions, Timothy Shopen (ed.), 42140. Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press. Odlin, T. (1989). Language Transfer. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Prasithrathsint, A. (2009). Complementizers and verb classification in thai. Journal of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society , 2, 145-160. Singnoi, U. (2000). Nominal Constructions in Thai. Doctoral Dissertation. University of Oregon.
ICLC 2010 Proceedings Appendix 1
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( ) (_______) 1. _________________________________________________ ______________ 2. ______ _____ __________
3. _______ 4. ( 1-4: 1 4 ) ___ ___ ___ ___
5. ( 1 )
_______________
6. (4 ) ( ) ( ) 7. ( ) ( 8) ( ) ( ) ( )
8. ( ) ( ) ................. () 9. ( ) .............................. () ( ) ( ) ( )
---------------- 1----------------
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( 21 ) 2 1. If you want proof, Harry, that you belong in Gryffindor, I suggest you look more closely at this sword." ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 2. He leapt up and started banging his head furiously on the window. ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ We decided to get started on the Polyjuice Potion. ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 3. I need a teacher to sign for it - I'm sure it would help me understand what you say in Gadding with Ghouls about slow-acting venoms. ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 4. Harry was glad that most people were leaving. ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 5. Harry managed not to shout out. ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 6. He understood why he kept making odd things happen without meaning to. ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 7. We were tired and wanted to go to bed. ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 8. This makes the Dursleys sound almost human. ___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 9. They were allowed to do magic before the holidays.
___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________
ICLC 2010 Proceedings 10. I don't know if this is a good idea.
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___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 11. George tried to signal to Wood and stop the Bludger breaking Harry's nose at the same time.
___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 12. They didn't agree to suspend me in the first place.
___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 13. Harry tried to find out what would happen if you fed a Filibuster firework to a salamander.
___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 14. Harry had been forced to play a simple Transylvanian villager.
___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 15. He would have refused to do it.
___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 16. Mrs. Norris continued to look as though she had been recently stuffed.
___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 17. He says he's done.
___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 18. "Why do you want it?" said Harry.
___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 19. Underage wizards are not permitted to perform spells outside school.
___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________ 20. I wish I hadn't left my copy at home.
___________________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________
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ICLC 2010 Proceedings Authentic Articles for Integrated Skills Sebastian Brooke Associate Professor, Kogakuin University, Tokyo sjbrooke@hotmail.com
Authentic Articles Much has been written in the field of language learning in the last twenty years regarding the advantages and disadvantages of using authentic texts with language learners. Firstly, before looking more closely at some of the supposed advantages and disadvantages, it will be useful to define what exactly the term authentic text refers to in the world of language learning. Authentic texts have been defined as ...real-life texts, not written for pedagogic purposes (Wallace, 1992: 145). Another way to look at these texts is to assume they are written for native speakers, and therefore, contain real language. Peacock (1997) also discussed authentic texts as being materials from the target language community, designed for social or communicative purposes, as opposed to non-authentic texts, which are usually designed with the language learners levels and linguistic needs in minds, that is, designed for language learning purposes first and foremost. Many academics tend to point to both the disadvantages and advantages of using authentic texts, rather than taking a strong position one way or the other. Nuttall (1996) states that authentic texts can be motivating because they are proof that the language is used for real-life purposes by real people (p. 172). He does also however point to the difficulty level of many authentic texts for language learners, conceding that "linguistically difficult texts are unlikely to be suitable for developing most reading skills" (ibid: 177), something that is particularly true with lower level language learners who have yet to develop a sufficient vocabulary for dealing with most authentic texts. However, again there have been debates on this issue, with Widdowson in particular stating that it has been traditionally supposed that the language presented to learners should be simplified in some way for easy access and acquisition. Nowadays there are recommendations that the language presented should be authentic (Widdowson, 1990: 67). Authentic materials have been found to have positive benefits for the language learning environment by bringing a sense of reality, which can contribute to creating on the part of the learners a more positive attitude toward learning (Kelly et al., 2002: 1). Authentic materials can provide the language learner with opportunities to gain real, up-to-date information and ideas and opinions, and know what is going on in the linguistic and cultural world being studied. Many authentic texts have something to say, be it giving information about current world or community events, or giving opinions on certain topics and issues. They also produce a sense of achievement for language learners. Being able to interact with information in a real text in a new/different language can be extremely motivating, therefore increasing students' motivation for learning (Guariento & Morley, 2001). One important reason for the use of authentic texts in the task-based learning process being introduced here, and another seeming advantage, is their accessibility. Most teachers and teaching environments have access to newspapers and magazines in English, and
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increasingly, access to such authentic materials in the form of news articles on the Internet through news and other websites. The exact approach or process being introduced for using such resources in task-based integrated learning will be detailed later. It is, however, a process that is flexible and open for adaptation to different teaching approaches, styles, learner levels and language learning outcomes. News articles represent valid authentic texts in the target language that are readily available, involve current, content-based language structures and vocabulary, and the potential for language learners to self-select interesting themes and topics for their language learning. Jacobson et al. (2003) carried out an interesting study, which although focused on adult literacy education in America, and not exclusively on language learning of an additional language, nonetheless presents some interesting results that should be considered by all teachers. The study, titled The Literacy Practices of Adult Learners Study, found that students who participated in classes that included authentic materials and activities increased the amount of time they spent engaging in literacy activities outside of school. Newspapers and authentic news articles have also been shown to efficiently promote learning, critical thinking, creativity and resourcefulness in learners of all ages (Lakin, 1998: 5). Several studies have shown that students who use newspapers and authentic news articles in learning score higher in reading comprehension tests and develop stronger critical thinking skills, as well as develop compassion and tolerance for other cultures (Cornish, 2004; Lakin, 1998). A United Nations publication, Newspapers in adult education: A sourcebook (Lakin, 1998), introduces a range of successful outcomes through adult educators in countries such as Argentina, Cameroon, Mali, Mexico, and South Africa, using newspapers to develop literacy skills in their adult citizens who became more knowledgeable and informed about not only their occupations and professions but also about social and political issues. Given there is usually a wide range of news sources available in both print and online forms in the target language being learned, it stands to reason that there is an almost limitless array of topics and content areas available, ranging across the natural sciences, arts, economics, law, consumerism, current events, career exploration, civics, environmentalism, propaganda and advertising, entertainment, sports, etc. There is certain to be something to appeal to every students interests, and one aspect of the approach being described here is student self-selection of texts for the task-based assignment. This self-selection helps to ensure higher levels of motivation towards the task, as student reactions and motivation levels have been shown to be optimized when student involvement in tasks and the learning process increases through self-responsibility and self-directed learning autonomy (Dornyei & Ushioda, 2009).
Integrated Skills Another important gain from using authentic texts is that they can stimulate the integration of the four language skills of reading, writing, listening and speaking. The integrated-skill approach helps students to recognize that English is not just an object of academic interest to be studied in disparate skill-based classes, nor merely a key to simply passing an examination; instead, English becomes a very real tool for approaching an issue from all angles, as one would typically do in their first language when studying issues, or in situations requiring use of the language being studied. The Longman Dictionary of Applied Linguistics defines the integrated skill approach as the teaching of the language skills of reading, writing, listening and speaking in conjunction with each other as when a lesson
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involves activities that relate listening and speaking to reading and writing (Richards, Platt & Weber, 1985: 44). Integrating the language skills promotes the learning of real content, not just the dissection of language forms, and is a far more natural approach to learning a language, as it is a fairly rare occurrence for language skills to be utilized in isolation in real-world situations. This approach also allows teachers to track students' progress in multiple skills at the same time. The integrated-skill approach, whether found in content-based or task-based language instruction or some hybrid form, can also be highly motivating to students of all ages and with diverse geographic and knowledge-based backgrounds. To employ an integrated approach it is necessary to choose instructional materials, textbooks, and technologies, that promote the integration of listening, reading, speaking, and writing, as well as the associated skills of syntax, vocabulary, and so on. The current task being introduced in this article focuses on the integrated use of authentic texts, namely news articles, for promoting the use of all four skills.
Authentic Articles for Integrated Skills: A Task-based Approach The task being introduced here consists of four different stages, covering all language skills in an integrated approach, with an additional review and reflection stage.
In Step 1, the students self-select an article in which they are interested and which they feel would make for interesting discussion in groups. It is useful to suggest possibly controversial topics or issues that other students may have different opinions about when they are initiating their search. A list of Internet sites and publications can be given to students to aid them in their search. Once they have selected an article they are required to do a close reading of it, including making note of possibly difficult vocabulary items, followed by critical reflection and thinking before moving to Step 2, a written response to the article. In Step 2, students follow the outline given to them (see Appendix A) for noting the key information and summarizing the article, as well as writing their own opinion regarding the issue. Vocabulary items can also be included here, and most importantly, some discussion questions regarding the topic are to be included. It is important to explain the difference between yes/no and open-ended questions that allow for in-depth discussion of the issues in the article. An example of student work, neither outstandingly good nor bad, is included as Appendix B and is also to be given to students as a handout in class along with Appendix A. Step 3 involves speaking and listening skills as each student takes turns introducing their article to the group and leading discussion. One way of doing this is for each student to be
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allotted a certain time period to introduce their article content, their opinion, any difficult vocabulary, discussion questions, and free discussion on the topic. Once all students in the group of 3 or 4 have finished, it is also possible to have a complete class roundup of topics/issues. Step 4, the final step, involves reflection and review of the task. This can take several different forms, from vocabulary testing of the new vocabulary through to journal or online blog writing and reflection. This is the approach taken by the current author, with students detailing their experiences within the group and their reflection upon the discussion and the topic in blog form. A blog site has been constructed for this purpose which retains student anonymity, with only the instructor having access to the backend of the site, and therefore to student details. This site is www.liveinenglish.com and currently has approximately 1200 students registered. The task-based integrated approach detailed here is open and flexible enough to allow individual instructors to adapt it as they see fit. A greater focus can be placed on any of the individual components of the task, from more detailed written responses, vocabulary approaches, through to oral presentations and debate. It has been successfully utilized for several years and across a range of teaching environments and with all levels of language learners. This task does lend itself well to repeated uses, given that the first attempt by students is usually the poorest. Once they understand and learn from their first effort, subsequent work shows vast improvements. Consequently, it is best suited to being set as a task two or three times per semester course. It is also important that it is assessed as part of a final grade if students are to take it more seriously. Again, this is open and flexible, but a ten percent grade loading has been shown to have the desired effect of improving student motivation towards the task. References Alderson, J.C., & Urquhart, A.H. (Eds.). (1984). Reading in a foreign language. London: Longman. Anderson, J.R. (1995). Learning and memory: An integrated approach. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Breen, M.P. (1985). Authenticity in the language classroom. Applied Linguistics, 6(1), 60-70. Celce-Murcia, M. (Ed.). (1991). Teaching English as a second or foreign language. U.S.A.: Heinle & Heinle Publishers. Cornish, J. Newspapers in the classroom. Retrieved Aug 10 2010, from http://corporate.classroom.com/newslettersamples/NewspapersintheClassroom.pdf Dornyei, Z., & Ushioda, E. (Eds.). (2009). Motivation, language identity and the L2 self. Bristol: Multilingual Matters. Fredericks, Anthony D. (1998). The integrated curriculum. Colorado: Teacher Ideas Press. Freeland, K., & Hammons, K. (1998). Curriculum for integrated learning: A lesson-based approach. New York: Delmar Publishers. Guariento, W., & Morley, J. (2001). Text and task authenticity in the EFL classroom. ELT Journal, 55(4), 347-353. Jacobson, E., Degener, S., & Purcell-Gates, V. (2003). Creating authentic materials and activities for the adult literacy classroom: A handbook for practitioners. Washington: National Centre for the Study of Adult Learning and Literacy. Kelly, C., Kelly, L., Offner, M., & Vorland, B. (Nov 2002 ). Effective ways to use authentic materials with ESL / EFL students. The Internet TESL Journal, 8(11). Lakin, M. (1998). Newspapers in adult education: A source book. Paris: UNESCO.
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Martinez, A.G. (2002). Authentic materials: an overview. Retrieved Aug 19 2010, http://www3.telus.net/linguisticsissues/authenticmaterials.html Nuttall, C. (1996). Teaching reading skills in a foreign language. Oxford: Heinemann. Olivares, R. (1993). Using the newspaper to teach ESL learners. Newark: International Reading Association. Peacock, M. (1997). The effect of authentic materials on the motivation of EFL learners. English Language Teaching Journal, 51, 2. Richards, J., Platt, J., & Weber, H. (1985). Longman dictionary of applied linguistics. London: Longman. Sanderson, P. (1999). Using newspapers in the classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Shortall, T. (2001). Distinctions and dichotomies: Artificial and authentic. English Teaching Professional, 21, 35. Wallace, C. (1992). Reading. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Widdowson, H. (1990). Aspects of language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
ICLC 2010 Proceedings Appendix A
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For this task students need to select a short article in English. You can find an article in the English newspapers and magazines or on the internet. Controversial or interesting topics that people have different opinions about work best. a) Print or copy the article and note down the source of information, eg: Wright, R. (21 Sep, 2008). Portents for future learning. Japan Times, p65. b) In point form, note the key information: Who? What? Where? When? Why? How?
c) Write a summary of the article using your own words. Do not copy from the article. d) Write your opinion about the topic. e) Write 3 discussion-based questions for your group discussion about the themes in the article. Yes/No questions are not appropriate. Make 3-4 copies of the article and your information sheet to give to your group members and be prepared to introduce the article and lead a short discussion of it. On one side of A4 paper copy the article and on the other side your typed summary etc. NOTES: 1. Vocabulary items are an additional option: ten items with definitions and example sentences. 2. Set the task as assessed course work so students take it more seriously, e.g. two times per semester course with 10% of final grade allocation for each time a total of 20%. 3. Reflection can be done in written journals or online in the form of blogs. I use the site http://www.liveinenglish.com 4. Give students a double-sided copy of this handout and the student example to help them prepare.
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Appendix B
ICLC 2010 Proceedings The Review Study: the Place of Culture in English Language Teaching
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Siros Izadpanah Islamic Azad UniversityZanjan branch, Zanjan, Iran
Abstract This study aims to investigate teachers opinions and beliefs on the place of target cultural information in English language teaching, as well as their related practices and applications in EFL classrooms in higher education context. Particularly, it tries to explore three research questions: (a) how do teachers of English define culture? (b) What are the EFL teachers attitudes towards incorporating cultural information into their teaching? and (c) What role do they allocate to the culture of the target language in their classrooms? The study shows that teachers mostly define culture in the sociological sense, such as values and beliefs. Their definition of culture in the framework of ELT slightly shifts towards more visible culture, such as food and clothing. The study also reveals teachers positive attitudes towards incorporating cultural information in their instruction. Key words: Culture, English as a Foreign Language (EFL), teachers perceptions, universities, academic English. Introduction As long as languages have existed, there also have been cultures. Culture is a vital part of the communication process. Learning a language without its culture is a recipe for becoming a fluent fool. A fluent fool is someone who speaks a foreign language well, but does not understand the social or philosophical content of that language (Bennett, 1993, p. 9). This is to say that even though one may know the language, they may not be successful in the target language because of their lack in cultural knowledge. A language consists of culturally loaded rudiments (Pennycook, 1989; Phillipson, 1992; Alptekin, 1996). While learning a foreign language, it is likely for its learners to need cultural information for better communication. However, in the language-learning process, some of those cultural elements might affect its learners. What is more, they may be naturally imposed on them. Similarly, meaningful language learning requires context. Byram (1988) asserted that language has no function independent of the context in which it is used, thus language always refers to something beyond itselfthe cultural context. This cultural context defines the language patterns being used when particular people come together under particular circumstances at a particular time and place. This combination of elements always has a cultural meaning, which influences language use. The context entails not only the way of life, but also the codes of the community in which that language is used. Therefore, when learning a language, the learners are influenced by the valuesor the value systemof another culture, and some of those values may be passed on to them (Ik, 2003; 2004). That is to say, apart from being a crucial component of language teaching and learning, transferring cultural information may encompass various changes in the language learners modes of thinking. In this sense, culture and language learning have a multi-dimensional relationship. Cultural knowledge embedded in a language is important for its speakers on the one hand;
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and on the other hand, this knowledge has an impact on the philosophy of its learners. Correspondingly, foreign language learning is a window opening to new horizons by building up connections to other cultures, but may also be a form of assimilation promoted by the domination of its cultureespecially when the language itself is dominant in the world arena. Thus, foreign language teachers may sometimes find themselves in the dilemma of trying to avoid creating fluent fools, but at the same time trying to avoid becoming a tool of linguistic imperialism (Phillipson, 1992). Although the importance of incorporating culture into language teaching and learning may appear to be obvious, not everyone in the field acknowledges this importance. In fact, only one third of (language teaching) programs offer a course in culture (Reid, 1995; 1996, p. 3). Historically, one reason for this oversight has been that language teachers are more interested in the practical aspects of communication. Language teachers often treat culture as supplemental or incidental to the real task (p. x). Over the past decade, these problems resulting from not teaching culture with language have started to be recognized. Language teachers try to avoid turning out fluent fools by deliberately helping students learn to experience reality in a new way through culture. Many international and national foreign language associations have begun to address these problems by incorporating culture in their standards. In 1996, TESOL published as its third goal in ESL Standards for Pre-K12 Students to use English in socially and culturally appropriate ways (p. 17). Additionally, the national standards for foreign language education developed in part with American Council of Teachers of Foreign Languages (ACTFL), were based on knowing how, when and why to say what to whom. The national standards were created with the ultimate goal of foreign language teaching being the ability to communicate in meaningful and appropriate ways with users of other languages. With this in mind, they developed a framework based on the explicit and the implicit forms of culture. Even though there has been an increase in the amount of attention given to the lack of culture incorporated in language teaching, there is still a dearth in the extent of information about how, when and why to incorporate culture in the language classroom. Many linguists and interculturalists have started to address this problem with series, such as New Ways in Teaching Culture (Fantini, 1997). However, the need to understand this issue and its solutions more still exists. In a qualitative study, nalan (2005) in Turkey showed that teachers mostly defined culture in the sociological sense, such as values and beliefs. Their definitions of culture in the framework of English Language Teaching slightly shift towards more visible culture, such as food and clothing. The study also revealed teachers positive attitudes towards incorporating cultural information in their instruction. In learning a foreign language, learners need cultural information for better communication (nalan, 2005). Therefore, language teachers try to avoid turning out fluent fools by deliberately helping students learn to experience reality in a new way through culture. Teachers believed that their main aim in giving cultural information in their classes is to develop a global understanding of other cultures and people. ( nalan , 2005) I think being aware of other cultures and recognizing the differences among people are the best motivation to learn a language. Just out of curiosity, one can learn a language. In classes, we talk about the issues in Africa, best cheese in Italy, and bull fights in Spain. We compare features of our culture with those of British and American cultures. While focusing on the English language, this is making them aware of the beauties of other languages and cultures,
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too. Teachers major goal in giving cultural information to their students was to make them acquire better communication and comprehension skills. These students will be doing lots of reading. They need to understand what they read as fully as possible and the texts are full of cultural knowledge. We want to increase their language proficiency. Cultural knowledge is a part of that (proficiency) and successful communication requires it it(italics added)".. Finally, few teachers stated that target language culture had a very minor role in teaching a foreign language, if any. Developing an awareness of other cultures is the most important role of cultural information in the EFL (English Foreign Language) classrooms, while the second most important role is perceived to foster better communication. Objective To review the Place of Culture in ELT, it tries to explore three research questions: (a) how do teachers of English define culture? (b) What are the EFL teachers attitudes towards incorporating cultural information into their teaching? and (c) What role do they allocate to the culture of the target language in their classrooms? Method Systematic review of the relationship between culture and ELT was done by searching in the reliable Databases (Springer, Informa World, Elsevier, Cambridge) which have been published from 1921 until now. Contents The dialectical connection between language and culture has always been a concern of L2 (Second Language) teachers and educators. Whether culture of the target language is to be incorporated into L2 teaching has been a subject of rapid change throughout language teaching history. In the course of time, the pendulum of ELT practitioners opinion has swung against or for teaching culture in context of language teaching. For example, during the first decade of the 20th century, researchers discussed the importance and possibilities of including cultural components into L2 curriculum (Sysoyev & Donelson, 2002); the advent of CLT (Communicative Language Teaching) in the late 1970s marks a critical shift for teaching culture, for the paradigm shift from an approach largely based on form and structure to a plurality of approaches causing an unintended side effectthe negligence of culture (Pulverness, 2003). Recent studies focus on the seamless relationship between L2 teaching and target culture teaching, especially over the last decade in the 20th century with the writings of scholars such as Byram (1989; 1994a;; 1997a; 1997b) and Kramsch (1988; 1993; 1996; 2001). People involved in language teaching have again begun to understand the intertwined relation between culture and language (Pulverness, 2003). It has been emphasized that without the study of culture, teaching L2 is inaccurate and incomplete. For L2 students, language study seems senseless if they know nothing about the people who speak the target language or the country in which the target language is spoken. Acquiring a new language means a lot more than the manipulation of syntax and lexicon. According to Bada (2000),
the need for cultural literacy in ELT arises mainly from the fact that most language learners, not exposed to cultural elements of the society in question, seem to encounter significant hardship in communicating meaning to native speakers. (p. 101)
In addition, nowadays the L2 culture is presented as an interdisciplinary core in many L2 curricula designs and textbooks (Sysoyev & Donelson, 2002).
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There is no such a thing as human nature independent of culture; studying an L2, in a sense, is trying to figure out the nature of another people (McDevitt, 2004). If as McDevitt held human nature is seamlessly related to the culture, then studying L2 involves the study of L2 culture. Actually, the conditionality of the previous sentence could be proved inappropriate. The mutual relation between language and culture, i.e., the interaction of language and culture has long been a settled issue, such as Wittgenstein (1980; 1999), Saussure (1966), Foucault (1994), Dilthey (1989), Von Humboldt (1876), Adorno (1993), Davidson (1999), Quine (1980) and Chomsky (1968). These are the names first to come to mind when the issue is the relation between language and culture. Yet, the most striking linguists dealing with the issue of language and culture are Sapir (1962) and Whorf (1956). They are the scholars whose names are often used synonymously with the term linguistic relativity (Richards et al., 1992). The core of their theory are (1) we perceive the world in terms of categories and distinctions found in our native language, and (2) what is found in one language may not be found in another language due to cultural differences. Although the ground of discussion on language and culture has been cleared for ages, it is not until the 1980s that the need of teaching culture in language classes is indicated, reaching its climax in the 1990s .For instance in the case of ELT, Pulverness (2003) asserted that due to the undeniable growth of English as an international language cultural content as anything other than contextual background was began to be included in language teaching programs. Although by the mid of 1980s, various advantages of teaching culture in L2 classes were virtually universally accepted, and culture was widely taught in language classes, there were still some problems about what should be taught and how culture could be taught most beneficially. These questions were faced more and more in 1990s (Kitao, 2000). If we turn to the relationship between culture and language, we can see some remarkable comments, for example, Sapir (1921) argued that language, race, and culture are not necessarily correlated, adding the remark language and our thought-grooves are inextricably interrelated, are, in a sense, one and the same. Yet, this single remark does not supply a satisfactory reply to the question of why culture teaching should be involved in language teaching. Kitao (2000) giving reference to several authors listed some of the benefits of teaching culture as follows:
Studying culture gives students a reason to study the target language as well as rendering the study of L2 meaningful. (Stainer, 1971) From the perspective of learners, one of the major problems in language teaching is to conceive of the native speakers of target language as real person. Although grammar books give so-called genuine examples from real life, without background knowledge those real situations may be considered fictive by the learners. In addition providing access into cultural aspect of language, learning culture would help learners relate the abstract sounds and forms of a language to real people and places. (Chastain, 1971) The affect of motivation in the study of L2 has been proved by experts like Gardner and Lambert (1959; 1965; 1972). In achieving high motivation, culture classes do have a great role because learners like culturally based activities such as singing, dancing, role playing, doing research on countries and peoples, etc.. The study of culture increases learners not only curiosity about and interest in target countries but also their motivation. For example, when some professors introduced the cultures of the L2s they taught, the learners interests in those classes increased a lot and the classes based on culture became to be preferred more highly than traditional classes and post-modernism, in an age of tolerance towards different ideologies,
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religions and sub-cultures, we need to understand not only the other culture but also our own culture. Most people espouse ethnocentric views due to being culture bound, which leads to major problems when they confront a different culture. Being culture bound, they just try to reject or ignore the new culture. As if it is possible to make a hierarchy of cultures they begin to talk about the supremacy of their cultures. This is because they have difficulty understanding or accepting people with points of view based on other views of the world. This point is also highlighted by Kramsch (2001).
People who identify themselves as members of a social group (family, neighborhood, professional or ethnic affiliation and nation) acquire common ways of viewing the world through their interactions with other members of the same group. These views are reinforced through institutions like the family, the school, the workplace, the church, the government and other sites of socialization through their lives. Common attitudes, beliefs and values are reflected in the way members of the group use language, for example, what they choose to say or not to say and how they say it (p. 6).
Besides these benefits, studying culture gives learners a liking for the native speakers of the target language. Studying culture also plays a useful role in general education; studying culture, we could also learn about the geography, history, etc. of the target culture (Cooke, 1970).
McKay (2003) contended that culture influences language teaching in two ways: linguistic and pedagogical. Linguistically, it affects the semantic, pragmatic and discourse levels of the language. Pedagogically, it influences the choice of the language materials because cultural content of the language materials, and the cultural basis of the teaching methodology are to be taken into consideration while deciding upon the language materials. For example, while some textbooks provide examples from the target culture, some others use source culture materials. Previously, we argued that ethnocentricity limits the self, hence, individuals have to look at themselves from a different perspective to surmount such limitation; thus, culture classes are vital in enabling individuals to see themselves from a different point of view. Similarly, Pulverness (2004) stressed this point by stating that just as literature ostracizes the familiar object to the self, e.g., Russian literary critic Viktor Shklovsky explained how Tolstoy ostracized the familiar objectculture class ostracizes the learner to him, which helps him to see himself from a different perspective. As argued above, most people are so ethnocentric that when they begin to study another language their restrictedness in their own cultures prevents them from seeing the world via different ways of looking. Overcoming the limits of monoculture perspective and reaching the realm of different perspective could be facilitated by studying another culture. To sum up, culture classes have a humanizing and a motivating effect on the language learners and the learning process. They help learners observe similarities and differences among various cultural groups. Today, most of L2 students around the world live in a monolingual and monoculture environment. Consequently, they become culture-bound individuals who tend to make premature and inappropriate value judgments about their and others cultural characteristics. This can lead them to consider others whose language they may be trying to learn as very peculiar and even ill-mannered, which, in turn, plays a demotivating role in their language learning process. Some experts, however, approach the issue of teaching culture with some kind of reservation. Bada (2000) reminded us that awareness of cultural values and societal characteristics does not necessarily invite the learners to conform to such values, since they
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are there to refine the self so that it can take a more universal and less egoistic form (p. 100). Besides, we are reminded of the fact that English language is the most studied language all over the world, whereby the language has gained a lingua franca status (Alptekin, 2002; Smith, 1976). Alptekin (2002) in his article favoring an intercultural communicative competence rather than a native-like competence, asserted that since English is used by most of the world for instrumental reasons, such as professional contacts, academic studies and commercial pursuits, the conventions of the British politeness or American informality prove irrelevant. Quite in the same manner, Smith (1976) highlighting the international status of English language lists why culture is not needed in teaching of English language: (1) There is no necessity for L2 speakers to internalize the cultural norms of native speakers of that language, (2) An international language becomes de-nationalized, (3) The purpose of teaching an international language is to facilitate the communication of learners ideas and culture in an English medium (McKay, 2003 ).nalan (2005) in Turkey showed that teachers mostly defined culture in the sociological sense, such as values and beliefs. Their definition of culture in the framework of ELT slightly shifts towards more visible culture, such as food and clothing. Their study also revealed teachers positive attitudes towards incorporating cultural information in their instruction. In learning a foreign language, learners need cultural information for better communication (nalan, 2005). Mohammed Ali Akbari (2004) investigated that the place of culture in the Iranian EFL high school levels was limited not only in depth of cultural information, but also in the range of the culture depicted. Conclusion Review of studies showed that the need for cultural literacy in ELT arises mainly from the fact that most language learners, not exposed to cultural elements of the society in question, seemed to encounter significant hardship in communicating meaning to native speakers. In addition, nowadays the L2 culture is presented as an interdisciplinary core in many L2 curricula designs and textbooks. Various advantages of teaching culture in L2 classes were virtually universally accepted, and culture was widely taught in language classes, there were still problems about what should be taught and how culture could be taught most beneficially, for example, studying culture gives students a reason to study the target language as well as rendering the study of L2 meaningful, also gives learners a liking for the native speakers of the target language. The study of culture increases not only learners curiosity about and interest in target countries but also their motivation and it also plays a useful role in general education; studying culture, we could also learn about the geography, history, etc. of the target culture but some foreign language teachers may sometimes find themselves in the dilemma of trying to avoid creating fluent fools but at the same time trying to avoid becoming a tool of linguistic imperialism. References Adorno, T. (1993). The Culture Industry: Selected Essay on Mass Culture. Routledge. Alptekin, C. (1996). Target-language culture in EFL materials (53-61). In Hedge, T. & Whitney. N. (Eds.), Power, Pedagogy and Practice. Oxford: OUP. Alptekin, C. (2002). Towards intercultural communicative competence. ELT Journal, 56(1), 57-64. Alptekin, C., & Alptekin, M. (1984). The question of culture: EFL teaching in non-English speaking countries. ELT Journal, 38(1), 14-20.
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Bada, E. (2000). Culture in ELT. Cukurova University Journal of Social Sciences, (6), 100110. Bates, D. G., & Plog, F. (1991). Human adaptive strategies. New York: McGraw-Hill. Bayyurt, Y. (2006). Non-native English language teachers perspective on culture in English as a foreign language classrooms. Bogazii University, Istanbul. TurkeyTeacher Development, 10(2), 233-247. Bentahila, A., & Davies, E. (1989) Culture and language use: A problem for foreign language teaching. IRAL, 17(2), 99-112. Bennett, M.J. (1993). How not to be a fluent fool: Understanding the cultural dimension of language. The language teacher, 27 (9). Byram, M. (1988). Foreign language education and cultural studies. Language, Culture, and Curriculum, 1, (1), 15-31. Byram, M. (1997b). Cultural studies and foreign language teaching. In Bassnett, S. (Ed.), Studying British cultures. An Introduction (pp. 53-65). London: Routledge. Byram, M., & Morgan, C. (1994b). Teaching-and-learning language-and-culture. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd. Byram, M. (1989). Cultural studies in foreign language education. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd. Byram, M. (1997a). Cultural awareness in vocabulary learning. Language Learning Journal, 16, 51-57. Byram, M. (Ed.). (1994a). Culture and language learning in higher education. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd. Byram, M., & Fleming, M. (1998). Language learning in intercultural perspective. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Carr, J. (1999). From sympathetic to dialogic imagination: Cultural study in the foreign language classroom. In J. Lo Bianco, C. Crozet, & A. Liddicoat, (Eds.), Striving for third place: Intercultural competence through language education (pp. 103-112). Language Australia: Australia. Chomsky, N. (1965). Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. Chomsky, N. (1968). Language and Mind. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc. Davidson, D. (1999). The Philosophy of Donald Davidson. (Ed) Lewis Edwin Hahn. Illinois: Open Court Publishing Company. Dilthey, W. (1989). Introduction to the Human Sciences: An Attempt to Lay a Foundation for the Study of Society and History. Wayne State University Press. Evans, G., & Gonzlez, O. (1993). Reading inside the lines: An adventure in developing cultural understanding. Foreign Language Annals, 26(1), 39-48. Fantini, A. (1997) Language: Its Cultural and Intercultural Dimensions. In A. Fantini (Ed.). New Ways of Teaching Culture (pp. 3-15). Alexandria, VA: TESOL Publications Fiorito, C. (2000). Foreign language and culture: Some background and some ideas on teaching. NASSP (National Association of Secondary School Principals) Bulletin, 84, 30-34. Flewelling, J. (1994). The Teaching of culture: Guidelines from the national core French study of Canada. Foreign Language Annals, 27(2), 132-134 Foucault, M. (1994). The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences. USA: Vintage Books Gardner, R. C., & Lambert, W. E. (1972). Attitudes and motivation in second language learning. Rowley, Mass: Newbury House. Humboldt, K. W. (1876). The heterogeneity of language and its influence on the intellectual development of mankind. Kitao, K. (2000). Teaching culture in foreign language instruction in the Unites States.
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Retrieved from http://ilc2.doshisha.ac.jp/users/kkitao/library/article/culture.htm. [14.06.2004]. Kramsch, C. (1988). The cultural discourse of foreign language textbooks. In A. Singerman (Ed.), Towards a new integration of language and culture (pp. 63-68). Middlebury, VT: Northeast Conference. Kramsch, C. (1993). Context and culture in language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Kramsch, C. (2000). Context and Culture in Language Teaching, 4th ed, Oxford University Press: Oxford. Text Ik, A. (2003). Linguistic imperialism and its reflection in foreign/second language teaching (FLED 308 Lecture Notes). Istanbul: Boazii University. Ik, A. (2004). Linguistic imperialism and foreign language teaching (Unpublished paper). Lafayette, R. (1978). Teaching culture: Strategies and techniques. Language and Education: Theory and Practice, 11, 1-33. Lalande, J. (1988). Teaching culture in the intermediate level college course. Unterrichtspraxis, 21(1), 89-96. Libben, G. & Lindner, O. (1996). Second Culture Acquisition & Second Language Acquisition: Faux Amis? Zeitschrift fr Interkulturellen Fremdsprachenunterricht, 1,1, Translated Online, (Online, accessed 15 June 2000). http://www.ualberta.ca/~german/ejournal/libben2.htm Liddicoat, A. (1997). Everyday speech as culture: Implications for language teaching. In A. J. Liddicoat, & C. Crozet (Eds.), Teaching language, teaching culture (pp. 5570). Canberra: Applied Linguistics Association of Australia. Lo Bianco, J. (1999). Intercultural competence: From language policy to language education. In J. Lo Bianco, J., C. Crozet, & A. Liddicoat (Eds.), Striving for third place: Intercultural competence through language education (pp. 1-20). Language Australia: Australia. Mohmmad A.A. (2004). The Place of Culture in the Iranian Textbooks in High School Level Pan-Pacific-Association of Applied Linguistic Conference August 19-20 Namseoul University ,Korea.. McDevitt, B. (2004). Negotiating the syllabus: A win-win syllabus. ELT Journal, 58(1), 3-9. McKay, S. L. (2003). The cultural basis of teaching English as an international language. Retrieved from http://www.tesol.org/pubs/articles/2003/tm13-4-01.html McMillan, J. H., &Schumacher, S. (1989). Research in education. Glenview, Illinois: Scott, Foresman and Company. nalan, O. (2005). EFL teachers perceptions of the place of culture in ELT: A survey study at four universities in Ankara/Turkey. Journal of Language and Linguistic Studies, 1(2), 215-234. Pennycook, A. (1989). The Concept of Method, Interested Knowledge, and the Politics of Language Teaching. TESOL Quarterly, 23(4) 589-618 Phillipson, R. (1992). Linguistic imperialism. Oxford: OUP. Pulverness, A. (2003). Distinctions & dichotomies: Culture-free, culture-bound. Retrieved from http://elt.britcoun.org.pl/forum/distanddich.htm Pulverness, A. (2004). Here and there: Issues in materials development for intercultural learning. Retrieved from http://elt.britcoun.org.pl/forum/handt.htm Quine, W. V. (1980). From a Logical Point of View: Nine Logico-Philosophical Essays. Harvard University Press. Reid, J. (1995/1996 December/January). Presidents message: Lets put T back in TESL/TEFL programs. TESOL Matters, p.3. Richards, J. C., Platt, J., and Platt, H. (1992). Dictionary of Language Teaching & Applied
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Linguistics. Essex: Longman. Sapir, E. (1962). Culture, language and personality .Berkeley, CA: University of California Press Sapir, E. (1921). Language: An introduction to the study of speech. Retrieved from http://www.bartleby.com/186/10.html#txt17 Saussure, F. de. (1966). Course in general linguistics. (C. Bally, A. Sechehaye, & A. Riedlinger (Eds.), W. Baskin Trans). New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company Simpson, C. (1997). Culture and foreign language teaching. Language Learning Journal, (15), 40-43. Smith, L. (1976). English as an international auxiliary language. RELC Journal, 7(2), 38-43. Stern, H. H. (1992). Issues and options in language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Stainer, F. (1971). Culture: A motivating factor in the French classroom. In C. Jay & P. Castle (Eds.), French language education: The teaching of culture in the classroom. Springfield, IL: State Department of Public Instruction. Sysoyev, P. V., & Donelson, L. R. (2002). Teaching cultural identity through modern language: Discourse as a marker of an individuals cultural identity. Retrieved from http://www.actr.org/JER/issue4/11.htm TESOL. (1996). Promising futures: ESL standards for pre-K-12 students. Alexendria, VA: Author Valdes, J. M. (1986). Culture-bound: Bridging the cultural gap in language teaching. New York: Cambridge University Press. Wadham-Smith, N. (2003). The intercultural language teaching debate. Retrieved from http://www.counterpoint-online.org Whorf, B. L. (1956) Language, Thought, and Reality: Selected Writings of Benjamin Lee Whorf. (Ed) John B. Carroll. Cambridge: MIT Press. Wittgenstein, L (1999). Philosophical Investigations. (trans. by. G. E. M. Anscombe) Prentice Hall. Wittgenstein, L. (1980). Culture and Value. (trans. by Peter Winch) Chicago: Chicago University Press.
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ICLC 2010 Proceedings The Review Study: The Effect of Task-Based Approach on the Advanced EFL Learners Narrative vs. Expository Writing Siros Izadpanah Islamic Azad UniversityZanjan Branch, Iran
Abstract This study was an attempt to determine the effect of task-based approach vs. traditional approach on the narrative and expository writing of the EFL (English as a Foreign Language) learners. This study also tried to see if there is any difference between the narrative and expository writing of the advanced EFL learners when the task-based approach is the instruction of methodology. It was concluded that teaching writing to EFL learners through task-based approach is more effective than teaching writing to the advanced EFL learners traditionally. But, it was found that task-based approach is not biased toward one of the two narratives vs. expository writing modes. For EFL contexts in many countries, there is a strong need for learners to develop their EFL writing ability. Keywords: TBLT (Task-Based Language Teaching), writing modes, narrative writing, expository writing Introduction Living in the era of information and communication, we need to convey our ideas and new research findings to the people in other countries through writing. On the other hand, English is an international language and most of the well-known publishers, journals and websites publish accept only those materials which have been written in English. So in many countries, there is a strong need for learners to develop their EFL (English as a Foreign Language) writing ability. As far as the modes of writing are concerned, narration and exposition are two highly validated and frequently used writing modes. Accordingly, EFL learners are interested in writing their own narrative and expository essays in English in order to send them to English publishers. A lot of techniques and procedures have been used in EFL context for teaching narrative and expository writing to the learners, however, most of which have not been practical and communicative or have not yielded good results. In spite of all of the developments in the teaching of writing in other EFL contexts, the traditional approach, i.e., product approach, is still used in teaching writing by learners in most universities and colleges. The situation is even worse when the teaching of writing modes, like narration and exposition, is concerned. Therefore, there is an urgent and necessary need to find effective ways of teaching narrative and expository writing for advanced EFL learners. Such a strong need for change in the position of writing at the academic level motivates and encourages researchers to do research. Because of the poor position of EFL writing and the use of traditional, product-based approaches, the paper studies the use of Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) as a new and validated approach
Siros Izadpanah, lecturer of Branch. English Department, Islamic Azad UniversityZanjan
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to the teaching of writing. This paper also tries to determine if TBLT can improve the EFL learners narrative and expository writing. Objective To review the effect of task-based approach on the advanced EFL learners narrative vs. expository writing. In doing the current study, we try to answer the following questions: (1) Does teaching writing through task-based approach have any significant effect on the advanced EFL learners writing? (2) Is there any significant difference between the narratives vs. expository writing of the advanced EFL learners? Methods The systematic review of effect of task-based approach on the advanced EFL learners narrative vs. expository writing was done by searching with key words: Task; Task-Based Language Teaching, writing mode, narrative writing, expository writing using of or, and from reliable Databases (Springer, Informa World, Elsevier, Cambridge)which have been published from 1921 until now. Contents Task-Based Language Teaching The emergence of the CLT (Communicative Language Teaching) in the 1980s was a landmark in the history of language teaching. CLT proposed that the goal of language teaching should develop communicative competence, not just linguistic competence. As such, CLT suggested that language learning should be done through meaningful communication (Celce-Murcia, 2001, p. 16). According to Ellis (2003), CLT is a meaningbased and leaner-centered approach and that all of the four skills need to be integrated. Howat (1984 ,as cited in Richards & Rodgers, 2001, p. 155) distinguished between weak version and strong version of CLT. Howat defined the weak version as learning language in order to use it and defined the strong version as using language in order to learn it. Generally, CLT is considered as an approach rather than a method and it has given birth to many methods, one of which is TBLT. Ellis (2003) has distinguished between task-supported language teaching and task-based language teaching. According to Ellis, task-supported language teaching parallels the weak version of CLT using a procedure of Presentation, Practice and Production (PPP). In tasksupported language teaching, tasks only have a supportive function in the production phase. Also, Harmer (2001) has criticized PPP for being teacher-centered and for ignoring the nature of language and human learning. The criticism against PPP prepared the grounds for the task-based language teaching. Based on Ellis (2003, p. 30), task-based language teaching parallels the strong version of CLT and uses tasks as the basis for the whole language teaching curriculum. As an extension of CLT, TBLT assumes that language is a means of making meaning (Ellis, 2000). In TBLT, all the four language skills are considered as important. Due to the centrality of the tasks in TBLT, many definitions have been proposed for the notion of task. J. Willis (1996) argued that tasks are those activities which learners do in order to achieve an outcome in the target language. According to Ellis (2003, pp. 9-10), a task is a work plan that involves the meaningful, real-world processes of language use aiming at achieving a communicative outcome, and it may use one of the four skills. But the most comprehensive definition of task is that of Nunan (2004):
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ICLC 2010 Proceedings A task is a piece of classroom work that involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while their attention is focused on mobilizing their grammatical knowledge in order to express meaning, and in which the intention is to convey meaning rather than to manipulate form. The task should also have a sense of completeness, being able to stand alone as a communicative act in its own right with a beginning, a middle and an end. (p. 4)
With regard to the classification of task components, Ellis (2003, p. 21) claimed that a task has five components: goals, input, conditions, procedures and predicted outcomes. Nunans (2004) classification of task components includes goals, input, procedures, and teacher and learner roles. Littlewood (2004) has stated that there are some differences between tasks and exercises. He held that tasks are those classroom activities which are primarily meaning- and content-focused, but exercises are primarily language-focused. But there is not a clear-cut distinction between tasks and exercises. Accepting such a difference, Ellis (2003) argued that both tasks and exercises are useful and important for language teaching. As far as task types are concerned, Nunan (1989) has distinguished between pedagogical and real world tasks. Real world tasks are those based on a need analysis and are found effective in real world language use. But pedagogical tasks are designed for instructional purposes. Target tasks and communicative tasks are other names for real world tasks. With regard to the theory of language, Richards and Rodgers (2001) believed that TBLT draws on functional, interactional, and in some cases, structural theories about the nature of language. TBLT uses a task-based syllabus which is a type of analytical syllabi. Some psychologically-oriented researches and theories support TBLT. Moghadam (2007, pp. 5459) have discussed Krashens input hypothesis, interaction hypothesis, output hypothesis and Vygotskys theory as theories that strongly support TBLT. Both J. Willis (1996) and Ellis (2003) suggested that all of the classroom instructions in TBLT can be organized in terms of pre-task, during task and post-task phases. The overall purpose of the pre-task is to prepare the learners for completing the task through providing students with the task instruction and activating the background knowledge. In the during task phase, learners complete the task. In the post-task phase, learners practice some specific linguistic features of the task. Therefore, this phase is also called the language focus phase. D. Willis and J. Willis (2001) presented a model with task, planning and report phases in the task cycle and a language focus phase after the task cycle (p. 178). ESL (English as a Second language) /EFL (English as a Foreign Language) Writing Writing is a basic language skill and a considerable amount of human communication is done through written language. But unfortunately, this productive skill has been marginalized in the language research. One reason for this negligence was the traditional view which considered writing as a mere representation of speech. In the era of audiolingualism, it was believed that language was speech and writing was an orthographic representation of speech. Such a view toward, writing developed the controlled composition tradition in the 1950s and 1960s. Silva and Matsuda (2002) depicted the position of writing in this approach as: In the controlled composition tradition, writing functions as a service activity, reinforcing other language skills. The goal of writing instruction is habit formation. Students manipulate familiar language structures; the teacher is an editor, privileging linguistic factors over ideas. The text is seen as a collection of vocabulary and sentence patterns; there is negligible concern for audience or purpose. (pp. 258-259)
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The paragraph pattern approach (Silva & Matsuda, 2002, p. 259) or the current tradition approach (Reid, 2001, pp. 28-29) in the late 1960s and early 1970s was one of the reactions against the controlled composition and emphasized the importance of organization, logical construction and arrangement at the above-sentence level. The expressivist approach was another trend which became dominant in 1970s. Reid (2001, p. 29) argued that in this approach writing was taught as a process of self discovery, writers expressed their feelings in a climate of encouragement. The proponents of this approach-claimed that free expression of ideas led to self discovery and finally to develop effective writing skills in learners. All of the above-mentioned approaches in teaching writing were product-based. All of them paid attention to the final product of writing. The sentence-level grammar and mechanical aspects of writing such as punctuation and spelling were the focus of the writing instruction in these approaches. The linear and prescriptive nature of the product approaches and their failure in developing, effective writing skills in ESL/EFL learners paved the way for the emergence of the process approach in teaching writing. When it comes to process approach, Seow (2002) stated that it focused on the processes of writing, i.e., the different stages that learners go through in their writing: planning, drafting, revising and editing (p. 316). Kroll (2001) has defined this approach in this way: What the term captures is the fact that student writers engage in their writing tasks through a single-shat approach. They are not expected to produce and submit complete and polished responses to their writing assignments without going through stages of drafting and receiving feedback on their drafts, be it from peers and/or from the teacher, followed by revision of their evolving texts. This is what is truly meant by the process approach. (pp. 220-221) Weigle (2002) commented that process approach views writing as a recursive and exploratory process not as a linear one (p. 24). Process approaches primarily focus on what writers do as they write rather than on textual features. According to Chastain (1988, p. 251), in order to improve the quality of written product, the instructor should assist the learners to improve the process of writing. Badger and White (2000) recommended that writing should be done outside the boundaries of assessment, as a dynamic process in a learner-centered classroom. From the viewpoint of Hedge (2000), the process view of writing sees it as thinking, as discovery (p. 302). There are some arguments against the dichotomy between product and process approaches. For example, Reid (2001) has called the dichotomy a false one (p. 29). Brown (2001) believed that there should be a balance between the two. And best of all, Nunan (1999) put it although proponents of these two approaches try to portray them as mutually incompatible, they are in fact, complementary (p. 298). There have been a lot of studies on the issues involved in ESL and EFL writing. Such studies have used speak-aloud protocols and interviews to investigate the students composing and revision strategies (Reid, 2001). Some other studies have examined the students preferences concerning peer feedback or teacher feedback on their compositions. Other researchers have investigated the academic writing tasks and how they are used in EFL/ESL contexts (Spack, 1997, as cited in Reid, 2001). Silva (1993) has named some of the important differences between L1 (First Language) and L2 (Second Language) writing in terms of processes and the textual features. He has analyzed 72 reports and then has
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synthesized the findings of those reports. Matsuda (1997) has analyzed what he calls the static model of L2 writing based on rhetorical studies and then has proposed a dynamic model of second language writing. This model shows how linguistic, cultural and educational backgrounds of the learners are negotiated in the process of writing. When it comes to the practice of teaching writing, Chastain (1988) proposed three stages for teaching writing, namely, pre-writing, while writing (writing the composition) and postwriting. Brown (2001) has recommended a three-stage process for writing a composition: prewriting, drafting and revision. Modes of Writing In the recent years, a lot of research has been done on the concept of genre and its role in writing. Genre studies have focused on the recognizable patterns and norms of organization and structure of written texts. One branch of genre studies addresses the general types or modes of writing. According to Stifter (2002), modes of writing or rhetorical modes are patterns of organization aimed at achieving a particular effect in the reader (p. l). Generally, modes of writing have been classified into four types: descriptive, narrative, expository and argumentative (Connor, 1996; Richards & Schmidt, 2002). Narrative Writing The most familiar and the simplest mode of writing is the narration. Richards and Schmidt (2002, p. 337) defined this writing mode as narrative writing reports an event or tells the story of something that happened. The purpose of a narrative text is to inform, entertain and excite the readers (Dickson, Kameenui, & Simmons, 2007, p. 11). Narrative text depicts events, actions, emotions, or situations the people in a culture experience (Graesser, Golding, & Long, 1991, as cited in Dickson et al., 2007). But the most comprehensive definition is that of Jewell (2004), Narration or a narrative provides details of what happened. It is almost like a list of events in the order that they happened, except that it is written in paragraph form. A narration or narrative doesnt have to show any cause and effect; it only needs to show what happened in the order that it happened. (p. 4) Expository Writing The purpose of this mode of writing is to provide information about a particular subject and explain it. Text books, essays and many of the articles published in magazines are expository texts which communicate information (Richards & Schmidt, 2002, p. 337). The structure of this mode is more complex than other modes. Consequently, ESL/EFL learners have more problems in learning to write expository texts. Expository mode has various subdivisions. Common expository text structures include compare/contrast, classification, illustration, procedural description, sequence, enumeration or collection and problemsolution (Meyer & Rice, 1982; Weaver & Kintsch, 1991, as cited in Dickson et al., 2007). Having many serious problems in their essay writing, the advanced EFL learners should be helped to overcome these problems and develop effective essay writing skills. The purpose of this study is to investigate the practical usefulness of task-based approach in teaching writing in general and in teaching narrative and expository writing for the EFL learners in the advanced writing courses in particular.
ICLC 2010 Proceedings Conclusion
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The review of studies showed that teaching writing to EFL learners through task-based approach is more effective than teaching writing to the advanced EFL learners traditionally. This study made this clear that TBLT is definitely more effective than traditional approach in teaching writing in general and in teaching writing modes like narration and exposition in particular. In fact, teaching writing to EFL learners through task-based approach has all of the advantages of the process approach to writing, such as the focus on the processes involved in the pre-writing, while writing and post-writing phases. That is the task-based approach was more effective than the traditional approach in teaching expository writing to the advanced EFL learners. Based on Ellis, superiority lies in the meaningful, purposeful, communicative and authentic nature of the task-based approach. As a piece of valid evidence which supports characteristics in favor of the task-based approach is the fact that the difference between the performance of the task-based classes and the performance of the traditional classes was greater on those parts of the used scale for scoring ESL compositions which focused on meaning, content, and communication rather than formal aspects of language. It seems that task-based approach is really communicative and meaningcentered or in a better word uses language in order to learn it. To summarize, this study found that task-based approach is more effective than the traditional approach for teaching writing in general and in teaching narrative vs. expository writing in particular but it was observed that TBLT was not biased in its effectiveness toward one of the two narrative or expository writing modes. The findings of this study have various pedagogical implications in TEFL/TESL. These various implications can be used in different domains of TEFL like language teaching methodology, syllabus design and material development, and language assessment. Task-based approach can be applied to teach other writing modes such as descriptive vs. argumentative writing. Task-based approach can be applied to teach other language skills and sub-skills like listening comprehension, vocabulary and grammar. References Badger, R., & White, G. (2000). A process genre approach to teaching writing. ELT Journal, 54(4), 153-160. Brown, H. D. (2001). Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language pedagogy (2nd. ed.). New York: Pearson Education. Brown, H. D. (2007). Principles of language learning and teaching (5th ed.). New York: Pearson Education. Celce-Murcia, M. (Ed.). (2001). Teaching English as a second or foreign language. Boston: Heinle & Heinle. Chastain, K. (1988). Developing second language skills: Theory and practice (3rd ed.). Virginia: Harcourtbrace Jovanovich Publishers. Connor, U. (1988). Research frontiers in writing analysis. In T. Silva & P. K. Matsuda (Eds.), (2001), Landmark essays on ESL writing (pp. 75-90). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Connor, U. (1996). Contrastive rhetoric: Cross-cultural aspects of second-language writing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Dickson, S. V., Kameenui, E. J., & Simmons, D. C. (2007). Text organization and its relation to reading comprehension: A synthesis of the research. Retrieved from http://idea.uoregon.edu/ ncite/ documents/ techrep/tec17.html Ellis, R. (2000). Task-based research and language pedagogy. Language Teaching Research, 4(3), 193-220.
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Ellis, R. (2003). Task-based learning and teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Harmer, J. (2001). The practice of English language teaching (3rd ed.). Edinburgh: Pearson Education. Hatch, E., & Lazaraton, A. (1991). The research manual: Design and statisticsfor applied linguistics. New York: Newbury House Publication. Hedge, T. (2000). Teaching and learning in the language classroom. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Howatt, A. P. R. (1984). A history of language teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Jacobs, H. V., Fay Hartflel, V., Hughey, J. B., & Wormuth, D. R. (1981). ESL composition profile. New York: Newbury House Publisher. Jewell, J. (2004). Rhetorical modes. Retrieved from http://www. College writing.info Kroll, B. (2001). Considerations for teaching an ESUEFL writing course. In M. Celce-Murcia (Ed.), Teaching English as a second or foreign language (pp. 219-232). Boston: Heinle & Heinle. Littlewood, W. (2004). The task-based approach: Some questions and suggestions. ELT Journal, 58(4), 319-327. Matsuda, P. K. (1997). Contrastive rhetoric in context: A dynamic model of L2 writing. Journal of Second Language Writing, 6(1), 45-60. Meyer, B. J. F., & Rice, G. E. (1982). The interaction of reader strategies and the organization of text. Text, 2, 15592. Moghadam, Z. A. (2007). The effect of task-based approach on the Iranian ESP learners/reading comprehension (Unpublished M.A. thesis. Allame Tabatabai University. Tehran, Iran). Nunan, D. (1989). Designing tasks for the communicative classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Nunan, D. (1999). Second language teaching and learning. Boston: Newbury House Publication. Nunan, D. (2004). Task-based language teaching: A comprehensively revised edition of designing tasks for communicative classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Reid, J. (2001). Writing. In R. Carter & D. Nunan (Eds.), The Cambridge guide to teaching English to speakers of other languages (pp. 28-33). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Richards, J. C., & Rodgers, T. (2001). Approaches and methods in language teaching (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Richards, J. C., & Schmidt, R. (2002). Longman dictionary of language teaching and applied linguistics (3rd ed.). London: Pearson Education Limited. Seow, A. (2002). The writing process and process of writing. In J. C. Richards & W. A. Renandya (Eds.), Methodology in language teaching: An anthology of current practice (pp. 315-320). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Silva, T. (1993). Toward an understanding of the distinct nature of L2 writing: The ESL research and its implications. TESOL Quarterly, 27(4), 657-675. Silva, T., & Matsuda, P. K. (2002). Writing. In N. Schmitt (Ed.), An introduction to applied linguistics (pp. 251-266). London: Oxford University Press. Stifter, B. (2002). Rhetorical modes. Retrieved from http://users.cdc.net/-stifler/enll a/modes. html Weigle, S. C. (2002). Assessing writing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Willis, D., & Willis, J. (2001). Task-based language learning. In R. Carter & D. Nunan (Eds.), The Cambridge guide to teaching English to speakers of other languages (pp. 173-179). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Willis, J. (1996). A frame work for task-based learning. Harlow: Longman.
ICLC 2010 Proceedings Unique Categories of Errors in Thai Spellings of English
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Thomas Hamilton, thomas.h@nida.ac.th National Institute of Development Administration (NIDA) Assoc. Prof Dr. Richard Watson Todd, coauthor Asst. Prof Dr. Nuttanart Facundes, coauthor King Mongkuts University of Technology Thonburi
ABSTRACT Second language writing systems (L2WS) research offers insights into the different types of problems spellers of an L2 face. Previous cross-language spelling research has focused on errors derived from phonological differences between L1 and L2 (see Figueredo, 2006 for a review). Other research has examined differences in orthographic depth between L1 and L2 (e.g. Patcharee, 2003, Wei, 2005). Generally, researchers often assume that categories of L1 spelling errors, noted by previous research of native English speaking monolingual children (e.g., Read, 1986; Treiman, 1993), would also exist in L2 spellings. Although these areas of spelling research have helped to enlighten researchers about the L2WS, research in cross-linguistic spelling with differing L1 and L2 alphabets is sparse. Furthermore, L2WS studies are often focused on single categories of errors, and no one study has attempted to measure the varying weight of influence error categories have on the overall L2WS. By categorizing three large corpora of L2 writing by Thai learners of English, this paper attempts to encompass a wide range of possible L2 spelling errors and analyze their degree of occurrence in an L2WS. Because this paper focuses on writing systems with different alphabets, novel categories of errors are proposed, namely, writing system characteristics, letter combination rules, and grapheme-phoneme frequency. The impact of such novel categories on L2WS is discussed. Theories of spelling Half a century ago linguists became interested in spelling as a means of understanding human language learning and cognitive processes. This era of spelling research focused mainly on native English speaking childrens spellings of English words as the data provided abundant developmentally influenced spelling patterns (e.g. Read 1986). Such research suggested that nasal phonemes were often confused by spellers, as were vowel sounds especially diphthongs and schwas. Researchers of adult native spellers of English have also suggested that homophones are frequently used erroneously. More recent native spelling research has focused on cognitive processes and specific language abilities of spellers suffering from damaged linguistic-related areas of the brain. This research suggests that spellers are using specific areas of the brain for certain types of spelling i.e. from a spellers lexical database(memorized spellings), or Grapheme Phoneme Correspondence (GPC) constructed spellings(novel word spellings). First language models of spelling include the Dual-Route Model (Frith, 1980) and the Connectionist Models (Bullinaria, 1993; Plaut et al., 1996). Both of these models theorize that more commonly encountered spelling patterns are more likely to be spelled correctly
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more often than rarely encountered spellings. The current research will assume that based on first language models of spelling words more frequently used in the British National Corpus (BNC) will be spelled correctly more often than words rarely found in the BNC. It has been suggested that more than half of the people on earth are bilingual (Crystal, 2003). Spelling models that focus on L1 therefore seem limiting. Recent interest in the field of second language acquisition has resulted in some L2 spelling research focusing on transfer of orthographic depth (the degree of sound to spelling correspondence of a Writing System (WS), also referred to as regularity of spelling), (Frost, 1992). Such research suggests that spellers with a highly regular L1WS are likely to spell L2 words relying on sound to spelling correspondence. Therefore, according to this hypothesis, this studys data from Thai spellers of English would follow patterns of sound-to-spelling based on transfer of Thais translucent orthographic depth. Other L2 research has focused on speech perception as a key factor contributing to L2WS spelling errors, e.g. Perceptual Assimilation Model (PAM) (Best, 1993). Such research suggests that L2 sounds not found in a spellers L1 will be assimilated to a similar sound that is in the spellers L1. The speller would then apply their L1 GPC rules to the newly assimilated sound. This research utilizes a contrastive analysis of phonemes found in L1 and L2 to create hypotheses about which sounds would be problematic for Thai spellers of English. Second language models of spelling usually focus on cross-linguistic spelling errors where the L1WS and the L2WS both utilize the Roman alphabet. Research addressing crosslinguistic spelling where L1 and L2 use different writing scripts found a decrease in L1 to L2 transfer (Oller and Ziahosseiny, 1970). Therefore, this research acknowledges that Thai spellers of English may have unusual spelling patterns determined by characteristic differences between L1 and L2 scripts. Purpose This research hopes to help bridge the gaps between the many models of spelling discussed above. Instead of choosing one model to analyze data, this research attempts to judge the degree to which each model accounts for the data. To accomplish this, three corpora of Thai spellings of English were collected using varying degrees of control. Nonstandard spellings of words were broken into categories of errors based on their ability to fit hypotheses created from the aforementioned spelling models. This research proposes to test the hypotheses and sub-hypotheses derived from the different models of spelling. The following hypotheses were generated from previous models of spelling to explain the corpora data: L1 Influences: Words more frequently used in the British National Corpus (BNC) will be spelled correctly more often than words rarely found in the BNC. Nasal and vowel location errors should be significantly higher in less frequent words than in more frequent words. L2 Influences: Letter sounds not found in L1 should have a greater frequency of error than letters sounds found in both L1 and L2. Thais should be relying on sound-to-spelling patterns while spelling English words. Therefore English words spelled by Thais should be spelled according to Thai pronunciations of those words.
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Orthographic Script Differences: As Thai script has no spacing between words in a sentence, we can assume that Thais will be more prone to errors with compound words, i.e. whether or not to put a space between the words. Thai GPC (with rare irregular exceptions) does not utilize double letters to represent a single phoneme sound. Therefore, we would expect a high tendency for errors in double lettering positions. Method Corpus 1 Data Collection Corpus 1 was constructed from the English hand-written journals of 57 Thai university English major students. In total the corpus consists of more than 125,000 words, in which 733 alternative spellings of words were identified. This first corpus was intended to represent spelling problems that would be observable in the subjects normal written academic and work life. The percentage of recoverable alternative spellings was relatively (0.6%) low because the students were expected to highly filter their spellings as the journals were submitted as academic work to be graded. The students had the opportunity to check their spelling and choose words they felt confident spelling. Data Inclusion Since the journals were hand-written, there were some problems identifying the intended letters. In an attempt to determine misspelled words and phonemes, letters in corpus 1 were deemed recoverable based on comparative samples of easily identifiable letters found throughout the subjects writing. Unrecoverable letters resulted in unrecoverable words which were excluded from the corpus. More than 1,000 words were excluded from the corpus because letters were unrecoverable. Even with clearly recoverable letters many words were determined to be unrecoverable because the intended word could not be identified through context, grammatical position, or similar word usage found in the subjects writing. These words were also excluded from the corpus. Therefore, this corpus of spelling does not contain a complete list of alternative spellings. Thus, it is possible that extreme variants of standard spellings would be more difficult to recover and therefore the data could be biased towards more standardized spellings. Corpus 2 Data Collection The second corpus is a compilation of hand-written notes 50 Thai English major university students took in class. It consists of more than 5,000 words containing 322 alternative spellings. Although less likely to reflect students polished writing, this type of sound to spelling writing may impact students in situations like dictation tests or cloze tasks in university English listening and speaking classes. The percentage of nonstandard spellings is higher than in corpus one as students did not have the same freedom to choose all words spelled while taking notes based on a lecture. Students may have needed to spell unfamiliar words based on the sound of word rather than their lexical knowledge, thus we found different spelling patterns than in corpus 1.
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Data Inclusion Since corpus 2 was also hand-written, the same methods for determining recoverable letters and words were used as in corpus 1. Because corpus 2 was based on notes, the lecture script was used as a means of recovering some words. However, corpus two contained many more unrecoverable letters and words, most likely because students took the notes under time pressure and were unable to rewrite their notes. Therefore, there exists in this corpus a greater possibility that extreme variants of standard spelling were included while mild variants were more often recoverable. Corpus 3 Data Collection The same group of students used in corpus 2 were again used in corpus 3. The third corpus was more controlled in that it asked students to spell specific words which are pronounced similarly in Thai and English. A list of 14 chemical and country names were given in Thai, and 39 students were asked to write the English counterparts. As students were told that that the pronunciations were similar it was expected that they may use systems of transliteration/transcription to produce the spellings. In this corpus the students had no freedom to choose which words they spelt. Therefore this corpus least likely reflects real writing of Thai students, but may yield a crystallization of certain L1 influences. Data Inclusion The same methods for determining recoverable letters were used as with the other corpora. However, there were very few problematic letters as students were aware of the need to write identifiable letters. Recoverable words were not an issue as the intended words were already determined by the spelling task. Therefore, all data was included. Methods for analysis of L1 Influence: From the corpora, subjects spellings were categorized into incorrectly and correctly spelled totals for each attempted word. Inflectional and derivational affixes added to roots were treated as separate words. A percentage of attempts spelled incorrectly out of total attempts of spelling for that word were recorded for the most frequently misspelled words in corpora 1 and 2. Those percentages were then correlated with frequency of occurrence in the BNC. Methods for analysis of L2 Influence: The following phonemes categories were derived from the PAM of spelling: 1. Same in L1 and L2: h, m, n, y, w, f, th/kh/ph initial, final 2. Nonexistent in Thai: z, v, g, 3, t, , , d3, , consonant clusters except , / , , , / with , , Final f, final b, final ph, final s, final d, final th, final kh, final l, final r, final th, t (ch/j approximant)
ICLC 2010 Proceedings initial ng, , , unaspirated t/p/k, initial From a Perceptual Assimilation perspective the following categories might also be true: 4. More variants in Thai than English: t, th, d, k, kh, p, ph, b, initial and final Word combinations Vowels: long and short distinctions
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5. More variants in English than Thai: s/z (as associated with Thai s), ch/sh/j (as associated with Thais th, t), f/v/w as associated with Thai w) r/l (as associated with Thai l --in common spoken Thai), th, , (as associated with th) The problematic phonemes to be analyzed based on the hypothesis include: /r,lg,k,d,t,i/I,p,b,,t,z,s/ Methods for test of Orthographic Script Influence: Spelling errors made in the location of a word where two letters equal a single phoneme were recorded and compared with the frequency with which those double letters were correctly applied in corpus spellings. The total number of double letters which were inappropriately applied to spellings were also included in the data. Inclusion of Nasal Phonemes As a means of comparing the relative influences of L1, L2, and orthographic script, nasal phonemes (L1 type errors) were also included in parallel categories of the data chart. Findings Error Frequency Correlated with BNC Frequency in Tables 1.1 and 1.2 To determine the degree of L1 influence as hypothesized by Connectionist models of spelling, alternative spellings from corpus 1 and 2 were analyzed in terms of the frequency of a words misspellings divided by attempted spellings for that word in the corpus giving a percentage of error. That percentage of error was correlated with frequency of occurrence in the BNC. BNC frequencies were ranked so that the first 1000 words were listed as category 1 words. The second 1000 words were listed as category two words. The process continued until after the most frequent 6000 words, all words thereafter were listed as category 7. The correlation for both corpus 1 and 2 showed a significance between the two frequencies, at p < .05. This implies that there is a relationship between the frequency which the words were misspelled and the frequency with which they are likely to be encountered in language use.
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times misspelled
attempted times in corpus
BNC frequency
14 10 9 8 8 8 8 8 7 6 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 3
every time free time eating clothes fruit japanese neighbour restaurant delicious everything medicine too until wear bedroom bought grandmother motorcycle stranger tomorrow boyfriend every night unfortunately
23 30 35 75 37 40 14 56 32 103 14 426 49 104 52 134 25 28 9 39 95 25 5
60.87% 33.33% 25.71% 10.67% 21.62% 20.00% 57.14% 14.29% 21.88% 5.83% 42.86% 1.41% 12.24% 5.77% 9.62% 3.73% 20.00% 17.86% 55.56% 12.82% 5.26% 16.00% 60.00%
2180 153 4295 7327 5118 5008
BNC Ranking 4 7 3 2 2 7
percent wrong
word
4919
5100 1086 18675 3040 70164 40784 14434 5865 9073 1461 289 2316 9243 1285 679 4656
2
2 5 1 3 1 1 1 2 2 5 7 4 2 5 7 2
Table 1.1 Corpus 1
p=
0.273031
significance <.05
103
misspellings
918 words
142 words
attempts
26 26 legitimate 24 24 textbook 14 14 referent 11 11 power 9 8 7 6 6 6 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 9 coercive 8 grammar 7 psychology 6 babbling 6 ice-cream 6 different 5 information 5 language 5 reference 4 ceremony 4 colleague 4 communicate 4 composition 4 cooing 4 government 4 lecture 4 special
26 23 14 23 9 20 7 6 6 15 25 20 5 4 4 17 4 15 6 4 10
100.00% 100.00% 100.00% 47.83% 100.00% 40.00% 100.00% 100.00% 100.00% 40.00% 20.00% 25.00% 100.00% 100.00% 100.00% 23.53% 100.00% 26.67% 66.67% 100.00% 40.00%
1575 875 186 38824 180 2549 2536 58 3223 48373 38656 18778 9638 2142 7209 2634 2720 58 66894 2867 22040
BNC category 4 6 7 1 7 3 3 7 3 1 1 1 2 4 2 3 3 7 1 3 1 Table 1.2 Corpus 2 0.42
p= significance of <0.05
BNC
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Table 2.1 Relative Phonemic Errors
Nasal L1 Corpus 1 % out of total error words % out of total errors % out of total occurrences in corpus % out of total occurrences in errors 7.23% 4.64% 0.14% 9.69%
r/l L2
g/k L2
d/t L2
b/p L2
z/s L2
ch/sh L2
i/ee L2
Doubling OS
16.51% 10.59% 0.34% 20.37%
3.00% 1.92% 0.17% 9.87%
9.82% 6.30% 0.14% 12.29%
1.09% 0.70% 0.06% 3.83%
9.55% 6.12% 0.31% 22.58%
2.18% 1.40% 0.42% 43.24%
1.09% 0.70% 0.02% 2.10%
11.46% 7.35% 1.07% 58.11%
Corpus 2 % out of total error words % out of total errors % out of total occurrences in corpus % out of total occurrences in errors 16.77% 7.86% 3.07% 20.22% 24.84% 11.64% 4.76% 24.54% 1.86% 0.87% 1.01% 4.92% 15.22% 7.13% 2.25% 19.22% 0.93% 0.44% 0.35% 2.46% 14.60% 6.84% 4.95% 49.47% 3.11% 1.46% 7.81% 58.82% 11.49% 5.39% 3.03% 19.79% 10.25% 4.80% 8.55% 36.67%
Corpus 3 % out of total error words % out of total errors % out of total occurrences in corpus 3.46% 2.02% 2.61% 16.35% 9.55% 16.19% 6.15% 3.60% 16.67% 5.58% 3.26% 5.99% 0.38% 0.22% 1.05% 12.31% 7.19% 24.81% 4.04% 2.36% 53.85% 10.00% N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A
Problematic Spelling Categories in Table 2.1 To determine the degree of PAM influence, selected phonemes which did not match in L1 and L2 were analyzed to determine their relative frequency of error according to attempted spellings in each corpus, namely [r/l, g/k, b/p/p, d/t/t, z/s, /t, i/i:/I]. According to the relative frequency of attempted spellings in the corpora, letter doubling and [/t] showed the highest proportion of errors, while [g/k, b/p/p] showed the lowest proportion of errors. As a comparison, nasals /m,n, / were also measured for frequency of error to determine the degree of L1 influence compared to PAM influence. The relative degree of nasal error appeared to be considerably less than PAM related errors. Finally, letter doubling errors were included to determine the relative degree of influence that the orthographic script characteristics had on Thai spellers of English. The total number of errors in the double letter category was higher than many of the PAM predicted phoneme errors, suggesting a strong influence.
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The Connectionist hypothesis of L1 spelling appears to also be applicable to L2 spelling, although to a lesser degree than it would apply to L1 spellings, in that it did not appear to be the most significant factor when superficially compared to the data results from the other hypotheses. The PAM generated L2 spelling hypotheses suggest the predicted problematic phonemes had a strong influence on errors when compared to L1 nasal errors. The phoneme data results generally follow the pattern that the larger the difference between English and Thai, the more frequent the errors. However, the complexity of the data for r/l suggests that this is not quite so straightforward. Also, the low frequencies for category 2 suggest that influences are predicated on unidirectional differences, not bidirectional differences (i.e. where English makes a distinction not made in Thai errors occur, but where Thai makes a distinction not made in English there are few effects). The results were unexpectedly high for orthographic script influenced errors. This is interesting as most current spelling models in L1 and L2 do not account for this phenomenon. This under-researched area of influence shows promising potential as a means of better understanding L1 influences on L2. Because the data suggests that multiple factors could be working together to influence spelling data, further experimentation is currently being designed to attempt to isolate and predict when certain spelling models are most influential. References Best, C.T. & Strange, W. (1992). Effects of phonological and phonetic factors on factors on cross-language perception of approximants. Journal of Phonetics. 20, 305-330. Bullinaria, J. (1993). Neural network models of reading without Wickelfeatures. Unpublished manuscript, University of Edinburgh. Crystal, David. English as a Global Language. Cambridge University Press; 2 edition (July 28, 2003) Figueredo, L. (2006). Using the known to chart the unknown: A review of first-language influences on the development of English-as-a-second-language spelling skill. Reading and Writing 19:873-905 Frith, U. (Ed.). (1980). Cognitive Process in Spelling. London: Academic Press. Frost, R. (1992). Orthography and phonology: The psychological reality of orthographic depth. In: P. Downing, S.D. Lima & M. Noonan (eds.), The linguistics of literacy (pp. 255-274). Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Oller, J. W., & Ziahosseiny, S. M. (1970). The contrastive analysis hypothesis and spelling errors. Language Learning, 20, 183189. Imsri, Patcharee (2003) The Perception and Production of English stop consonants by Thai Children and Adults. Proceedings of the Boston University Conference on Language Development. Plaut DC, McClelland JL, Seidenberg MS, Patterson K. (1996) Understanding normal and impaired word reading: computational principles in quasi-regular domains. Psychological Review;103:56115. Read, C. (1986). Childrens creative spelling. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. Treiman, R. (1993). Beginning to spell. New York: Oxford University Press. Wei, Youfu (2005) The relationship between phonological Awareness and Reading Ability of Thai Students in English and Thai in Primary Schools of Thailand Unpublished dissertation. Oxford University. Department of Curriculum and Instruction.
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An Analysis of English to Thai Business Document Translation Associate Professor Patcharee Pokasamrit, Ph.D.
ABSTRACT This study analyses Business English translation into Business Thai. The data consist of 715 Business English documents which were translated and published. The main purposes of the research are to find the translation techniques and their examples, and to find out by questionnaires to Business English Thai translators about their most important techniques employed in their translation. The results of the first purpose are the 19 translation techniques such as one to one equivalent, secondary meaning, implicit and explicit meaning, generic and specific meaning and loan translation. From the questionnaires in which 12 translators were asked to rank their most important 14 translation techniques, it was found that, one to one equivalent, secondary meaning, implicit and explicit meaning and loan translation were among the most important choices. Results on different techniques found are discussed and implications and further research topics are suggested. Key words: Translation, Business English, Applied Linguistics INTRODUCTION At present translation from English into Thai is one of the most important means of cultural and technological transferring. Business English is translated to facilitate technology, education, entertainment, and communication businesses. Vocabularies which cannot be coigned in time by the Royal Academy of Thailand are loaned so that loan-word usage has become an obvious feature of business Thai. Language academists and translators alike are interested in business translation and loan-word usage since there is a trend towards Thai language conservation against the influx of the practical loan-word usage as a means to facilitate business conduction. As a result, there is a need to analyze English-to-Thai business translation in order to understand its translation techniques and their preferences, loan word usage, and other significant linguistic features found in English-to-Thai business translation. The findings from the analysis could lead to further input into English-Thai translation methodology, a confirmation of the translation theories, a practical business English to Thai translation teaching material and finally on up-dated and authentic materials for English-to-Thai translation text book. Purposes of the Study Business English-to-Thai Translation documents were analyzed to find 1. important translation techniques and their examples 2. loan word translation and examples 3. significant linguistic forms 4. ranking of translation techniques Scope of the Study The study aims to analyze business English-to-Thai translation in Thailand when presented both in the form of Thai version (Receptor language / RL) only, and in the form of English (Source language / SL) and Thai version. The translation theoretical framework follows the models presented by Larson 1998, New Mark 1988, and Bell 1991. The semantic
ICLC 2010 Proceedings theory is adapted from Kreidler 1998, and Larson and Segal 1995. theories follow Thriveni 2002 and Amovanetal 1998. Methodology Data Data were collected from English to Thai translation by 1. gathering Business English-to-Thai translation materials which have been published during 2006-2010 2. categorizing data according to their business purposes 3. selecting only the translation work which fit Larsons (1998) definition I. Translation data of Business English-to-Thai translation during 2006-2010 Types Annual report Interview Company meeting report Business Brochure Business analysis Marketing documents Translated business text books Stock market documents Business academic articles Business translation documents Administrator biography Total II. Questionnaires and interviews to translators 1. 2. Twelve translators were asked to fill in the questionnaires, ranking the translation techniques they employed from the list of 14 techniques. numbers 30 10 50 30 10 20 5 10 20 25 30 310 pages 100 20 100 60 20 40 120 20 100 25 30 715
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The cross-cultural
Twelve translators were then interviewed about their opinions on 4 important translation issues: a. Coinage Words b. Loan Translation c. Characteristics of Business Translation d. Translation tools e.g. specialized dictionaries.
Results From the data analysis, the results can be categorized into the translation techniques employed by the translators together with the translation examples of the receptor language in literal Thai.
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ICLC 2010 Proceedings Translation Techniques and examples 1. One to One Lexical Equivalent: a technique in which there is a one to one match in meaning between a word in SL and RL (Larson, 1998, p. 169) Source Language A lot of business leaders Their coperate models were too rigid have the right to free lunch My wonderful partner 2. Literal Thai leaders in business models (of) cooperates right partner
Secondary Meaning: a meaning when a word is used in some particular context which is different from the primary meaning when that word is used alone. (Larson 1998, p. 115) Source Language Literal Thai season for traveling three months of original type easy to understand
the peak levels during the high season During the first quarter traditional department stores The development costs are based on a very simple principle 3.
Explicit to Implicit: a word or phrase in the source language which is fully expressed has been translated as an implicit word or phrase in the receptor language (Larson 1998, p. 43) Source Language Literal Thai necessary total value partners objectives
The shareholders should know the total value of bond the partners of the company can develop their objective
ICLC 2010 Proceedings 4.
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Implicit to Explicit: a word in the source language which is not expressed directly, but which is expressed fully in the receptor language. (Larson 1998, p. 43) Source Language Literal Thai successes in business 90 songs you could sell put into this business negotiate payment and delivery dates
One of your great successes more than 90 songs an investor that put in 40 percent hes negotiating on the phone 5.
Generic to Specific: a technique when the translator chooses to translate a generic word in SL with a more specific word in RL. Source Language Literal Thai additional investment buyers keep detailed accounts urgent period of production
New share allocation People are less specific We keep close track of the stock levels the machine break down at a critical time 6.
Specific to Generic: a technique of substituting a specific word in SL with a generic one in RL. Source Language Literal Thai age business agreements people in general
maturity of bond in a large company according to the obligations acquired by outsiders Active Voice and Passive Voice
Active Voice is used to indicate that the grammatical subject of the verb is performing the action designated by the verb. In contrast, passive voice is used to indicate that the grammatical subject of the verb is the recipient of the action designated by the verb.
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Active to Active: active voice in SL is translated into active voice in RL. Source Language Decision-making takes a long time people expect business presentations to be formal Partners evaluate the project Production techniques will improve the quality 7. Literal Thai must take a long time have expectation evaluate will improve
Active to Passive: passive voice in SL is translated into passive voice in RL. maintaining similar meaning. Source Language Literal Thai the restaurant have been closed employees were fired the objective was specified We were inquired
They have closed the restaurant The company fired many new employees People specify the objective People inquired us 8.
Passive to Passive: passive voice in SL is translated into passive voice in RL. Source Language Literal Thai was taught are taken were offered was signed
I was taught to give back Decisions are taken by senior managers Automation and robotisation were offered the first letter was signed by a clerk 9.
Passive to Active: passive voice in SL is translated into active voice in RL maintaining similar meaning. Source Language Literal Thai People know you. We can report sales. Can we justify take-overs? Company sought people to take over.
You will be known for your philanthropy. Sales can be reported by email. Can take-overs be justified? The company sought to be taken over.
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Negating Antonym: antonyms are pairs of words with opposite meaning. The use of negating antonyms can create lexical equivalents between SL and RL. Source Language Literal Thai extravagance not different from each other at all never coming back again repulsive
It would be uneconomic to organize be expected to have an identical production being turned away, possibly permanently an unenviable task 11.
Common Expression to Idiom: SL common expressions are translated into RL commonly known idioms to maintain the dynamics of the language. Source Language Literal Thai born from the soil come on strong top capture the heart
of humble origin most popular among so much fun enchanting color 12. Loan Words
A loan word refers to a word from SL and is unknown to the speakers of the RL. Loan words can be translated in many forms: single loan word, loan words with classifiers or modifiers or sometimes with RL translation. Examples: 1. Single loan words SL Can you email the report? to confirm the appointment its stereo sound system Our own slogan sent via Blackberry email confirm stereo slogan Blackberry RL
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ICLC 2010 Proceedings 2. Loan words with classifiers SL They are cheaper than barcodes a velvet jacket a new flagship store to extend its lines packaging rap berry 3. Loan words written in English in RL SL the ready-to-wear brand movement of Micro-Rotor Dolce & Gabbana One of the must haves sparkling wine 4. RL ready-to-wear Micro-Rotor Dolce & Gabbana must haves sparkling wine RL barcodes system jacket shirt flagship store shop product lines packaging raspberry fruit
Loan words written in English with Thai translated version (literal Thai) SL RL
would have to be of utilitarian style clothes focusing on their practical usage (utilitarian style) gigantic wooden born Go green, our new column wooden silo (wooden born) Green Earth (go green)
the presentation of the Three Seas there Seas (three seas) corn flower cuff bracelet corn flower pattern (Corn flower)
ICLC 2010 Proceedings II. Ranking of Translation Technique Preferences
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From the questionnaires, translators ranked translation techniques according to their priority as:
Informants Marks Person Person Person Person Person Person Person Person Person Person Person Person Total 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Rank
Translation Techniques
A One to One B Secondary Meaning C Explicit and Implicit D Generic and Specific E Active and Passive F Loan words G Cultural substitute H Negating Antonym I Coinage
14 13
14 10
13 12
12 13
10 13
13 14
14 11
13 12
10 9
14 13
14 11
14 9
155 140
1 2
12
14
11
14
11
13
11
13
11
12
139
11 8 10 9 6 7 3 4 2 1 5
11 12 13 5 6 4 7 8 3 2 1
8 2 11 7 1 9 10 3 6 5 4
14 10 9 5 6 7 8 4 1 2 3
9 8 6 12 5 6 4 11 3 2 1
12 8 7 6 5 10 1 4 3 9 2
12 6 8 9 10 7 1 2 4 5 3
14 8 9 10 7 6 5 4 1 2 3
12 14 7 6 8 2 1 5 11 4 3
10 12 9 8 7 6 5 1 4 3 2
13 6 5 10 9 8 7 1 2 3 4
10 11 12 13 5 4 7 6 3 1 2
136 105 106 100 75 76 59 53 43 39 33
4 6 5 7 9 8 10 11 12 13 14
J Generic + form K Generic + function L Footnotes M Variations N Expressions
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Discussions on the techniques Primary and secondary meaning are the most employed techniques. Primary meaning is the first meaning of each entry in a dictionary and the meaning when the word occurs in isolation. Its the meaning of business in the sentence I have a family business. Secondary meaning occurs in This is none of your business. 2. Explicit and Implicit meaning are used regularly in order to conform to the natural linguistic format of the receptor language. Since the two language systems do not always coincide in the structure of their words, some components of meaning may be left implicit in a language but may have to be stated explicitly in another. For example in English He writes with his left hand is translated in Thai as He writes with left hand. His does not have to be stated overtly in Thai, or if stated, will be redundant. 3. Generic and Specific Meaning is important in the translation with the aim to convey the closest possible meaning to the receptor language in its most natural way. Two languages may have different levels of generic and specific differentiation of meaning. In Thai rice has double meaning: a generic meaning is a meal while specifically means rice as a cooked cereal or rice as uncooked grain. Sometimes when exact one to one meaning word cannot be found, the translator has to turn to the closest, either more specific or more generic translation. Summary of the interview Twelve translators expressed the following interesting points about business translation. Some coinage words are still difficult to understand and take time to be adapted in place of the loan words. The main problem could be the slow speed of the coinage and the preference to use English loan words in some types of business. 2. Loan words add colors and flavors to the Thai business language. As a result, for informal language use, sometimes loan words can deliver exact and unambiguous meaning while coinages have to be learned. The trend in loan words translation comes hand in hand with other cultural transfers. 3. Business translation emphasizes meaning transfer more than perfect grammatical formats. Non-traditional usage of some Thai expressions capture attention and can easily identify with some groups of business. This causes the Thai language to change towards English. 4. Specialized dictionary facilitates translation. It helps to bring in the technical terms or jargons which can eliminate wordiness or shade of meaning. General dictionary give general meaning-but to select the right choices of words, a specialized dictionary can speed up the process. There should be more up-dated specialized business dictionary. Recommendations 1. 2. 3. There should be different translation analysis of specialized topics concerning laws, medicine and sciences in order to provide data for practical translation textbooks. Knowledge gained from translation analysis can be applied in specialized dictionaries focusing on vocabulary and meaning changes. Lists of loan words can facilitate and speed up the Royal Academy work both in the dictionary compiling and word coinage. 1. 1.
ICLC 2010 Proceedings References
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Baker, M. (1997). In Other Words: A Course Book on Translation. London: Routledge. Barnwell, K. G. L. (1980). Introduction to Semantics and Translation. Horsley Green, England: Summer Institute of Linguistics. Bell, T.R. (1991). Translation and translating: Theory and Practice. New York: Longman Inc. Brislin, R.W. (1976). Translation: Application and Research. New York: Gardner Press Inc. Brown, G., and Yule, G. (1983). Discourse Analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Cambridge Advanced Learners Dictionary. (2003). Cambridge University Press (2nd ed.). Retrieved October 21, 2006, from http://dictionary.cambridge.org/cald/ Carnap, R. (1942). Introduction to Semantics. Cambridge: Mass M.I.T. Press. Catford, J.C. (1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation. London: Oxford University Press. Chadaporn, C. (1965). An Analysis of the Translation of My Life Bill Clinton. A research paper for LA 900 submitted in partal fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Language and Communication, School of Language and Communication the National Institute of Development Administration Chilver, J. (1992) English for Business: A Functional Approach. London: DP Publication LTD. Collin Cobuild Dictionary 1995. Harper Collins Publishers. London. ESCAP. (1984). Technology for Development. United Nation Fortieth Session of the Commission: Tokyo. Goedde, B. (2007). The New York Times; Nonfiction in Translation. Retrieved Jan15, 2009 from http://www.creativenonfiction.org/brevity/craft_goedde.htm Grice, H. P. (1975). Logic and Conversation, in Cole P. and Morgan, J.L. (eds), Syntax and Semantics: Vol.3. Speech Acts. New York: Academic Press. Hatim, B. and Mason, I. (1990). Discourse and the Translator: New York: Longman Inc. Hariyanto, S. (1996). Implication of Culture on Translation Theory and Practice. Malang: State Polytechnic. Karamanian, A.P. (2002). Translation and Culture. Translation Journal, V.6, No.1 January 2002. Retrieved December 9, 2006 from http://accurapid.com/journal/19culture2.htm Katz, J. 1972. Semantic Theory. New York: Harper & Row. Kempson, R. M. (1996). Semantic Theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kreidler, C. W. (1998). Introducing English Semantics, London: Routledge. Kloepfer, R. (1967). Translation Theory and Intercultural Relations. Munich: Wilhelm Fink. Kurland, J. D. (2000). Fiction vs Nonfiction. Retrieved January 19, 2009, from http://www.criticalrcading.com/fictionvnonfiction.htm Larson, M. (1998). Meaning-Based Translation: A Guide to Cross-Language Equivalence. Oxford: University Press of America. Larson, R & Segal, G. (1995). Knowledge and Meaning: An Introduction to semantic theory. USA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Lefevere, A. (1975). Translating Poetry: Seven Strategies and a Blueprint. Accent: Van Gorcum. Lyons, J. (ed) (1997). Semantics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Munday, J. (2001). Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. London: Routledge. Nabokov, V. (1964). Translators Introduction. New York: Bollingen Foundation. Newmark, P. (1988). A Textook of Translation. London: Prentic Hall International Ltd. Newmark, P. (1992). Approaches to Translation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Newmark, P. (1995). Approaches to Translation. London: Phoenix ELT. Nida, E. A. (1964). Toward a Science of Translating with Special Reference to Principles
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and Procedures Involved in Bible Translating. Leiden: E.J. Brill. Nida, E. A. and Taber, C. R. (1982). The Theory and Practice of Translation. Leiden: E.J. Brill. Nida, E.A. (2001). Contexts in Translating. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Nopakun, M. (2006). An Analysis of the Translation of Balileos Daughter. A research paper for LA 900 submitted in portal fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Language and Communication, School of Language and Communication the National Iinstitute of Development Administration. Oxford Advance Lemers Dictionary (2000). International Students Edition (6th ed.). England: Oxford University Press. Parkinson, G. (1982). The Theory of Meaning. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Patcharee, P. (1999, December 7). Translate it. Bangkok Post, Classified. Patcharee, P. (2005). An Analysis of Linguistic, Functional, and Socio-cultural Characteristics of Loan Translation: A Case Study of English-Thai Translation. Paper Presented at the International Conference on Language, Communication, and Culture: Dialogues and Contexts in Focus. Patcharee Pokasamrit (2006) English to Thai Translation: Theory and Practice. The National Institute of Development Administration Samovar, L.A., Porter, R.E. & Stefani, L.A. 1998. Communication Between Cultures. Belmont: Wadworth. Savory, T. H. (1968). The Art of Translation. London: Cape. Singleton, D. (2000). Language and the Lexicon. New York: Oxford University Press. So Sethaputra (2546). New Model English-Thai Dictionary. Thai Wattanapanich Co. Ltd. Bangkok. Spolsky, B. (1998). Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Trappe, T., and Tullis, G. (2005). Intelligent Business. Essex: Pearson education Limited. Thriveni, C. (2002). Cultural Elements in Translation. Translation Journal, V.6, No.1 January 2002. Retrieved January 08, 2009 from http://accurapid.com/journal/19culture.htm Twain, M. (1869). Retrieved January 19, 2009 from www.questia.com/literature Tytler, A. F. (1907). Essay on the Principles of Translation. London: Dent. Widdowson, H. (1979). Explorations in Applied Linguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Wills, W. (1982). The Science of Translation. Stuttgart: Gunter Narr Verlag Tubingen.
ICLC 2010 Proceedings Students' Perceptions of Engaging a Virtual World in a Communication Task
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Thanaporn Srisunakrua E-mail: thanaporn.sri@kmutt.ac.th Punjaporn Pojanapunya E-mail: punjaporn.poj@kmutt.ac.th King Mongkuts University of Technology Thonburi
ABSTRACT Several EFL students have a huge problem in improving their speaking skills and do not really succeed in their oral communication skill practice because they may lack opportunities to be exposed to English-speaking contexts. It is quite difficult to gain more practice and learn how to use the spoken language with native speakers of English, when you live in non-English speaking countries, without spending much effort on it such as enrolling in a summer course overseas. To compensate for this shortcoming, many EFL educators invite their students to participate in virtual worlds like Second Life. In this study, Second Life (SL), was introduced to 40 undergraduate students who were studying in an Oral Communication course as a practice environment in communication training before engaging in actual speaking with native speakers of English for an interview task. The questionnaires were used to survey students perceptions of engaging SL in the interview task in terms of how they perceived SL as a learning environment for the communication task and how communication tasks in SL facilitated the communication tasks in real life as a practice stage. From the findings, it might be too far-fetched to claim that the students prefer or reject SL or that SL can be appropriate used as a practice space before performing the communication task in real situations. However, the findings provide teachers information on students feedback and perceptions about SL as learning and practicing environments for many aspects in terms of overall attitudes, language practice, and self-confidence in using English. Guidelines and suggestions for teachers to integrate SL as part of communication activities and to prepare students for tasks to make SL most useful in classroom contexts based on the students views are discussed. Second Life and its role in language learning Due to the advance of technology in an information age, the largest virtual world Second Life (SL) developed by Linden Lab in 2003 was launched with more than 13 million users and tens of millions of square meters of virtual land (EDUCAUSE Learning initiative, 2008). Nowadays, increasing numbers of people from various fields pay great attention to this virtual technology since its high accessibility on the Internet. Users of Second Life are called residents. They explore, socialize, participate in individual and group activities, do business with either virtual or real world property, or travel throughout the virtual world through their avatars. Each individual avatar is operated by each individual in the real world; therefore, having social activities virtually is also compatible with having interactions with real people, not the computer programme. Second Life has also been used for various purposes i.e. being rooms for business conducts to platforms for educational purposes.
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The SL website (www.secondlife.com) also contributes to education. Nowadays, large numbers of educational institutions including individual faculty have established a presence and begun teaching distance courses in SL. As another mode of communication and learning, SL is now a platform to support and facilitate distance learning, collaborative learning, and computer assisted learning, etc. (Hargis, 2008; Burgess, Slate, Rojas-LeBouef & LaPrairie, 2010). Many educators perceived the virtual community of SL as a great source for language learning and practicing for advancing language skills, especially in an EFL context where the lack of language exposure seems to be a critical issue in language learning. Cheong (2010) presents the effects of using SL as the room for practicing teaching sessions before undertaking teaching practicums in the real world in order to see changes in pre-service teachers teaching efficacy. In the study, both students and teachers create their own avatars and form their virtual classroom where all avatars can interact and practice their teaching. It is found that practice sessions in SL do have some effects on each individual pre-service teacher. Additionally, it is suggested that SL provides the chance for this practice session to be performed repeatedly and it is a lot easier than conducting pre-teaching in a real classroom. Jarmon, Traphagan, Mayrath & Trivedi (2009) also viewed SL as a valuable source for project-based experiential learning of interdisciplinary communication. Their study demonstrates that students value SL as their independent source for learning and working, and they are more motivated especially when there is a perceived link between SL and the real world. Second Life and communicative language learning It is undeniable to say that people today want to search for tools that can improve their English proficiency and also make sure that their children have been given great access to achieve a good command of English, especially for communicative skills. Therefore, numerous channels for English language exposure together with the implementation of communicative training have been critically chosen and tuned to integrate in language learning and suit current learners. Based on Richard (2004), the assumptions of communicative language teaching are mainly focused on the engagement of learners with interactive and meaningful communication activities which provide chances for learners to negotiate meaning, expand their knowledge, and learn how to use language in meaningful communications. In order to have meaningful communication, assignments should have relevant, purposeful, interesting, and engaging content as well as have opportunities to use several language skills and modalities which are the parts of effective communication. Moreover, class activities or assignments should involve inductive or discovery learning as well as language analysis and reflection in order to facilitate language learning. This is a process that includes the creative use of language together with learning via trial and error with the aim of using language accurately and fluently. Collaborative learning should also be implemented in a language classroom as well as provide chances for learners to be independent and allow for their personal needs, pace of learning and motivation. Therefore, teachers roles in communicative language teaching should be to facilitate and provide opportunities for students to use, practice, and reflect on language use and language learning. According to the above assumptions, SL is likely to fulfill many aspects of effective communicative learning in class since SL is the centre where millions of language users, both native and non-native speakers of English, are involved together in various activities. This is
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the place where they meet, interact, and even speak virtually to each other via their avatars that are originated and controlled by real people in the real world. The website of SL states that eighteen million people from over 150 countries have registered in SL and this virtual community has already been chosen by various real organizations from both public and private sectors. There are over 700 learning organizations from around the world, including Harvard University and the University of Texas, that have integrated virtual learning into their curricula (www.secondlife.com). Second Life as a channel for communicative practice According to the nature of this virtual community that provides the chance to have synchronous experiences among avatars, SL can be perceived as a valuable source for communicative practice. Richard (2004) proposed that to enhance communication, learners should be able to negotiate meaning, learn how language is used, and involve in meaningful interaction. These characteristics of communicative activities can easily be found in SL which allows learners to interact via their avatars in comfortable, facilitating educational activities in 3D spaces where they will have more exposure to other language users. All interactions in SL are conducted in English. The interaction in SL is also perceived to be real because it originates from real people in the real world, not from a computer program. Learners will have the chance to chat, meet, and involve themselves in various activities related to their interests. Since all interactions in SL originate from people in the real world, language used in SL and how it is used by students have a great potential to be similar to what has been done in face to face communication. The use of language together with all aspects of proper interaction is taken into account. Resulting from being a valuable platform for communicative practice, more exposure to English language might benefit learners in terms of enhancing their confidence in using English. In SL, voice and text chatting provides a chance for students to use authentic language to interact with other non-native language users as well as with native speakers of the target language in all simulated areas in SL (Linden Research Inc., 2009). Chittaro & Ranon (2007) mentioned that the social interaction and learning community in SL is a place that offers the opportunity to simulate the real world where people can actively interact with others, and it is very useful for understanding the concept of assignments, e.g. communication tasks before exposure to real situations. Jarmon, et al. (2009) also state that SL, well-planned and integrated into core course content, can be used for experiential learning of interdisciplinary communication. With all these potential aspects as an educational tool, SL must be taken into consideration when attempts to fulfill the needs of language exposure, confidence enhancement, and communicative practice are made. Purpose of the study The aim of this study is to learn about students perceptions of engaging in a virtual activity and how they perceived the learning and practicing opportunities in this valuable channel. The research questions addressed in this paper are: 1) how do students perceive SL as a learning environment for interview tasks? 2) how do they perceive SL as a practice space for interview tasks in real life situations? Research methodology This study was conducted with students who enrolled in Oral Communication course in one university in Thailand. The objective of this course is to enhance basic communication skills via the task-based learning method.
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Foreigner Interview Task A foreigner interview is the final task of the Oral Communication course which is designed based on the assumption of providing opportunities for students to apply into practice concepts of general conversational skills learned in class. Through this task, students will have more impression from being capable of communicating with users of English, gaining more confidence and experience in using English in real situations, and lastly having more practice sessions in a real context. Initially, the teachers explain how to complete this task. Then, students are required to work with a partner to plan their foreigner interview with the teachers support, and finally, the students conduct an interview with native speakers of English in real situations. Task design for this study In this study, an interview practicing stage in SL supplemented the regular foreigner interview task. Before interviewing foreigners, the students had to practice their interview with avatars in SL. In this stage, they were required to save their interview scripts and submit them to the teacher as a part of the assignment. Participants Forty students participated in this study. In this group, 85% of the students had known about SL and had experiences of using it. Some students (13%) claimed that they had known SL, but had never accessed this source. Only 2% reported that they had known SL, but had stopped accessing SL for a long time. Instruments Two sets of questionnaires were used to collect data for this study. They were written in Thai. Each set of the questionnaires was divided into two parts. The first part aimed at getting personal information of the participants. The second part asked participants about their perceptions of experiences on the interview tasks either in SL or the real world. The first set of questions aimed at getting information about the students perceptions of SL as a learning space focusing on the question: How do students perceive SL as a learning environment for the interview task? All students were required to answer the questionnaire after they finished the interview practice session in SL. The second questionnaire was used to address the second research question: How do students perceive SL as a practice space for the interview task in a real life situation? It was administered to all students after they had conducted their actual interview in the real context. The students were allowed to complete the questionnaires in Thai. They were required to submit the completed questionnaires with their course assignment; consequently, the return rate of the questionnaires was 100%. Procedures First, a teacher gave a handout, Introduction to Second Life, to establish background knowledge of SL as well as how to operate SL step by step, e.g. to register, login, access, and explore this virtual community. Outside the class, students explored the various communities to establish familiarity with SL. After that, the teacher introduced the working steps of the interview task. Students, in pairs, planned their interview rehearsal step by step before they tried it in SL, and answered a questionnaire (set 1). In this stage, they were required to create the interview session with other avatars in SL and save their interview scripts. Finally, they performed the foreigner interview task in a real situation and answered another set of the questionnaire.
ICLC 2010 Proceedings A summary of the task design including regular class activity and supplementary activity in SL is presented in Table 1. Table 1: Task design Learning space Classroom Outside class Classroom Classroom Avatar interview task (SL) Procedures The teacher gave the Introduction to Second life handout. Students spent their free time registering, logging in, and exploring islands in SL. The teacher introduced a Foreigner Interview Task. Students planned their interview with the teachers guidance. Students rehearsed their interview in SL. Students answered a questionnaire (Set 1): Perceptions of SL as a learning environment for communication tasks Foreigner interview task (Real world) Students performed the Foreigner Interview Task in the real world. Students answered the questionnaire (Set 2): Perceptions of SL as a practicing space for communication tasks in real life Data analysis
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All responses to the open-ended questionnaires were written in Thai. They were analyzed and categorized by the two researchers into three themes: overall attitudes toward SL, perceptions in terms of language practice, and self-confidence. The data gained was also analysed quantitatively for frequency count and percentages. The excerpts about students perceptions reported in the findings section were translated from Thai to English by the researchers. Findings Perceptions of SL as a learning environment for communication tasks Overall attitudes According to the students experience, over half of them had positive attitudes towards SL as a learning area for the communication task. Their expressions, such as new experience, fun, exciting, good environment for English practice, many people from all over the world so that they have different culture and ways of thinking, and relax, present their impressions on SL. They had good impressions of the cooperation and friendliness of
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avatars. They were also excited about the variety of activities in SL, beautiful and interesting islands, and ways to behave and to dress more freely than in real life. More importantly, while they talked to avatars, they felt like they talked to real people. For language learning, particularly communicative skills, 35 out of 40 students agreed that SL can be appropriate in communication tasks through having conversations and interactions with avatars. In doing that, they were more fluent in thinking and communicating in English. Its fun. I feel like I talk to people in real situations. I can practice English in SL and it is the way of practice I have wanted to experience. (S23) However, some negative feedback was also given. The major problem was to have avatars for an interview. The students reflected that most avatars were available for an informal talk rather than for the interview. Furthermore, some avatars did not pay attention to the interview questions and sometimes gave impolite answers. The students suggested that users of SL should be aware of whom to talk to and what to talk about. Technical problems were also common problems of using SL, for example, SL requires high hardware specifications and high-speed Internet. Especially, ways to operate SL also caused difficulties for new users. For language learning, the students suggested that they should realize that many SL members are not native speakers of English although they used English. Therefore, English use on SL may differ from what they have learned in class, and English used in SL is for communication purposes rather than being an opportunity for using correct forms of English. Generally, students found it possible to do communication tasks on SL. However, the task should be informal talk and chatting rather than an interview. In doing the interview task in SL, more than half of the students pointed out that they had problems about vocabulary, grammar, complex sentences, slang, and abbreviations, which have an effect on the flow of conversations. Moreover, sometimes they felt uncomfortable about communicating when others used many SL-specific terms. In short, communication tasks on SL should be simple and have few or no conditions to limit students activities. Teachers should prepare some language points as suggested by students responses. More importantly, inappropriate activities or impolite language might be present in some SL islands. Teachers should survey places on SL, and provide choices of place to visit or pathways for students in order to protect students from inappropriate activities on SL. Language practice In terms of language practice, the students were asked to report their interview plan, the perceived success as interviewers, comprehension, problems in communication, and communicative strategies they used while talking to the avatars. There were 28 out of 40 students who reported that they planned interview questions before they interviewed avatars, however, the questions were rarely used because, in general, most conversations were about SL contexts. This implies that knowledge about SL, for example, where to go, how to teleport, how to find avatars, how to dance, or other SL culture and preferred behaviors, was useful for students in order to be accepted as members of the SL
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community. As interviewers, approximately half of the students were moderately satisfied by their performance. They gave reasons that they were able to communicate to others, their language was understandable, and they could make friends using English as the common international language. While having conversations with avatars, more than 30 students pointed out that they were able to understand the conversations. The findings also indicated that students used numbers of communicative strategies to keep conversations going, e.g. asking for clarification, explanation or repetition from the speakers, using an online dictionary or Google translation, guessing meaning of words, asking for help from friends in the computer room, and changing topics. Confidence The students were asked to give their opinions on SL as a learning space whether it encouraged them to communicate confidently in English. The students reported having different levels of self-confidence before using SL. While almost half of the students reflected that they had a certain level of self-confidence, a few students had high, low and no confidence at all at an equal number (20%). Many students reflected that they had more confidence after having a conversation with the first avatar. It can be interpreted that the impressions of the first conversation, either positive or negative, had an effect on their confidence to communicate with subsequent avatars. Perceptions of SL as a practicing space for communication tasks in real life Overall attitudes As a practice space, over half of the students argued that SL has limited benefits in terms of facilitating an interview in real life. The main reason was that the contexts and situations in SL and real life are so different. However, some students thought that SL facilitated to some extent the interview in real life. They argued that the two media were similar in giving them an opportunity to communicate with foreigners. Additionally, some students believed that the conversations with avatars in SL helped them learn about characteristics and cultures of foreigners so that those experiences guided them on how to appropriately communicate in real life. For communicative skills practice, over half of them believed that SL helped them learn new vocabulary, set proper questions, form English sentences, and gain more experience in using the target language for communication. I practice communicative skills a lot by talking to the avatars because I can talk to many avatars and so this is good experience which I can apply to the interview in real situations. (S24) After the practice stage in SL, the students also realized their weaknesses. They realized that they should have practiced and prepared more on vocabulary and ways to ask questions politely. These views motivated them to have more preparation. My performance in SL was not really good because I had little practice and preparation for the first interview in SL. So, I need to put more effort, I will try harder and to be well-prepared to achieve the next task with the foreigners. (S7) There were 19 out of 28 students who found that the avatar interview was too far removed to relate to the foreigner interview task in the real-life situation. However, they indicated that, in
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some ways, their experiences in SL facilitated them to think in English, form English sentences, increase confidence, and trial their interview questions. Language practice Students who found the avatar interview task helpful in preparing for the foreigner interview task pointed out that they figured out words easily, formed sentences and questions quicker, and sequenced the interview questions better. They could also adjust the language in the questions and the numbers of questions for the foreigner interview by observing avatars reactions to their questions in SL. Even though experience in SL seemed to be helpful, 22 out of 28 students stated that they still had difficult situations, especially when tourists asked them about transportation, directions, tourist attractions, restaurants, and Thai culture, for which they had never prepared answers. Many times, students did not understand conversations because of the lack of listening skills including the accent and speed of the speakers. These situations commonly happened in real situations, but differed from SL where avatars focused on the SL context and used text chat more than voice chat. Therefore, teachers should have students realize what they need to additionally prepare for real life interviews. However, conversation practice in Second Life, where information and prior knowledge of vocabulary encountered in interview conversations were gained, aided students in English comprehension in many ways during subsequent real-life conversations with tourists. Sometimes I found the tourists used the difficult words. Luckily, I have learned them in SL. (S24) In real life, they also applied the communicative strategies which have been used in SL. I do not understand what the avatar is talking about. I type the question like I dont understand. Could you please give me more explanation? So, I can use the same sentence when I do not understand the tourists answers or even questions. (S25) As a whole, most students perceived themselves successful in the foreigner interview task. More than half of the students pointed out that experience in SL helped them get familiar with the interview questions, practice using the questions, and learn new vocabulary used by avatars, and so they were able to bring this experience to real life. Moreover, their SL experience supported their positive feeling towards the interview task in terms of having conversations with unknown persons and enhancing self-confidence. Confidence Students had a certain level of confidence for doing an interview task either in SL or real life. However, almost half of the students claimed that SL enhanced their confidence for the tourist interview about how to approach tourists and introduce themselves, which were perceived most difficult by many students. Furthermore, practice sessions in SL raised their confidence in the foreigner interview as a second task. In the interview, the students main concern was their language performance. They were neither confident that they could understand the tourists nor give understandable explanations. However, it is not certain that experience in SL decreased these concerns. Many students pointed out that the modes of communication in avatar conversations and the foreigner interview task were different
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typing texts and speaking. Nevertheless, experience in SL could decrease their anxieties in terms of being prepared for difficult interview situations and problem-solving skills. Discussion and implications The results show positive feelings about SL as a learning environment for a communication task, however, it is unclear whether the experience in SL facilitated students in applying the skills they learned to the same task in the real world. Based on the findings, students were likely to have positive attitudes towards SL as a learning environment for communicative tasks. The findings tend to support Richards (2004) assumptions that successful communicative language learning provides students opportunities for using English for communication, using different communicative strategies, and increasing their confidence. In using English for communication, SL tended to help students learn new vocabulary, think in English, and form English sentences and questions for interviews. Based on Richard (2004), an appropriate use of learning and communication strategies facilitates success in communicative language learning. The findings suggest that students used numbers of communicative strategies in SL. Surprisingly, asking for clarification was reported as the most frequently used strategy. It is therefore likely that SL is useful as a learning environment for communication tasks. However, to implement SL in communication classrooms more successfully, teachers should enable students to link SL and real life learning experiences. In this case, teachers could possibly have students observe and compare what they have learned in SL and real life. As a practicing area, although previous studies (Cheong, 2010; Jarmon et al., 2009) found that SL had benefits in practice stage for communicative learning which were likely to be transferable to real life, the findings of this study indicate that, based on students opinions, experience in an avatar interview had very limited benefits for the foreigner interview task in real life. This contradiction may be explained by the fact that the previous studies were: 1) conducted in a specific and well-structured environment SL classrooms, 2) all participants were students who enrolled in the same course, and 3) the classes were organized at specific times and set out for clear purposes. Comparing the interview task in the current study, the students were required to interview avatars in SL with no conditions of time and place. The wider contexts affected the topics of conversations which were very general and different from what the students did in the real world. The above findings suggest two choices for teachers. Firstly, when the places to visit in SL are not specified by teachers, the instructions for the task to be assigned should be open and flexible. Secondly, when the instructions are detail-structured like the interview task in this study the islands, especially ones that are specifically established for language learning purposes, should be specified by teachers. Therefore, teachers should also survey and provide choices of islands for students. Conclusion To engage Second Life (SL) in the communication task in this study, students gave different opinions on SL from both positive and negative perspectives. For one view, SL as a learning environment, students were exposed to and had interviews with avatars of unknown people from around the world. Students had opportunities to meet and communicate with others by using English as an international language. However, the interview task was not well applicable to SL. Since most avatars have special interests in SL contexts, few of them are available to be interviewed. Rather, they were comfortable in having short conversations about SL life.
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Therefore, tasks to be assigned for students should be simple and flexible. For another view, SL as a practicing space for communication tasks in real life, many students found that experiences in SL had limited connection to or did not facilitate the real life interview task since the contexts were so different. However, experience in SL facilitated the interview task in real life to some extent; for example, students practiced thinking in English, forming English sentences, and using different communicative strategies, and gained increased confidence. It also helped students realize some weaknesses and to be more careful of question types to use. As a whole, it cannot be claimed that they prefer or reject SL as a learning environment or that SL can be appropriate used as a practice space before doing communication tasks in real situations. However, the findings provide that students experiences indicate SL can be both learning and practicing environments for communication tasks. For teachers, this study might be useful in providing students feedback and perceptions about SL, and what teachers should be aware of when integrating SL to in classroom learning or courses. Also, it can be used as a guideline for teachers to design learning tasks and to prepare students for these tasks, and make SL most beneficial in classroom contexts. The authors: Thanaporn Srisunakrua is a lecturer in the School of Liberal Arts at King Mongkuts University of Technology Thonburi (KMUTT). Her interests are language learning technology, independent learning, and reading strategies. E-mail: thanaporn.sri@kmutt.ac.th Punjaporn Pojanapunya is a researcher in the School of Liberal Arts, KMUTT. Her research interests include language learning technology, psychology in language learning, discourse analysis. Email address: punjaporn.poj@kmutt.ac.th References Burgess, L.M., Slate, R.L., Rojas-LeBouef, A. & LaPrairie, K. (2010). Teaching and learning in Second Life: Using the community of inquiry (CoI) model to support online instruction with graduate students in instructional technology. Internet and Higher Education, 13(1-2), 84-88. doi: 10.1016/j.iheduc.2009.12.003 Cheong, D. (2010). The effects of practice teaching sessions in Second Life on the change in pre-service teachers teaching efficacy. Computers & Education, 55(2), 868-880. doi: 10.1016/j.compedu.2010.03.018 Chittaro L., Ranon R. (2007). Web3D technologies in learning, education and training. Computers & Education, 49(1), 1-2. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2005.06.001 EDUCAUSE Learning initiative, (2008). 7 Things You Should Know about Second Life. Retrieved from http://net.educause.edu/ir/library/pdf/ELI7038.pdf [Accessed 2 April 2010]. Hargis, J. (2008). A Second Life for distance learning. Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education, 9(2). Retrieved from http://tojde.anadolu.edu.tr/tojde30/index.htm [Accessed 15 June 2010] Jarmon, L., Traphagan, T., Mayrath, M., & Trivedi, A. (2009). Virtual world teaching, experiential learning, and assessment: An interdisciplinary communication course in Second Life. Computers & Education, 53(1), 169-182. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2009.01.010 Richard, J. C., (2004), Communicative language teaching today. Guidelines, 26(2), 3-10. Linden Research Inc. (2009). Why Teach in Second Life?. Retrieved from http://education.secondlife.com/whysl/ [Accessed 11 June 2010]
ICLC 2010 Proceedings College Students Perceptions of English as a Medium of Instruction
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Chadarat Hengsadeekul1,a. Ravinder Koul2. Sittichai Kaewkuekool3

1
Ph.D.Candidate, Learning Innovation in Technology

1,3
Faculty of Industrial Education and Technology
1,3
King Mongkuts University of Technology Thonburi, Thailand

2
Pennsylvania State University, USA.

a
hchadarat@gmail.com
ABSTRACT With the emergence of English as the predominant medium of international business and academic discourse, Thailand have placed importance on using English-medium instruction with the aim to enable students to communicate and work effectively in English. English as a medium of instruction, therefore, is perceived to be the key to socio-economic advancement. Since 1997, the number of higher education institutions with English-medium instruction has continued to increase. However, the English-medium curriculum design mostly takes place among language planners, politicians and researchers: students who actually will make decisions concerning instructional medium for their graduate studies are often excluded. The curriculum design has generally failed to use the perceptions and experiences of students. Students enrolled in different courses of study with different requirements are likely to have different orientation toward their preference for first language or second language as a medium of instruction. This study addresses about the English as medium of instruction from students points of view and explores reasons behind students perceptions concerning the language of instruction. Based on the quantitative survey research, it determines the prevalence of common beliefs about the pros and cons of Thai and English as a medium of instruction among college students, some of whom may pursue graduate studies in the near future. Our aim is to sensitize educators, researchers and policy makers to the variety of beliefs students hold on the pros and cons of Thai and English as a medium of instruction. Our investigation focused on student rationales for the adoption of Thai or English language as a medium of instruction at a Thai university. Keywords: Medium of instruction, curricular innovation, language and communication 1. Introduction In the world of globalization era, English has increasingly become the medium in every domain of communication. Hence, higher education worldwide has contributed to the crucial role of English in order to meet the growing local, national and international demands for English skills (e.g., Khamkhien, 2010; Mackenzie, 2002; Vadhanasindhu, 2002; Foley, 2005; Prapphal, 2004; Chalapati, 2007; Evans, 2002). A number of efforts have been made to the Thai educational system to improve Thai learners English performance; which was reported in past survey the unsatisfactory English proficiency and lower in comparison with other developing countries e.g. Malaysia, Singapore and Philippines (Khamkhien, 2010; Wiriyachitra, 2001; Prapphal, 2004). Therefore, to maintain Thailand on the international
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competitiveness and the need to internationalize educational system for an increasingly intercultural global era, a great change in the English syllabus was introduced since 1996 with the emphasis on learner-center and focus on raising the level of students foreign language skills for social and business situations as conforming with the ultimate aim of the Ministry of Education that all university classes in all subjects be conducted in English or adopt English-medium instruction (EMI). Given the greater options of English-medium instruction programs in Thailand, this study was extended to encompass students perceptions concerning English-medium instruction which is the important aspect of ongoing changes in Thai higher education. The purpose of this study was (1) to indentify students self-perceived level of English proficiency and degree of social support for learning English which may influence the choice of language as medium of instruction (MOI); (2) to describe students rationales for the adoption of Thai and English language as MOI in a Thai university; and (3) to identify the influence of gender on students preferences for Thai and English language as MOI. Respondents included 470 college students in Bangkok, Thailand. Survey information included respondents opinions on (1) English proficiency; (2) level of social support; and (3) students choice of language as MOI and the rationales for adoption of Thai or English as MOI. Results indicated that English is perceived as highly important by students for their academic studies and future work. It also showed that females had greater preference for English as a medium of instruction with the higher language proficiency. 2. Students Perception of English as a Medium of Instruction Perception is the process of attaining awareness or understanding of sensory information. It is concerned with how events are observed and interpreted. What one perceives is a result of interplays between past experiences and the interpretation of the perceived. The developing of persons perception will effect to the performing of a person. Towards English language, some Thai students positively perceive English as a language of superiority, power, wealth increase, social prestige and success. EMI places an advantage over peers educated solely in Thai; supports students employment prospects; and enhances English communication skills. Positive perceptions of English in Thailand are largely fostered by academics and business leaders to maintain its position as a center for academic advancement and international trade (Chalapati, 2007). On the other hand, some who may not want to be embarrassed perceive English negatively in real life as incompatibility and difficulty in learning. English makes too much burden when attempting to comprehend their English lessons; English makes them feel uncomfortable interacting with a foreign teacher; and EMI is not so important for them (Mackenzie, 2002). In Thailand, many studies on English language have been done and illustrated that, the use and importance of English is overwhelmingly increasing. As long as the preeminent of English language remains significant, we must gain an improved understanding of how EMI can be best implemented and applied most effectively (Klaassen & Graaff, 2001). Successful implementation of English-medium innovation relies heavily on the perceptions of those involved in the innovation process. Students perceptions are considered essential because their perceptions can influence and learning behaviors and achievement; and affect increasing interest of English-medium learning. Discovering students perceptions will help both teachers and students in the teaching-learning process.
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Various researchers have shown that English learning requires a significant amount of motivational strategies (Klaassen & Graaff, 2001; Gao, 2008; Tsuda, 2003). Student motivation is one of the key factors affecting student performance and learning. Among the most important factors that influence students motivation are students interest and perceived relevance and benefits of the language. If they perceive some benefits to their learning, they will likely be more motivated to perform well, to work hard on chosen tasks that enhance their learning and attain their goals. In addition, motivation can be increased if students compentence and social support are found. The factor of teachers attitude, teacher-students interactions, parents encouragement, and peer support are the potential sources of students foreign language motivation. Goal orientation is seen as an aspect of an individual's motivation. Goal orientation of students describes the goals that they choose and the methods used to pursue those goals. According to goal theory there are two dominant achievement related goals for learning: mastery and performance goals (Koul et al, 2009). Students who hold mastery goals demonstrate a focus on learning and understanding. On the other hand, students who hold performance goals demonstrate a focus on ability or competence. Within these two goal orientations, students may seek different methods for goal attainment. Mastery-oriented students seek challenging tasks that they could learn and that their intelligence could be improved through effort (Dweck & Leggett, 1988). Conversely, if students believed that intelligence was fixed and not subject to change, they tended to be performance oriented, choosing tasks where they could demonstrate their abilities (Dweck & Leggett, 1988). 3. Methodology Subjects The subjects were 470 undergraduate students from two Thai public universities including three different subject areas business administration (163 or 34.7%), computer & Information Technology (158 or 33.6%) and education (149 = 31.7%). The proportion of male and female students were 199 males (42.3%) and 271 females (57.7%). The students in these three programs which are conducted in Thai solely reported only 17.4% out of total taking extra English course outside the program; of which 7% were male and 10.4% were female. Instrument Questionnaire was developed for the survey consisting of demographic information and two major sections; the first section based on survey instruments by Koul (2009) and the second section based on prior interviews with postgraduate students about rationales for the adoption of Thai and English as MOI. The first section measured self-determined English proficiency (a1a6), and level of social support for learning English (b1b6). The second section expressed students opinion on the pros and cons of Thai and English as MOI. Analysis The data were computer-analyzed using an SPSS program. Student responses were divided into two groups based on gender differences; and preferred choice of language as MOI. On the questionnaire, descriptive analysis, percentages and compared means were computed.
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4. Results English language proficiency Questions a1a6 looked at students self-rated English proficiency. It found that a significant majority could say the days of the week in English (98.1%), following with introduce myself in social situations in English (95.3%), give the current date (month, day, year) in English (89.8%), order a simple meal in a restaurant in English (71.7%), talk about myself at some length in English (66.8%), and buy clothes in a department store in English (54.9%). Concerning the gender, more females (80.5%) than males (77.9%) reported they were capable in English. Regarding student MOI choice group, students with English-medium instruction (EMI) choice (82.8%) reported they were more capable in English than those with Thai-medium instruction (TMI) choice (75.3%). However, nearly half of samples could not buy clothes in a department store in English. Social support Questions b1b6 on self-perceived level of social support for learning English indicated that the significant number of 85.7% perceived social support influences English learning. Majority of students (95.7%) reported teachers had the highest support; following with the support from mother, father, favorite brother/sister, other friends, and close friends at 92.1%, 90.2%, 83.6%, 77.4% and 75.7%, respectively. Degree of social support was higher perceived in female (89.1%) than in male (81.4%); similarly higher in students with EMI choice (89.1%) than those with TMI choice (84.4%). The least-perceived degree of social support was from close friends. Student choice of language as a medium of instruction To this section, which asked for the appropriate MOI in students opinion, it found that 58.33% of males preferred Thai-medium instruction (TMI) and 41.67% preferred English-medium instruction (EMI). In contrary, 55.16% of females preferred EMI and 44.84% preferred TMI. Rationales for the adoption of Thai and English as a medium of instruction Questions in this section (T1-T18, E1-E18) elicited students opinions on the pros and cons of Thai and English language as MOI for masters or doctoral program in a Thai university. T1-T18 were the rationales for the adoption TMI while E1-E18 for EMI. We used a 5-point scale from very important (5) to not important (1) indicating the importance degree of each rationale; so that the higher the mean, the more important the rationale.
Table 1: x of importance degree on rationales for adoption Thai-medium instruction Total Thai language should be the medium of instruction T1 T9 T2 T13 T4 because my Thai teachers can advise me better in my native language because I will feel confident when I learn in Thai because Thai teachers can understand me better because I want to pursue my studies in a language that is the most meaningful to me because international degree programs with English as medium of instruction are very expensive N=470 4.11 4.08 4.07 4.01 4.00 Gender Difference Student choice of MOI
Male Female TMI EMI 4.22 4.07 4.12 4.01 3.95 4.03 4.08 4.03 4.02 4.03 4.41 3.84 4.27 3.90 4.29 3.86 4.19 3.86 4.06 3.93
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As displayed in Table 1, the highest degree of importance on the rationales for adoption TMI were T1, T9, and T2 at 4.11, 4.08, and 4.07, respectively. In regard to gender difference, male reported T1 the highest degree of importance outstandingly; whereas the important rationales in females opinion fell into many equally. Concerning student choice of MOI, students with TMI choice reported T1 as significantly important rationales at 4.41; differently, students with EMI choice showed the degree of each rationale for adopting TMI below the level of important (4).
Table 2: x of importance degree on rationales for adoption English-medium instruction Total English language should be the medium of instruction E9 E17 E6 E8 E18 because I want to improve my English language skills because proficiency in English will improve my career and employment opportunities because I will be more qualified for my profession if I complete my studies in English because I can collaborate with people in other countries because knowledge of English will improve my status and image N=470 4.03 4.02 3.87 3.84 3.84 Gender Difference Student choice for MOI 3.89 3.83 3.75 3.72 3.73 4.17 4.18 4.03 3.98 3.95
Male Female TMI EMI 3.92 3.86 3.78 3.80 3.78 4.11 4.14 3.94 3.86 3.88
As displayed in Table 2, the highest degree of importance on the rationales for adoption of EMI were E9, E17 and E6 at 4.03, 4.02, and 3.87, respectively. Both males and students with TMI choice reported importance degree of each rationale for adopting EMI below the level of important (4). Female and students with EMI choice reported that the rationales on E17 (employment opportunity) and E9 (English skill) were important significantly. 5. Discussion & Conclusion English Proficiency and Social Support for Learning English Females and students with EMI choice indicated higher level of English proficiency and social support for learning English. The finding was consistent with previous studies that females have a more positive orientation towards learning a second language, higher level of English proficiency, higher degree of teacher and parental support, and higher interest. Furthermore, researchers discovered that female students especially present higher motivation and more favorable attitudes toward learning foreign languages (Koul et al, 2009). Concerning social support for learning English, teachers were perceived to be most influence, following with parental encouragement. Friends had not much attribute for learning English. Medium of Instruction and Rationales for the adoption The language choice as MOI was categorized into two separated interest as Thai-medium instruction (TMI) and English-medium instruction (EMI). The major rationales for adopting TMI were learning, understanding, confidence and meaningful of education while those of EMI were improving English skill, career opportunities, social status and personal image. The finding in this section may be best explained by Dweck & Leggett (1988) which describes the differences in students goal orientation in terms of mastery orientation and performance orientation. Mastery orientation is motivated by a desire to learn, to improve understanding, and to reach the meaningful knowledge; performance oriented students are
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motivated by the desire to be perceived as the best in the group, to avoid judgments of low ability, and for public recognition. The results in T1-T18 reflected that students with TMI choice are more likely to be mastery oriented with a focus on having knowledge and understanding while the results from E1-E18 reflected students with EMI choice are more likely to be performance oriented with a focus on an outperformance. However, TMI may be the choice because EMI programs are very expensive in students opinion. Students concern about economic situation & compatibility with their financial status. Besides, TMI could be the appropriate choice because students find it easier to use technical vocabulary in Thai. Complexity on how difficult/easy to understand/use by learners is also taken into account. Finding indicated that a desire for EMI choice was also for collaborating with other countries; and for improving status and image. The result can be explained by Gardners studies (2007). Gardner describes individual differences in motivation to learn a second language in terms of instrumentalist and integrative motivation. Instrumentalist reflects a desire to learn a second language for academic purposes, passing an exam, etc. Integrative motivated students reflect an interest in learning the second language in order to interact with others, enhance socialization with the presence of xenopholic and openness attitudes. In conclusion, the results showed between the two medium choices of instruction, they are perceived important with different rationales for adopting. Concerning gender difference, females were more preferable in EMI than males with higher ability of English and degree of social support. In students perception, they agreed that teachers had the most influence for learning English. Students with TMI choice were more likely to be mastery oriented for the purpose of understanding and having meaningful knowledge. On the other hand, students with EMI choice were more likely to be performance oriented for the purpose of future career and personal status. In order to create the awareness of the importance of EMI, it is necessary to offer the students a supportive environment for using English, where teachers who is the most influence can share a place to use English interactively with students for communication. With the pressures of current job market, students are mainly interested in career aspects. Hence, the most important rationale to adopt EMI is an expectation of improving the quality of their English communication which is increasingly demanded by all industries and business in Thailand at the moment; and which will result their careers opportunity and advancement; also imply the better image and status. Therefore, it needs to provide the appropriate experience in EMI, the right knowledge under supportive environment, and opportunity to practice; all which could enable students the positive perceptions of English language as a medium of instruction. References: Chalapati, S. (2007). The internationalisation of higher education in Thailand: case studies of two English-medium program business graduate programs. A doctoral thesis: RMIT University, Australia. Coll, R. K., Pinyonatthagarn, D., & Pramoolsook, I. (2003). The Internationalization of Cooperative Education: A Thailand Perspective. Asia-Pacific Journal of Cooperative Education, 4 (2), 1-6. Dweck, C.S., & Leggett, E.L. (1988). A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality. Psychological Review, 95, 256273. Evans, S. (2002). The medium of instruction in Hong Kong: policy and practice in the new English and Chinese streams. Research Papers in Education , 17 (1), 97-120.
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Foley, J. A. (2005). English In...Thailand. RELC Journal , 36 (2), 223-234. Gao, X. (2008). Shifting motivational discourses among mainland Chinese students in an English medium tertiary institution in Hong Kong: a longitudinal inquiry. Studies in Higher Education , 33 (5), 599-614. Gardner, R. (2007). Motivation and Second Language Acquisition1. Porta Linguarum, 9-20. Gerald, F. W. (2002). The Evolution of Educational Reform in Thailand. The Second International Forum, on Education Reform: Key Factors in Effective Implementation. Bangkok, Thailand: The Office of the National Education Commission. Khamkhien, A. (2010). Teaching English Speaking and English Speaking Tests in the Thai Context: A Reflection from Thai Perspective. English Language Teaching , 31, 184190. Klaassen, R., & Graaff, E. (2001). Facing innovation: preparing lecturers for English-medium instruction in a non-native context. European Journal of Engineering Education , 26 (3), 281-289. Koul, R., Laura, R., Kaewkuekool, S., & Ploisawaschai, S. (2009). Multiple goal orientations and foreign language anxiety. System, 37 (4), 676-688. Mackenzie, A. S. (2002). EFL curriculum reform in Thailand. The 1st Annual JALT Pan-SIG Conference (pp. 59-67). Kyoto, Japan: Kyoto Institute of Technology. Prapphal, K. (2004). A Reflection of English Teaching. Journal of Humanities , 1-5. Tsuda, S. (2003). Attitudes toward English Language Learning in Higher Education in Japan (2): Raising Awareness of the Notion of Global English. Intercultural Communication Studies, 12 (3), 61-75. Vadhanasindhu, C. (2002). Education Reform in the Era of Globalization: A Thai Case. Journal of Public and Private Management, 75-94. Wiriyachitra, A. (2001). A Thai university English scenario in the coming decade. TESOL, 14 (1), 4-7. Wongsothorn, A., Hiranburana, K., & Chinnawongs, S. (2002). English language teaching in Thailand today. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 22 (2), 107-116.
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ICLC 2010 Proceedings A Look at Changing Trends in Japanese Education: Teaching Licenses Peter Ferguson and Richard H. Derrah
ABSTRACT Schools in Japan have a tremendous amount of authority over students academic and personal development. For example, if a student is out late at night, or is caught smoking on the weekend, someone in the community will telephone the school and the teachers are required deal with the problem. In other words, teachers are expected to have an active role in the overall social development of their students. This is a very different idea of what it means to be a teacher compared to western countries. Therefore, in Japan, teacher qualifications and training are extensive and the profession commands respect from society. Nevertheless teachers are criticized, sometimes fairly, but most often unfairly, for various problems and shortcomings in education. Declining scores on national aptitude tests, lack of classroom control and the increase of the number of students tuning out are some examples of the problems in Japans schools that are blamed on teachers. Compounding the problems, the education system in Japan is currently under reform, creating an atmosphere of uncertainty with parents, students and teachers. However, despite all the challenges and hardships that teachers face, teaching remains popular and still attracts many young people to the profession. What does it mean to be a teacher in Japans schools? Not anyone can walk into a classroom and be permitted to teach. That person needs a teaching license, however, what governing body controls and regulates the licensing of teachers? A review of the literature on Japanese education reveals no recent research in teaching licenses and how they are obtained. There is some information on teacher development (Shimabara, 1991, 2002; Okano and Tsuchida, 1999; Azuma, 2002) but little discussion of the process and selection of teachers. Does the licensing process ensure high quality education, or is it in fact, a method of state control that values compliancy over creativity? This is a fundamental question that has not been adequately examined in recent years regarding Japans education. This paper will address these issues and demonstrate that further research needs to be done in this area for a better understanding of education in Japan. Therefore, this paper will examine three aspects of obtaining a teaching license and becoming a teacher in Japan. First it will look at the highly competitive hiring process, focusing on Kobe City as an example of the regulated system that is designed to hire only the best people. Next it will examine new teacher requirements of mandatory in-service training and question whether this program actually aids teachers or is a form of state control on teachers. Finally it will discuss the reforms to the National Course of Study along with the introduction of Special Licenses for people with specialized skills and what ramifications this may have for the future of teacher education. Becoming a teacher: University education and pre-service teacher training In the pre-war system, the education and training of teachers was heavily regulated and monitored by the Ministry of Education and the military through the establishment of normal schools for teachers. These schools ensured the indoctrination of teachers and selected only individuals that followed the governments policy. After WWII, teacher education shifted to the universities in order to be more democratic, transparent, and open to all individuals regardless of factors such as political affiliation. Consequently, all teachers in post-war Japan must have a university degree and receive basic training in education theory, pedagogy,
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curriculum studies and a major field of study of their choice, such as mathematics or English. Universities have standards on the number of classroom hours and in practical training, however, universities must meet Ministry of Education requirements established by the Ministry of Education in order to award teacher certification (Okuno and Tsuchiya, 1999). Once a student successfully completes their university education and receives their teaching credentials they can apply to the prefectural board of education to receive their teaching license. The prefectural board of education is the only body that can award a candidate a teaching license. There is an assumption that universities provide the license, however, this is inaccurate. Though the prefecture boards of education are autonomous, they are regulated by and follow the instructions of the Ministry of Education. If the prefectural boards of education are considered regional branches of the Ministry of Education, then the state is still directly controlling the licensing and hiring of teachers as in the pre-war era. Some researchers such as McVeigh argue the states control of education has diminished its effectiveness and created a system that is hollow at its core but protected by what he calls a myth (McVeigh 2002). That is an over-simplification of the issue. Nevertheless, more research is needed on the local educational authorities, such as the prefectural and city boards of education, to understand the regional situations facing policy makers, administration, teachers and students. Once the candidate has received their teaching license from the prefectural board of education, they must go through a lengthy and rigorous hiring process. To become a teacher in a Japanese public school, a person must apply to the local education authority, which does all the hiring of teachers. In small cities and towns, the process is performed by the prefectural board of education. In large urban centers with a population of 500,000 or more, the city board of education has the authority to do its own hiring. Kobe City in Hyogo Prefecture is such a city and examining the hiring process in this city provides insight to the demands and expectations placed on current teachers and people who want to be teachers. The following information is based on a special interview for this article with one of the authors and a senior member in the Personnel Section of the Kobe City Board of Education (S. Kageyama, personal communication, July 15, 2010). The Hiring Process By June of 2010, Kobe City Board of Education received just over 2800 applications for only 390 job openings. Positions were for teachers at kindergarten, elementary, junior high, senior high, schools for the blind and deaf, along with special staff such as school nurses and nutrition specialists who make the school lunches. The Personnel Section (kyoshokuinka) in the board of education performs the process of hiring teachers. This section has about twenty members who set dates, make tests and assess all applications for hiring. The board of education does not differentiate between prefectures in which the license was issued, or whether the applicant went to a private or public university or to one of the many national universities of education as long as the person has a valid teaching license and is under 49 years old. The hiring process is broken down into three phases and takes approximately three months from start to finish, beginning in July and concluding at the end of September. All individuals who are hired begin work the following April. The first phase consists of two tests, which are taken on the same day, and an interview. The first test is written in the morning and evaluates the candidates general knowledge about education. The second test is written in the afternoon and focuses on the subject area the candidate specialized in, such as history or science. On a separate day shortly
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after the written tests, a group interview is held with about 10-12 prospective teachers and 3 or 4 members of the board of education. Candidates discuss or debate several topics, such as their ideas regarding homework, class discipline, and bullying. This group discussion continues for about one hour and is designed so that candidates can express their opinions, demonstrate communication skills and their interests, rather than simply focusing on theory and detailed information. This first phase will halve the number of applications by eliminating those not deemed to be truly interested in education, or unprepared to become teachers. Prospective teachers that pass the first phase will continue to the second, a written essay on modern educational issues. The essay is read and assessed by the members of the personnel section in the board of education. The essays are graded on content and demonstration of knowledge, along with organization and presentation of ideas. Then a oneon-one interview is conducted, going into further detail about topics of education, at the same time finding out more about the individual, such as hobbies and interests outside the classroom. The interview is where the board of education filters the candidates to try and find people who they think can bring the most to the classroom. The final phase, a short demonstration of skills by each candidate, is only used if necessary. For example, if the board has two openings for music teachers, but have found three possible candidates, then the board will use this third and final phase to select the two top teachers. In this phase, prospective art teachers would be asked to draw a picture, or music teachers would be asked to perform a piece of music. After this the board of education will take everything into consideration and determine which candidates will be offered teaching positions. This short example from Kobe City shows the popularity of teaching even though the hiring process is extremely difficult and competitive. Due to economic factors, teachers salaries in recent years, like other civil servants, have been cut. Regardless, the number of applications was more than six times the number of available positions. The testing and interviews demonstrate the value and importance of the teaching profession. This is an insight into the extremely high expectations placed on teachers and reflects the high standards to which teachers are assessed in contemporary Japanese society. However, the hiring of teachers for the public schools is still regulated and completed by the government rather than an independent organization, or simply completed by the principals of the schools. With all the problems regarding education, this standardization of the hiring process does not appear to lead to better education. The Ministry of Education has been effective in recent years of eliminating teachers with radical views, such as protesting the display of the national flag at graduation ceremonies (Kimigayo, 2010). Though individuals are not directly screened for political views, it is unknown if the local education authorities take an active role in assessing a candidates compliancy level towards the Ministry or the board themselves. Demands on teachers: In-service teacher training Once a person has successfully completed the hiring process they still must have mandatory in-service training in the first few years. Again, this has been regulated by the Ministry of Education and can either be viewed as an attempt to assure quality of education, or further control of teachers. Kobe City policy is to follow the Ministry of Education standard for the first year of service. The Ministrys policy states all first year teachers, regardless of age, must attend at least ten hours of teacher training per week, with a minimum of three-hundred hours of in-school teacher training in the first year alone. Weekly in-school
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training sessions by veteran teachers in the school take three basic forms. A veteran teacher(s) will observe the new teachers class and give advice. The new teacher will also observe an experienced teachers class and discuss ideas and methods afterwards. Finally, general meetings are held to discuss issues beyond the classroom, such as counseling and how to talk with parents, and other non-classroom teaching functions. In addition, at least 25 days must be spent outside the school at workshops, which are provided by the local board of education and are usually held throughout the academic year but also during the summer break. After the first year, Kobe Citys Board of Education continues with a support service for all teachers over the following two years. This support first comes from within the school and takes many forms, such as experienced teachers mentoring novice teachers. School principals and head-teachers provide opportunities for new teachers to observe more classes, attend various workshops, and arrange meetings and discussions so new teachers can discuss the curriculum and any classroom problems. Many new teachers find the first few years to be the hardest and this support provided by schools under the direction of the board of education appears to work, since according the Kobe City Board of Education, very few teachers in Kobe City quit in the first few years. Though this policy of mandatory in-service teacher training is established to assist novice teachers, all have completed teacher education in university and passed the difficult hiring process mentioned above. Having participated in some workshops as a presenter and spoken with many novice teachers through the years, many teachers say they find this training unnecessary and a waste of time. Some have even confided that they feel it is only a measure done by the Ministry to ensure teachers understand that the local education authority is in control and all that is required from the teachers is to do what they are told. Reforms to the National Course of Study Every ten years the Japanese Ministry of Education revises the National Course of study for all levels, from kindergarten through to high school. The academic year beginning in April of 2002 saw a significant change in the curriculum, especially at the elementary and junior high level. All educational reforms follow social change, so the current movement away from traditional ideologies to more progressive and modern ideas in Japans educational system can be understood as a reflection of much larger social change. The educational reforms called for students to increase their communication skills, critical thinking and problem-solving skills, along with more individualized learning and an emphasis on lifelong learner skills for a higher quality of participation in society. To meet this demand the Ministry of Education developed a new Period of Integrated Studies (sogotekina gakushu). These new classes were to inject a new teaching and learning style into the schools, with more student-centered activities, and to allow schools to introduce new classes such as ICT - Information and Communication Technologies, and Foreign Language Studies in the elementary schools. With these new classes came new ideas and methodologies, which naturally meant that new concepts and ways of teaching, learning, and evaluating were introduced into the education system. This suddenly placed extremely high demands on teachers who found themselves caught between the demands and expectations of the Ministry, parents and students on one side, and with the reality of not being properly trained and prepared to meet these demands. Suddenly it appeared everyone was a novice teacher regardless of the number of years experience because every teacher was taking training courses to learn the new
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Course of Study. By making these dramatic changes, the Ministry of Education failed to allow the local educational authorities enough time to prepare for the changes needed. Even ten years later after the curriculum changes the system is still adjusting and policy makers, administrators and teachers are continuously adopting and trying to implement these new classes and methodologies. With widespread changes, and increasing demands many veteran teachers are feeling overwhelmed (Fennelly and Luxton, 2011). Special Licenses With the introduction of Information and Communication Technologies and foreign languages to the National Course of Study, local boards of education suddenly found themselves with a shortage of qualified teachers. In order to alleviate this problem the Ministry of Education amended the way teachers could be certified. Special Licenses (tokubetsu menkyo) were introduced allowing people working in the private sector who have experience in the field to apply for a license and become a teacher. In other words, people could bypass any teacher training and the competitive hiring process to become a teacher. The two biggest beneficiaries are people with computer experience and foreign English teachers receiving Special Licenses to teach ICT and English respectfully. The process to receive this type of license differs with each prefectural board of education, but this paper will examine the process with Hyogo Prefecture in regards to foreign language teachers to better understand how this is affecting education in Japan. In actuality, an individual cannot directly apply for a Special License with a prefectural board of education. Only schools can apply on behalf of an individual that the school deems necessary for their operations. In other words, if a school needs a computer teacher and has an individual who they would like to hire as a computer teacher, but cannot because that person does not have a teachers license, the school can submit an application on behalf of that individual. Along with the schools application the individual must submit his or her university transcripts or some proof of completion of degree, along with a resume of their work history. The applicant will then be required to perform a demonstration lesson for about four or five members of the board of education at the school. After this demonstration lesson, the board members will interview the candidate asking a variety of questions involving basic education issues such as class discipline and bullying. This is similar to the first phase of the hiring process described above. If the application is successful then a small fee is levied and the individual is awarded a Special License, which is no different from other licenses allowing the applicant to legally teach in the classroom. It is called a Special License because the process of obtaining it is different from the normal manner of attending teachers college. This alleviates the problems for the board of education in teacher shortage for skilled areas, such as ICT and English, but emerging criticism states this undermines the whole process and actually weakens education by allowing teachers with less training into the classroom. Addressing Issues With all the changes taking place in Japans education system, it is extremely difficult to gauge where things are heading. Despite public school teachers being heavily trained in Japan they are still often criticized in the media and there is even talk of a new evaluation and reward system being introduced to assess teachers. Around 2006 the previous Liberal Democratic government began a program to have teachers renew their license, but that program was dropped after they lost the federal election in 2009. Nevertheless, it appears the Ministry of Education is continuing to increase its authority, and how this will affect teachers licenses is still unknown. For example, in education circles there is discussion of
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changing the current system of 6 years of elementary, 3 years of junior high and 3 years of high school, but that would require a complete change of the laws regarding teachers licenses. By introducing special licenses, the Ministry of Education has temporarily fixed a shortage of skilled teachers, but will this undermine teacher training and actually have an adverse affect on the quality of education in the classroom? Ironically, the Ministry is also considering increasing teacher education at universities from 4 years to 6 years. In these rapidly changing times of progress and uncertainty in Japans education, the teacher remains the foundation of the entire system. How teachers are educated, licensed, trained and supported is an important window into understanding this or any education system. References Azuma, H. (2002). The development of the course of study and the structure of educational reform in Japan. National standards and school reform in Japan and the United States. G. DeCoker. New York, Teachers College Press: 5-18. Fennelly, M. and R. Luxton (2011). "Are you ready?" The Language Teacher 35(2): 19-24. Kimigayo fukiritsu, shobun gekigen [Dramatic reduction in the punishment of teachers for failing to stand for the national anthem]. (2010). Asahi Shimbum, retrived from http://www.asahi.com/edu/tokuho/TKY201004190140.html. McVeigh, B. J. (2002). Japanese higher education as myth. New York, M.E. Sharpe. Okano, K. and M. Tsuchiya (1999). Education in contemporary Japan. Cambridge, University of Cambridge Press. Shimabara, N. (1991). Teacher education in Japan. Windows on Japanese education. E. R. Beauchamp. Westport, Greenwood Press: 259-280. Shimabara, N. (2002). Teacher professional develoment in Japan. National standards and school reform in Japan and the United States. G. DeCoker. New York, Teachers College Press: 107-120.
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ICLC 2010 Proceedings A Short History of Teacher Education in Japan Richard H. Derrah Peter Ferguson
Introduction This paper will provide a short history of the introduction and reform of teacher training in Japan from the late 1800s. The Meiji Period saw the introduction of teacher training in Japan. Before this time there was no formal system for teacher training. Becoming a teacher was accomplished by simply advancing within the area of study. For example, some schools trained students and awarded certificates for advancement in subjects such as art. Once an individual reached a high level of certification they could then teach. There was no direct teaching of educational methods to train teachers. After the Meiji restoration the central objective was to improve the nation through modernization. A key element of modernization was the adoption of western ideals and the tool to adopt these ideals was education. The first reform of teacher education in Japan took place in the 1870s, and this decade focused on western ideas and the United States in particular. The School System The first period of educational reform in the Meiji Period was the1870s. When, in 1868, the new government took over and began its program of forced-pace modernization, its decrees ordering the establishment of a universal system of elementary schooling already had substantial foundations on which to build. (Dore 1965, p. 32) A vast basic education organization of private academies and domain schools provided a foundation on which to build this new school system. The Educational Code of 1872 (Gakusei) called for a system of elementary schools to be created to provide a basic education for all in line with the objective of modernization. It did not simply readjust the existing educational institutions from the Tokugawa Period, it also called for a redefinition of the idea of school. During the Tokugawa Period, schools were often were seen as the location of the relationship between the student and teacher. In this sense, Tokugawa Period schools were centered in the individual. The Meiji Period redefinition was a shift from the individual centered ideal of school to the school building based ideal of education. It was a redefinition to eliminate local ideals about education and solidly place education within the power of the central government. The Meiji leaders intended the new educational reforms to produce a sense of dissimilarity and disjunction with pre-Meiji educational experience. (Platt 1998, p. 10) To staff these new schools the Meiji government looked to the United States for both pedagogical methods and for teachers to staff the new normal schools. The adoption of western styles of teaching, teacher training, textbooks, etc. did cause some problems. Textbooks were quickly translated and used without an understanding of their intended audience. These types of quick adoptions caused problems and contributed the backlash against the influence of the west in Japanese education in the following decade. The 1880s saw a reaction to the western centered reforms to create a system for teacher education. While a central objective to help achieve modernization was the establishment of a modern school system there were different opinions on higher goals. In reaction to the 1870s some saw the centrality of the emperor as vital and believed that the ultimate purpose of modernization was to form a modern state centered on the emperor. Not
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everyone followed this emperor-centered ideal of education, however, including Mori Arinori, one of the primary architects of this new school system and education minister from 1885. He saw education as a tool to strengthen the country especially in the face of foreign competition. The introduction of western technology along with the centering of loyalty onto the state were the main elements of the new education system. In the late 1880s Mori Arinori had declared that the emperor is peerless capital, the greatest possible treasure in the enterprise of fostering loyalty and patriotism (chukan aikoku) in the people toward something as intangible as the state. (Gluck 1985, p. 85) The emperor provided a figure, but the ultimate purpose of modernization for Mori was the modern nation-state. The administrators of our various schools should at all times be mindful of the fact that the undertaking is on behalf of the state, not on behalf of the individual student. (Hall 1973, p. 397) Despite his attempts to place the nation and the emperor in the center of education, Mori was assassinated by a former samurai in the name of the emperor. The assassin stated Mori deserved to die as just punishment for his disrespectful contempt for the Emperor on the occasion of a recent visit to the Grand Shrine at Ise. (Duke 1989, p. 40) Mori did introduce many elements of the state centered Meiji education system including many of the reforms in teacher education such as the introduction of taiso or physical education in the new schools of the Meiji Period. Taiso was first used to train the new teachers of the period, but it continues today and can still be seen in schools in Japan. Within these new Meiji Period schools students were integrated into a new modern society. They were required to wear school uniforms and had to submit to discipline. They were taught the elements which were considered to be required of a modern society such as the basics of hygiene. The focus of learning within schools was on practical matters directly benefiting the state in its efforts to modernize. All aspects of the lives of people would be modernized and in turn modernize the state. More than a means to modernize, the new education system implemented by the Meiji government was a tool to consolidate power. The new school system was meant to be a break from the past. Local governments had to apply to have pre-Meiji or even new schools designated as a school. This also required a detailed report including a listing of subjects taught in the school. The central government used inspections as a method to control education. Statistics were kept to detail progress and to also emphasize the ideal of the centrality of education under the Meiji government and not under local governments. There were important aspects of Meiji educational policy that were self-consciously and strategically discontinuous with the pre-Meiji experience. (Platt 1998, p.160) These attempts at control were met with some resistance, and attacks on schools created by the central government did occur. Controls on students included teacher training students, in fact, these students were held to higher standards and tighter control. Schools were divided into elementary, middle, and higher schools. Beyond these schools a higher level of education was also established such as Tokyo Imperial University. A number of normal schools for the education of teachers were also developed with a higher normal school in Tokyo developed for the training of teachers for the other normal schools. Teacher training inside the normal schools was strict and took the form of military discipline. Students were required to stay in dorms and submit to roll calls and inspections as would be required in a military unit. If teachers were trained in a strict manner it was hoped that this level of discipline would filter down to other students and help alleviate some of the problems developing in society due to modernization. Education was not a key to unlock the potentialities of the individual, but instead served as a tool to prevent corruption and disorder among the people. (Platt 1998, p. 122)
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In the 1890s the struggle between the centrality of the nation-state versus the centrality of the emperor was resolved with the proclamation of the Imperial Rescript on Education in 1890. It insisted that loyalty and filial piety, plus respect for the constitution and the law, be put at the heart of the educational system. (Beasley 1999, p. 228) The Rescript was placed in a position of respect in schools and at some assemblies it was read for the student body. There were stories of school principals running back into burning buildings to save the copy of the Rescript. (Gordon 2003, p. 106) It was read to the student body during special ceremonies, displayed prominently in schools, and was a physical reminder to teachers about the purpose of education. After the Meiji Period The Meiji educational reforms did expand education and for the first time provided a standardized structure to the schools. The structure of the new school system was meant to provide a basic education for all. Education was compulsory for four years with four more optional. Parents paid fees until 1900 when free public education was implemented. In 1887, 47% of school-age children were attending school, but after the initiation of free education in 1900, school attendance increased. By 1905, 95.6% of school age children were attending school. (Botsman 2004) As schools expanded so did the education for teachers. In 1929 colleges in Tokyo and Hiroshima were established for graduates of higher normal schools so they could continue their education. These schools were still under the control of the state, but did increase the level of training for teachers. With the radicalization of politics in the 1930s and into the 1940s the education system followed suit. From 1941 the focus in schools changed to almost solely emphasize the training of imperial subjects rather than members of a modern nation, as it had in the Meiji Period. One of the core components of producing imperial subjects included the introduction of moral education into the curriculum. Moral education, even today, is a required part of middle school education and a required class for teachers seeking a middle school teaching license, however, it was not found in early Meiji educational reforms. After 1945 another reform of teacher education occurred and, much like the initial change in the Meiji Period, this one was influenced by the United States as well. During the occupation of Japan after the Second World War, the United States Education Mission came to Japan in 1946. Its recommendations had an influence on teacher education and included training for specialized fields as well as professional education after certification. An education reform committee was established in 1946 in order to look into implementing the recommendations of the United States Education Mission, resulting in the move of teacher training from state controlled schools to universities. Normal schools continued for training of teachers for elementary and middle schools, while universities trained teachers for high school. Conclusion From an initial emphasis on western methods to modernize the state to a competition between the centrality of the nation-state or the emperor centric state, teacher education has been influenced by prominent political philosophies during the Meiji Period and beyond. From the first steps of teacher education the curriculum has been a top-down approach with the ministry of education holding the top position within the system. Even today, as the ministry of education attempts to adjust the teacher licensing system, change has been slow. Guidance is provided and slowly elements of change begin to appear. Some changes have opened the system such as the change of teacher licensing from state controlled schools to
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non-state controlled schools, while more recent changes have placed new pressure on teachers. Licensing used to be lifetime, but just recently all licenses have changed to a tenyear limit. This is in response to the large number of people obtaining a teaching license in university, working in an un-related job and then turning to teaching after retiring. This was especially profitable, since teacher salary scales are based on age. The teacher license renewal requirements are extremely simple, however, changes such as additional renewal requirements are slowly being introduced. It will probably take a significant event to introduce radical change in the system, such as when sputnik changed the education system in the United States. One possibility could be if China overtakes Japan in terms of economic power. Then perhaps Japan will see a third change in its teacher education system much like the changes that occurred due to the Meiji Restoration and the Occupation. There is very little research on the recent changes of the education system in relation to teachers and this an opportunity for further research into teacher training as well as the influence these changes may have on other elements of the education system such as students. References Beasley, W. G. (1999). The Japanese Experience. Berkeley, University of California Press. Botsman, D. (2004). Lecture notes on Meiji education. Cambridge, Harvard University. Dore, R. P. (1965). Education in Tokugawa, Japan, by R. P. Dore, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1965. Duke, B. C. (1989). Ten Great Educators of Modern Japan. Tokyo, University of Tokyo. Gluck, C. (1985). Japan's Modern Myths. Princeton, Princeton University Press. Gordon, A. (2003). A Modern History of Japan. New York, Oxford University Press. Hall, I. P. (1973). Mori Arinori. Cambridge, Harvard University Press. Platt, B. W. (1998). School, community, and state integration in nineteenth century Japan, University of Illinois. (Doctoral Dissertation).
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ICLC 2010 Proceedings Enhancing Reading Comprehension and Attitudes through 4MAT System and Background Music Nakonthep Tipayasuparat and Alisara Chuchart, PhD Faculty of Education, Chulalongkorn University, Thailand
ABSTRACT This paper discusses the special reading problems among EFL learners, emphasizing their diverse learning styles and use of the two brains. It introduces the 4MAT System, an instructional model developed by Bernice McCarthy, which provides a systematic approach to delivering instruction that especially addresses the learning styles of EFL students. As a learner-focused model for reading instruction, 4 MAT gives teachers a framework to design learning activities in a systematic cycle. The system, when integrated with background music, encourages teachers to use multiple methods of instruction so as to reach students more effectively, regardless of the individuals learning style. The paper concludes with a reading instruction unit designed by using the 4MAT System along with integrated background music. Remark: This paper is part of an on-process PhD dissertation, a quasi-experimental study investigating the effects of the newly developed instructional reading model using 4 MAT System combined with background music. INTRODUCTION Teachings reading in tertiary level, several teachers realize that most problems are derived not only from vocabulary knowledge, but also from reading comprehension and attitudes (Anderson, 1999). Additionally, research indicates that the students differences of learning styles pose difficulties when students are exposed to conventional activities in class. The reason is that some activities hardly facilitate comprehension as they do not help activate a readers background knowledge and promote the full potential of the reading brain, two of which are essential elements of reading comprehension process (Eskey, 1986). In addition, the fact that not many students have become successful in their L2 reading is due to their attitude towards reading. Anxiety and negative attitudes have become psychological barriers preventing students from conceptualizing meaning of reading texts as stated by Eskey (1986, p. 6) that comprehension is always directed and controlled crucially by the needs and purpose of an individual. Reading teachers, therefore, face many challenges in the classroom of how to help students cope with these interrelated problems. For the past two decades, much attention has been drawn to 4MAT, a teaching methodology posited by Bernice McCarty, which is built upon the principles of learning styles and their relationship to the natural learning cycles. In studies conducted in various settings, the use of 4MAT increased learner motivation and improved academic performance (McCarty et al, 2002). When integrated with background music, it has been reported that relaxation will facilitate changes in physiological states in the body and allow the brain to work more effectively (Hepler & Kapke, 1996). According to a recent study (Smith, 2001), participation in a relaxed setting is critical for acquiring skills in writing, scientific understanding, as well as learning to read.
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The roles of learning styles One of the major differences between traditional methods of teaching and more modern ones is that teaching methods at present always struggle to better accommodate learning styles or individual differences among learners (Wu & Alrabah, 2009). The term learning style has been used to describe an individuals natural, habitual, and preferred way of absorbing, processing, and retaining new information and skills (Oxford, 1998). Learning styles might consequently influence the learners response to different methods of delivering language in EFL classroom. A broad range of learning styles has been mentioned in the literature. For instance, people who favorably perceive things through seeing would fall into a group called visual learners. Other people, who seem to learn best upon hearing something once or twice before they know it, may be called aural learners. For others, who are referred to as kinesthetic learners, they learn best when a physical action is added to the learning process. In contrast to these perceptually-based learning style differences, considerable research has focused on a cognitive learning style distinction between analytic and global learners. An analytic learner likes to analyze language elements in detail, while a global learner is believed to prefer learning through global exposure to a second/foreign language. For example, in dealing with a new text, an analytic learner might search for small details and try to follow accurately the precise relationships between different parts of a text, while a global learner might prefer to predict and infer to get an overall understanding of the same text. There is also a similar difference between the cognitive learning styles of fieldindependent and field-dependent learners. The distinction between these cognitive learning styles refers to whether an individual tends to separate details from the general background or to see things more holistically. According to several recent research findings, two things most language teachers realize are 1) their main role in the teaching proportion is to provide better conditions for learning and 2) individual differences among learners can impact learning processes and teaching procedures. In research area, understanding the ways in which learners differ from one another has become of fundamental concern to those involved in EFL teaching/learning, either as teachers or researchers. A number of research address individual differences, putting focus on factors such as aptitude, motivation, attitudes, personality, and then to establish correlations between these factors and second language proficiency (Lightbown & Spada, 2006). Research findings on studies of learning styles have shown that an understanding of learning styles create optimal learning conditions in the language classroom (Lincoln & Rademacher, 2006). Reid (1998) also indicated that if language teachers know more about how various students learn new materials, they will make better decisions on both content and in-class activities. Reading and learning styles Extensive research shows critical relationship between reading achievement and learning styles. Kaley (1977, cited in Carbo, 1983) postulated the importance of learning styles by saying that it is a better predictor of reading achievement than IQ and learners are believed to be able to improve their reading achievement significantly when taught through their preferred individual learning style. Another theoretical construct that can attribute to the assumption is the immediate environment. Several researchers agree that the immediate environment seems to produce a biological reaction in some students that can encourage or discourage learning, depending upon how much the students learning style is
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accommodated. For instance, students have read significantly better when the amount of sound and light match their learning style preference (Pizzo, 1981, cited in Carbo, 1983). Many research findings, especially Krimsky (1982, cited in Carbo, 1983), reported that students achieved higher reading comprehension scores once they were exposed to their preferred setting, i.e. noisy or quiet, dim or bright light. The reason lies on the fact that when students are comfortable within their learning environment, they are likely to absorb and retain information and concepts more easily and efficiently. Carbo (1983) and Carlson, Hoffman, Gray & Thompson, (2004) suggested that one possibility to improve reading environment for reluctant readers, based on the variety of learning styles in most classrooms, is to take advantage of slow background music. In addition, perception seems to be one of the learning style elements of greatest importance, research on perception and reading indicates that reading performance is strongly related to perceptual ability (Carbo, 1983). It has been reported that good readers prefer to learn through their visual and auditory senses, while poor readers have higher preferences for learning tactfully and kinesthetically in an informal design (soft chairs, rugs, pillows). Also poor readers have difficulty shifting between and integrating auditory and visual stimuli (Dunn, 1981, cited in Carbo, 1983). Research comparing learning styles across achievement level, corresponding to Deweys construct (1916, cited in MaCarthy & MaCarthy, 2006) that all learning require the transactional interaction between the individual and the environment, indicates that many poor readers seem to need a structured reading program (time limits, specific choices, clear directions, work checked immediately). Such programs should rely on some interaction with peers and consistent feedback from teachers, apart from well-organized relaxed reading environment (Carbo, 1983). As another advocacy of the idea, Farrell (2009) pinpoints the cases of learning styles as determined by culturally affected differences where Anglo students are less willing to speak alone in front of their peers, when asked by the reading teacher, and to work in small groups than Asian and native American students. Reading and Hemisphericity The correlation between reading proficiency and the two hemispheres of the brain has been reported and mentioned in several researches. Kimura and her colleagues (1993, cited in McCarthy et al, 2002) have indicated that hemispheric specialization, especially left dominance for language, emerged more due to the evolution of certain motor skills that lend themselves to communication. This is contrary to the right hemisphere which is responsible to the ability to manipulate spatial relationship. A number of evidences reviewed by Springer and Deutsch (1993) suggest that hemispheric asymmetrics are innate and shaped further by the demand and input to the brain. According to the two researchers, each hemisphere processes and possesses different characteristics as follows.
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Left Verbal Digital Sequential Rational Logical Convergent Deductive Realistic Directed Explicit Objective Successive Abstract Analytical
Right Nonverbal Visual-Spatial Simultaneous Analogical Intuitive Divergent Metaphorical Imaginative Free Tacit Subjective Random Concrete Holistic
A correlational study comparing the learning styles of good and poor readers conducted by Price, Dunn, & Sanders (1980) demonstrates that the two groups differ significantly in terms of hemispheric preference. After administering the hand-scorable hemispheric test to a group of students, they discovered that 85% of the poor readers were classified as right-brain-dominant learners. The cause of the problem seems to stem here as the activities in most language classes, especially reading, are organized in the way that the left dominants are accommodated, while the right dominants are isolated. Carbo (1983) suggests that, so as to resolve the problem of one-brain dominance, reading instruction should initially include holistic reading approaches (such as language-experience). And when teachers integrate the abilities of the two hemispheres so as for the most adaptive processing to be brought to bear on the learning situation, learner motivation and performance will improve. Reading and Background Music A number of studies over the past years have demonstrated that relaxation positively affects academic success as it can facilitate change in physiological states in the body that lead to more effective performance of the brain (Hepler & Kapke, 1996). Studies show that background music has intriguing effect on memory. One example is Mozarts music and baroque music, with a 50-to-60-beat-per-minute pattern can activate the left and right hemispheres of the brain, which can maximizes learning and information retention. The information being studied activates the left mode, whereas the music stimulates the right mode, causing the brain to be more capable of processing information. According to a recent
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research (Smith, 2001), participation in a relaxed setting is of overriding importance to learning to read, as well as acquiring other language skills. Besides, listening to classical music before taking a test can help students improve their test scores significantly since this type of music releases neurons in the brain which help the body to relax. In terms of memory, and information retention, background music can prove effective as seen in Lozanovs studies where students could learn up to 1,000 new words/phrases in one day through baroque music with 92% average retention rate. This corresponds to another study done in 1982 at the University of North Texas, of which the result shows that vocabulary memorization and recall are better through Handels Water Music. One explanation is that music itself is not a part of learning process; however, it enters memory along with the acquired information. The findings imply that recall is better when the same music targeted for learning is used during recall. Also, tempo seems to play a key role of musics effect on memory (Anderson, Henke, McLaughlin, Ripp & Tuffs, 2000, cited in Carlson, Hoffman, Gray & Thompson, 2004) In addition to brain maximization and vocabulary memorization, many components of music can have a calming effect. Blanchard (1979) found that playing background music during a classroom examination dramatically helped lower blood pressure, resulting in significantly higher scores and better attitudes for participating students. To sum up, these studies pave the foundation for a connection between music, relaxation, improved brain function, increased academic performance, and more positive learning attitudes. As for reading, the benefit of using background music in reading class is also advisable. One study featuring a vibroacoustic music chair combined with the 50-60 beats per minute of music indicates students improved reading performance beyond the expectation of a reading program alone. Besides, better attitudes towards reading caused by relaxation were also reported (Carlson, Hoffman, Gray & Thompson, 2004). Based on Lozanovs research findings, Mozart Effect, and Blanchard (1979), in light of whole brain capitalization through music, this present study features classical pieces of music of Bach, Mozart, and Handel, all of which are 50-60 beats per minute. The grounds underlying the hypothesis of the study is that listening to background music during reading and pondering will increase focus and attention, which leads to full mental potential. Additionally, relaxation from music can facilitate changes in physiological states in the body that allow the brain to work more efficiently. And that assumption has been used as one major element underpinning the principles of the developed instructional processes. 4MAT System Combining the fundamental principles of John Dewey (Experiential Learning), Carl Jung (Theory of Individualization), David Kolb (Experiential Learning Theory), and Anthony Gregorc (Gregorcs Style Delineator), 4MAT System is a teaching model featuring learning styles to create a balanced model for planning instruction that cycles the learner through for major learning styles (Nicoll-Senft & Seider, 2010). 4MAT was constructed on the fourfactor learning style models of Gregorc and Kolb by integrating learning styles with brainbased processing strategies. The model provides an assumption that individuals learn in different ways and that engagement with a variety of diverse learning activities results in higher levels of motivation and performance. 4MAT is grounded on the belief that
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individuals learn primarily in one of four different but complementary ways based on how they perceive and process information (McCarthy & McCarthy, 2006). An important construct upon which 4MAT is based is hemisphericity, the practice of systematically balancing teaching activities that equally address linear and holistic thinking. According to Springer and Deutsch (1993), the most widely researched and cited characteristics used to describe linear and holistic thinking are, for linear thinking: verbal, digital, sequential, rational, and logical; and for holistic thinking: nonverbal, visual-spatial, simultaneous, analogical, and intuitive. The principles of hemisphericity are that (1) individuals have at their disposal two complementary methods for approaching and processing information and experiences; (2) adequate engagement of both methods, described in the literature as linear and holistic thinking, results in deepened levels of personal understanding; and (3) engagement of both hemispheres of the brain, usually described as whole brain learning, has significant implications for designing instruction and understanding human learning (McCarty et al, 2002). The 4MAT System views learning as a natural sequence which progresses sequentially from Quadrant one through Quadrant four experiences. If an instructor includes all types of learning in the classroom, then each student has a better chance of comprehending the material. Movement around the circle is a natural learning progression. Humans sense and feel; they experience, they watch; they reflect, then they think; they develop theories, then they try out theories; they experiment. Finally, they evaluate and synthesize what they have learned in order to apply it to their next similar experience. Based on the McCarthy model, a reading teacher seeking to develop strategies and skills needed among their students should seek to accommodate the needs of diverse learning styles. 4MAT identifies four interrelated learning styles based on a continuum of how we perceive and process new information. Our individual learning style results from where we naturally fall on these continuums. McCarthy has identified these learning styles as Imaginative Learners (Type One Learners); Analytic Learners (Type Two Learners); Common Sense Learners (Type Three Learners); and Dynamic Learners (Type Four Learners). The following is a brief description of these learning styles from both learning and teaching perspectives (Nicoll-Senft & Seider 2010; Harrison, 2000; McCarthy & McCarthy, 2006). Imaginative Learners (Type One) learn best through personal experience, a combination of sensing, or feeling, or watching. They benefit from opportunities to find meaning in what they are learning and they enjoy discussing their beliefs, feelings, and opinions with others. They are reflective in nature and learn primarily through dialogue. They are keen on perspective taking and, in an attempt to find personal meaning, they often ask the question Why? These learners must understand how learning is associated to their values; thus, they seek meaning and clarity. Analytic Learners (Type Two) prefer to learn through a combination of watching and developing theories and concepts. They often learn best in a traditional classroom setting. They prefer sequential thinking and thorough details. They enjoy reflecting on new ideas and connecting new learning to other information they know to be true. They tend to be cautious and hard-working, and find ideas intriguing. For them, the most important question is What? Their right hemisphere seeks to integrate new experiences with what they already know, while their left hemisphere seeks that new knowledge.
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Common Sense Learners (Type Three) learn by doing and trying things out for themselves. When presented with new information they immediately focus on practical applications. They are active learners, preferring to get right to work in the classroom. Their right hemisphere seeks applications for what they learn, while their left hemisphere asks the more general What have other people done? question. This group dislikes assignments that do not have an obvious purpose or application. They learn best when provided with hands-on, experiential learning opportunities. For these learners, the most important question is How does it work? Figure 1: McCarthys Four Types of Learners
DIRECT EXPERIENCE Type Four Dynamic Learners - Modifying - Shifting - Adapting - Intuiting - Acting - Collaborating - Innovating - Creating Type One Imaginative Learners - Brainstorming - Listening - Speaking - Interacting - Knowing oneself - Understanding and appreciating others
A C T I N G
P E R C P R O C E S S I NG I Type Three Type Two V Common Sense Learners Analytic Learners I - Experimenting - Observing N - Manipulating - Analyzing materials and ideas - Classifying G - Following directions - Selecting
Building on givens Making things work Testing reality Tinkering Improving -
R E F L E C T I N G
Drawing conclusions Theorizing Seeing pattern and connections Conceptualizing the sense of the whole
ABSTRACT CONCEPTS
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Finally, Dynamic Learners (Type Four) are active learners who learn best by doing and sensing and feeling. They enjoy taking risks and learn primarily through self-discovery. They like to connect their learning to things that matter in their lives. Their right hemisphere develops extensions of their learning while their left hemisphere seeks to analyze learning for relevance and significance. These learners ask the question If? as they enjoy synthesizing information and applying their learning in new ways. 4MAT sequences these four approaches in a framework that reflects the natural learning cycle. First, the teacher connects personal experiences of the learners to the targeted teaching concept. This is followed by systematic teaching of the content matter. Next, students are provided with guided practice and application. Finally, students are given opportunities to integrate and synthesize their new learning. The teacher changes his role while proceeding around the circle along the four quadrants. In Quadrant Two, for example, the teachers role is quite conventional- as Information Provider. On the contrary, in Quadrant Four, the teacher becomes the Evaluator/Facilitator, providing an atmosphere of freedom to get students to discover by doing and challenging them to observe, analyze, and share, apart from helping some who need more direction. Thus through the progression of the model, the teacher uses a broad knowledge of learning styles and specific methods to teach his students. In other words, the model provides a tool for employing the varying instructional modes. In studies conducted in elementary and secondary schools, the use of 4MAT increased learner motivation and improved academic performance (Blair & Judah, 1990; McCarthy et al., 2002; Wilkerson & White, 1988). According to Nicoll-Senft & Seider (2010), more achievements in content area learning have been found in the premises of mathematics, science, and music. In higher education context, 4MAT has been successfully applied in a variety of disciplines, including engineering, law, and tourism. However up to now, no studies have applied the model across L2 reading. And that is the significant ground why this present study has been conducted. This knowledge about the specialization of 4MAT and background music has led to several hypotheses about how reading instruction might be improved. In this regard, the guiding principles of the Model relating to the two elements are as follows: Principles of Instruction derived from 4MAT and background music 1. Learning requires the transactional interaction between the individuals and the environment. (In order to acquire vocabulary, students should do something with the words. To maximize the internalization of learning, students must be provided an opportunity to apply what they have learned.) 2. Students need multiple exposures to new input in order to understand them. (A variety of instructional modes, media, and activities must be used both in strategies to define theories into concepts.) 3. Reflections the students have on their expression and learning must be shared and turned around. (Group work and lots of student talk should be incorporated.) 4. Students should actively make connections between the new and the known. (Students background knowledge must be activated especially in terms of
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ICLC 2010 Proceedings vocabulary and content of the text.) 5. Background music activates the left and right brain action which maximizes learning and enhances reading attitudes. (Listening to background music during reading and pondering will increase focus and attention, which improves mental sharpness. Relaxation from music can facilitate changes in physiological states in the body that allow the brain to work more efficiently.)
The following instructional processes illustrate how the 4MAT System, with a blend of background music, encompassing three phases and six teaching steps, can be applied in an EFL reading class. Phase 1: Pre-reading Step 1 Recalling Experience Step 2 Imagining Step 3 Explicit Modeling Phase 2: During-reading Step 4 Reading with Music Phase 3: Post-reading Step 5 Parallel Practicing Step 6 Sharing Outcome Step One: Recalling Experience During the first step of the instructional process which serves as a warm-up, the teachers tasks are to engage students in a concrete experience which leads to a search of prior knowledge and prior experience, especially in terms of vocabulary. This search is designed to create an interactive group dialogue through introducing questions which connect what students already knows and believes to the topic the teacher intends to teach. The teacher tries to use strategies which encourage diversication of ideas, dialogue, and participation and enable students to associate prior lexical knowledge with new vocabulary to come. Through idea sharing and pooling, students beliefs and opinions begin to evolve into organizers and structures for future thinking and concept building. This phase of the process emphasizes right and left hemispheric thinking and, with symbolic thinking and the imposition of structure, the goal is engagement. Step Two: Imagining Step two of the process is designed to create a context for students to represent the subjective nature of his/her existing knowledge as a preparation for the analysis of ideas. In this step, students are encouraged to symbolize their present state of understanding of the subject matter in as many nonverbal forms as possible. Image making, which is central to this step, is a right mode activity. The emphasis here is the expansion of representations of meaning. However, this step requires students to begin to shift from reective experience to reective thinking.
ICLC 2010 Proceedings Step Three: Explicit Modeling
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Step three of the instructional process engages students in objective thinking. The emphasis here is analysis of concepts, facts, generalizations and theories. At this stage, the teacher presents targeted reading strategies and experience in complete and systematic ways. Well-delivered lecture, which belongs to left hemisphere, builds upon the personal connections established in step one to foster conceptual thinking. Step Four: Reading with Music At this stage, the teacher asks students to read along with music. Students are allowed to apply the strategies they have learned in step three to real practice as the emphasis shifts from acquisition and assimilation to testing and adaptation. Upon reading, students are supposed to employ comprehension monitoring techniques which focus on assessing what the text has stated as compared to the readers expectation. In this left hemisphere stage, the goal is reinforcement and diagnostic evidence of the students ability to apply the concepts taught. Step Five: Parallel Practicing Step five of the reading process treats the student as a scientist. In this learning set, students test the limits and contradictions of their understanding. Students are encouraged to develop their own applications which demonstrate that they understand and can apply what has been learned. Parallel reading texts and paraphrasing are the essence of this phase where the focus of reading, a receptive skill, has shifted to writing, a productive one, to optimize full comprehension. The right mode emphasis in this learning set is designed to encourage students to create personal applications their experiences with the ideas and vocabulary learned from the previous steps. Step Six: Sharing Outcome The final step of the process requires students to critically examine the place of the newly acquired knowledge and experience in their existing world view. The central issue of this post-reading stage here is what must be done to integrate this learning into a meaningful conceptual division. Working in pairs or groups, students in this learning set edit and refine their work. They also face and resolve contradictions implicit in the tension between new and earlier schema. This is the culminating stage where both left and right hemispheres are used, bringing students back to where they start, a completion of the cycle.
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ICLC 2010 Proceedings Figure 2: 4MAT & Background Music Wheel (Example of teaching unit to promote student reading performance)
Step Six: Sharing OutcomeThe summaries are shared among the class. Teacher and students discuss and edit the writing. Students use key vocabulary in step1 to paraphrase the sentence. Each group rotates what they have written. Teacher gives comments and also briefly reviews the strategies learned.
Step One: Recalling Experience: Students brainstorm key vocabulary relating to the text. Students compare, discuss, note those words that are pooled by the teacher. Students guess meaning and part of speech of each word using their prior morphological knowledge.
L E F T
L E F T
Step Two: Imagining

Step Five: Parallel Practicing Students write a summary out of each paragraph of Parallel Reading as a practice
R I G H R I G H
Students do the JIGSAW GAME as an analogy of the strategies that are going to be taught.
Step Four: Reading with Music Students silently read the text paragraph by paragraph, monitoring their comprehension while reading. Teacher uses a few questions to assess their understanding after they finish each.
Step Three: Explicit Modeling T discusses the reading strategies of how to use Targeted reading strategies, modeling a few examples together with the class.
Remark: Step 1, 2, 4, 5, 6 feature background music.
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According to the results of the pilot study done with ten undergraduate students for four weeks, it was found that their attitudes towards reading and vocabulary knowledge have been increased to quite a satisfactory level. That has shown the tendency that the newly developed instructional model offers a way to accommodate, as well as challenge, all types of learners, by appealing to their familiar learning styles, which results in their enhanced reading comprehension, vocabulary learning, and attitudes towards reading. For reading teachers, one assumed value in using 4MAT for reading teachers is that they do not have to determine each students individual learning style. Rather, the system can automatically help them- as both instructor and course designer- to become more skilled in the use of multiple methods of instruction which increase students skills and reach them more effectively. In other words, the emphasis of the wheel is to accommodate all learning styles. And when combined with 50-60 beat-per-minute classical background music, the effect of the model on cognitive enhancement can even be heightened. As a learner-focused model for reading instruction that responds to the diverse needs of students, 4MAT and background music benefits teachers by giving them a framework to design learning activities in a systematic, natural cycle. References Anderson, N. J. (1999). Exploring second language reading: Issues and strategies. Canada: Heine & Heinle Publishers. Blair, D., & Judah, S. (1990). Need a strong foundation for an interdisciplinary program? Try 4MAT. Educational Leadership 48( 2), 3738. Blanchard, B. E. (1979). The effect of music on pulse-rate, blood pressure and final exam scores of university students. The Journal of Sports Medicine, 19, 305307. Brown, B. B. (1980). Supermind. New York: Harper & Row. Carbo, M. (1983). Research in Reading and Learning Style: Implications for Exceptional Children. Exceptional Children, 49(6), 486-494. Carlson, J. K., Hoffman, J., Gray, D., & Thompson, A. (2004). A Musical Interlude: Using Music and Relaxation to Improve Reading Performance. Intervention in School & Clinic, 39(4), 246-250. Eskey, D. E. (1986). Theoretical foundations. In F. Dublin, D. E. Eskey, and W. Grabe (eds.), Teaching second language reading for academic purposes, Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 3-13 Farrell, T. S. C. (2009). Teaching reading to English language learners: A reflective guide. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Harrison, N. (2000). Breaking the Mold: Using Educational Pedagogy in Designing Library Instruction of Adult Learners. Reference Librarian, 33(69/70), 287. Hepler, C., & Kapke, R. (1996). Effect of music on cardiovascular performance during treadmill walking. IAHPERD, 29(2), 240-252 Lightbown, P., & Spada, N. (2006). How languages are learned (3rd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. Lincoln, F., & Rademacher, B. (2006). Learning styles of ESL students in community college. Community College Journal of Research and Practice, 30(5), 485500. McCarthy, B., Germain, C., & Lippitt, L. (2002). The 4 MAT research guide. Wauconda, IL: About Learning Inc.
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McCarthy, B. (1997). A tale of four learners: 4MAT's learning styles. Educational Leadership, 54(6), 46. McCarthy, B., & McCarthy, D. (2006). Teaching around the 4MAT cycle: Designing instruction for diverse learners with diverse learning styles. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Nicoll-Senft, J. M., & Seider, S. N. (2010). Assessing the Impact of the 4MAT Teaching Model across Multiple Disciplines in Higher Education. College Teaching, 58(1), 19-27. Oxford, R. (1998). Style Analysis Survey (SAS): Assessing your own learning and working styles. In J.M. Reid (Ed.), Understanding learning styles in the second language classroom (pp. 179186). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents. Price, G. E., Dunn, R., & Sanders, W. (1980). Reading achievement and learning style characteristics. The Clearing House, 5, 223-226. Smith, F. (2001). Just a matter of time . Phi Delta Kappan, 82(8), 572-576 Reid, J.M. (1998). Understanding learning styles in the second language classroom. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents. Springer, S.P., & Deutsch, G. (1993). Left Brain, Right Brain (4th ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman and Co. Ltd. Wilkerson, R., & White, K. (1988). Effects of the 4MAT system of instruction on students achievement, retention, and attitudes. The Elementary School Journal, 357368. Wu, S., & Alrabah, S. (2009). A cross-cultural study of Taiwanese and Kuwaiti EFL students'
learning styles and multiple intelligences. Innovations in Education & Teaching International, 46(4), 393-403.
Appendix Example of Teaching Unit Based on 4MAT System and Background Music Course: Reading I Student Type: 2nd year English Majors Total Time: 160 minutes Reading Topic: A City Thats Doing Something Right (from Interaction 2, Hartman and Kirn, 2007) Concept to Teach: Reading Strategies: 1. Identifying main idea and supporting details 2. Guessing meaning of unknown words through context clues Objectives: by the end of the lesson students will be able to: 1. distinguish the main idea from supporting details 2. identify the meanings of the core vocabulary through the use of context clues 3. draw meaning from context Audio-visual Media 1. Accompaniment Music (for Step 1. 2, 4, 5, 6) 1.1. Mozart's Flute & Harp Concerto in C 1.2. Mozart's Clarinet Concerto in A 1.3. Mozart's Eine Kleine Nacht Musik 2. PowerPoint slides 3. A video clip 4. A jigsaw game
ICLC 2010 Proceedings Step 1: Recalling Experience (Warm-up) Quadrant One: Experiencing to Reflecting-Connections Right Mode: Connect Objectives: 1. To connect with students background knowledge in terms of vocabulary 2. To arouse students interest towards the reading text 3. To examine the vocabulary listed as the words can help students construct meanings out of the text
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Activity: Teacher (T) introduces the reading topic The City Thats Doing Something Right by showing a set of pictures of the well-preserved city of Curitiba in Brazil and asking students (Ss) to take a look and answer the question: Do you agree that people in Curitiba are happier than people in Bangkok?
After eliciting answers from 4-5 Ss randomly, T puts Ss in groups of 5 and distributes a list of core vocabulary from the text, then ask each group to think of 5 more words relating to the topic upon watching a video clip. T then displays a 2-minute video clip of the city of Curitiba. Music used (while Ss are working together): Mozart's Flute & Harp Concerto in C Assessment: Students participation in activity. Left Mode: Attend Objective: To have students reflect on the experience Activity: T pools all important words by writing them down on the board, classifying into 4 columns: noun, verb, adjective, adverb, and asking the whole class to identify the meaning of each unfamiliar-looking word on the list by applying their morphological knowledge. Assessment: Students participation and contribution to whole-class work. Step 2: Imagining (Pre-reading) Quadrant Two: Reflecting to ConceptualizingConcepts Right Mode: Imagine Objective: To extend the experience of reading strategies into their own personal perception Activity: City Jigsaw--T provides each group with pieces of jigsaw and asks them to put all the pieces together to create a picture of Curitiba. After 5 minutes, T then asks Ss to stop where they are and asks questions: How is this unfinished jigsaw picture is like reading an unseen passage?
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ICLC 2010 Proceedings Though the work is incomplete, can you guess the picture with the jigsaw pieces put in the right places? Is this similar to using the clues to guess the meaning of unknown words in the text? - What can we learn from this activity that can be applied to locating the main ideas of the paragraph and of the whole passage? Music used (while Ss are working together): Mozart's Clarinet Concerto in A Assessment: Students success in finding the correct answer. Quality ofstudent engagement in the a activity. -
Step 3: Explicit Modeling (Pre-reading) Left Mode: Inform Objective: To become more knowledgeable about how to use targeted reading strategies Activity: T discusses the reading strategies of how to use context clues in guessing meaning of unknown words and how to draw the main idea from a paragraph, modeling a few examples together with the class. T asks Ss to apply the strategies in the following step. Assessment: Understanding of the concepts involved. Oral review of information provided. Quality of students understanding. Students participation. Step 4: Reading with Music (During-reading) Quadrant Three: Conceptualizing to DoingApplications Left Mode: Practice Objective: To provide guided practice upon applying the strategies learned Activity: T asks Ss to read the text entitled topic The City Thats Doing Something Right paragraph by paragraph. T gives Ss 2-3 minutes each paragraph to read along with background music playing and asks them to monitor text comprehension by applying the strategies learned. T asks them 2-3 questions that either test their comprehension or identify specific details in the text after they finish each paragraph. Music used (while Ss are reading): Mozart's Clarinet Concerto in A, Eine Nacht Musik, and Mozart's Flute & Harp Concerto in C Kleine
Assessment: Understanding of the concepts involved: students answers to the questions. Discover if any concepts must be retaught. Step 5: Parallel Practicing (Post-reading) Right Mode: Extend Objective: To give students the opportunity to personalize the learned strategies by doing a collaborative reading-writing task.
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Activity: T distributes a Parallel Reading task, which is a text of 6 short paragraphs, sharing the same theme as in the step above. T then asks each group to read the text and write a summary out of each paragraph. T models the first paragraph as an example and asks Ss to compare that summary with the topic sentence stated in the paragraph. T then gives another transparency and asks each group to write out on that, reminding them that what they will write must be a sentence of no longer than 2 lines. T circulates while Ss are working. Music used (while Ss are working together): Mozart's Clarinet Concerto in A, Eine Kleine Nacht Musik, and Mozart's Flute & Harp Concerto in C Assessment: Completion of the project congruent with format created by teacher and students prior to the assignment. Step 6: Sharing Outcome (Post-reading) Quadrant Four: Doing ExperiencingCreation Left Mode: Refine Objective: To provide guidance and feedback on students projects; to encourage students to polish the project. Activity: T gets a sentence from each group. By using transparencies and OHT, T and Ss discuss the possibilities of the sentences, and also edit the sentences to make them grammatically correct. Assessment: Evaluation of project usefulness. Ability of students to explore and expand their reading strategies to other skill-based tasks. Right Mode: Perform Objective: To allow students to share what they learned and to evaluate the learning. Activity: T passes each group a transparency with paragraph summaries from the step above, making sure each will not get their own. T asks each group member to choose only 1 sentence on the transparency and paraphrase it in his/her own word by using as many as core vocabulary from step 1. (5 min) T tells each group to rotate what they have written to other members in their own group until each one has read all the paraphrased sentences in the group. T asks group members to discuss which paraphrase in their group they like best and why. When Ss finish, T calls on each group to report to the class on the positive aspects of the paraphrased sentence that they like. T gives comments and also briefly reviews the strategies to draw a wrap-up of the lesson. Music used (while Ss are working together): Mozart's Clarinet Concerto in A, Eine Kleine Nacht Musik, and Mozart's Flute & Harp Concerto in C Assessment: Quality of finished project. Quality of student engagement in the activity.
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ICLC 2010 Proceedings Null Subjects in a Chinese Learner of Englishs Oral Production Varasiri Sagaravasi National Institute of Development Administration
ABSTRACT Second language learners of English occasionally use null subjects not normally permissible in Standard English. This article examines environments that null subjects are likely to occur. The data were collected from a Chinese learner of English by means of five oral production tasks (picture-based narrative, free conversation, and on-line or play-by-play descriptions of the unfolding action in an animated cartoon broadcast on a television channel). The results reveal that null subjects in oral productions occur in a context in which there is the possibility of referent recoverability or topic predictability. Shared knowledge between a speaker and a listener, and foregrounded information in the context generally give rise to such a possibility. Additionally, the acts of planning and not planning discourse affect the frequency of the occurrence of null subjects. There is a likelihood of the production of null subjects in unplanned discourse rather than planned discourse except for events in which significant information is crucial for developing the discourse. Introduction Numerous scholars (Givon, 1983; Hilles, 1986; Williams, 1989; Gass & Lakshmanan, 1991; Yuan, 1997) have observed that second language learners of English occasionally use null subjects not normally permissible in Standard English. This holds true for an informant of this study, considering her oral production. She is a Chinese learner of English who sometimes employs null subjects in her speech in English context. However, this tendency is not limited to nonnative speakers of English (NNSs); it can also be found in spontaneous oral production of native speakers of English (NSs.). The influence of L1, therefore, is unlikely to be solely responsible for NNSs omission of subjects in English. Obviously there must be another explanation, some common factor that leads both NSs and NNSs to adopt null subjects in their speech. Many studies have been conducted in an attempt to identify the cause or causes of the omission of subject nouns and pronoun. In this respect, a central question in the study of second language acquisition is: in what environment(s) are null subjects likely to occur? To answer this question, the researcher proposes that (1) Null subjects would be found in the discourse context where a referent is recoverable or a topic is predictable from shared knowledge or foregrounded information. (2) Null subjects would be found in unplanned discourse rather than planned discourse.
ICLC 2010 Proceedings Literature Review
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Williams (1989) rejects the notion that the influence of L1 is the only reason for the occurrence of a null subject in a sentence since there is evidence that NSs also produce null subjects in casual spontaneous speech. She advocates the notion of recoverability, which suggests that in a context where the referent is recoverable either from previous discourse, the context of the discourse, or general knowledge, null subjects or zero anaphora will occur. Williams goes on to explain that with their limited linguistic resources, NNSs might choose to express only what is most important, and use zero anaphora for reference to a less important topic. The listener is then burdened by the task of decoding or guessing the reference through contextual information. Consequently, this strategy could hinder comprehension and cause a breakdown in communication, if the referents are not easily recoverable. Ochs (1979) claims that for the NSs the use of nextness of the referent or immediate context and the deletion of referents are features of unplanned speech. The task in Ochs study as cited by Williams (1989) is interactive and instantaneous. The subjects have little time to consider their responses, and thus give their replies immediately on the basis of a great deal of shared knowledge between the pairs, who are on close terms. Ochs points out that unplanned and planned discourse differ in that the former lacks forethought and organizational preparation whereas the latter has been thought out and organized (designed) prior to its expression (Ochs, 1979:55). The instances of the two are spontaneous conversation, and typical narrative either written or spoken, respectively. At this stage the researcher would like to point out that the notion that null subjects may be attributed to shared knowledge and recoverability is not confined only to English context. There seems to be universal agreement on this issue. Dittmar (1984) cited by Williams (1989:159) confirms this phenomenon. Based on his subjects (pidginised learner varieties of German) production, Dittmar(ibid) concludes that if new statements are made about people, objects, or affairs which have already been mentioned once, their referential identity is not verbally secured. Yuan (1997) explains that Chinese allows null subjects because it is a discourse-oriented language with a rule of Topic NP Deletion. This rule, according to Huang (1984) as cited by Yuan, can operate across discourse to delete the topic of a sentence under identity with a topic in a preceding sentence (Yuan, 1997: 472). Givon (1983) proposes the theory of topic continuity, or predictability as the explanation for the appearance of zero anaphora. In her research, Givon describes the correlation between the degree of continuity/predictability of topic NPs and the size of marking devices used to express them in the implicational hierarchy as follows: Zero>unstressed/>stressed/ clitic independent pronoun pronoun >full DEF-NP>modified DEF-NP
The left-most side of the hierarchy is that of the most continuous/predictable topic, while the degree of predictability/continuity decreases to the right (Givon, 1983:359). To put it simply, the higher the predictability of the topic, the higher the probability of zero anaphora. In regard to null subjects in unplanned discourse, Givon (1979) states that informalunplanned discourse is likely to exhibit more topicalized (left-dislocated) constructions, and
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an increased use of zero anaphora (null subjects) over anaphoric pronouns. In addition, informal-unplanned speech is commonly found initially among familiars who share a large background of their pragmatic presuppositions about the universe and themselves (Givon, 1979:105). Tomlins (1984) study suggests that the production constraints found in NSs unplanned discourse may affect the performance of NNSs as well. Based on characteristics of Ochs definition of unplanned discourse (Ochs 1979), and of Givons characterization of a pragmatic mode of communication (Givon 1979), Tomlin (1984) conducted an investigation in which his subjects produced on-line (play-by-play) descriptions of the unfolding action in an animated videotape. The results are twofold: (1) Under the communicative pressure of online description (the time pressure, and a responsive task), both NSs and NNSs retreat to a more pragmatic mode of communication as revealed by the loss of coding relationships between foregrounded -backgrounded information and the syntactic correlates of clause type of tense-aspect marking. (2) NNSs produce substantially less description than NSs, where this reduction is directed by a foregrounding strategy of describing significant events, but avoiding non-significant ones. In other words, foregrounded informationi that is crucial to the development of the discourse will be provided in the narrative whereas backgrounded information that serves to explicate foregrounded information will be ignored. Yuan (1997) points out that besides being regarded as a discourse-oriented language, Chinese is also a topic-prominent language, where structural subjects are not an obligatory element of the sentence. By contrast, English is a subject-prominent language, where all sentences must have a subject. This explains the use of it is and there is in English. Non-referential It/There are the empty-subject placeholders required to preserve canonical S.V.O. word order in English. However, Chinese does not have such structural subjects. In addition, Yuan (1997) suggests that since I(inflections of verbs) and AGR (subject-verb agreement) are underspecified in Chinese, the specified AGR and T(tense) in English can serve as a trigger for Chinese learners of English to become aware of the fact that a null subject is prohibited in English. This approach is based on the same concept as Hilles (1986) hypothesis that L1 setting of parameters has to be deactivated or reset in L2 acquisition. Hilles (1986) has based her study on the view of Universal Grammar (UG), which is a parameterized system with various settings depending on the language. In this theory, an L2 learner brings with him or her a set of parameter settings from his or her L1, in this case-the pro-drop or [+PD], to the L2 language, which causes the omission of subject pronouns. Therefore the parameter settings must be reset from [+PD] L1 to [-PD] L2. Hilles observes that her subject, a Spanish speaker learning English, dropped both subject pronouns, modals and expletives (non-referential It/There). Nevertheless, with the emergence of expletives and lexical material in AUX, absent subjects disappear. The same sequence has also been observed in NSE child language acquisition by Hyams (1983), cited by Hilles (1986:33-35). Since this phenomenon in child L1 acquisition has been attributed to the constraints of Universal Grammar, Hilles concludes that the constraints must also account for second language learners of English as well. In this view, non-referential It/There act as triggers by demonstrating to the learner that his or her [+PD] grammar does not conform to the
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grammar of the target language. A realization of this triggering effect would then force the learner to restructure INFL (inflection), where AUX is located, and thus to reevaluate English as a non-pro-drop language. Gass & Lakshmanan (1991) point out that comprehensible input and conversational interaction motivates language development. Nevertheless, if learners are provided ungrammatical input, the input can mislead them into producing null subjects, believing that their incorrect learner-language forms are correct. The examples gathered from their subjects performance demonstrate several instances of subjectless utterances in the input data. Many of them contain the omission of subjects from sentences with is as the copula or auxiliary and also NO V type sentences. Gass & Lakshmanan (1991) then suggest that in order for input to become useful to a learner, he or she must first notice the mismatch in form between the native and the second language. They conclude that the native language (English) plays an important role in guiding the learner as he or she looks for a certain kind of input, which matches what is already known (Gass & Lakshamanan, 1991:199). To recap, the studies done by Williams (1989), Ochs (1979), Givon (1979, 1983), Tomlin (1984), and Yuan (1997) elaborate on the notions of shared knowledge, recoverability, topic predictability, and the features of planned and unplanned discourse. The definitions of the notions, examples and a case study included in their studies have given insights into the informants production of null subjects in her speech in English. Williams (1989), Givon (1979, 1983), and Ochs (1979) shed light on the characteristics of speech contexts in which both NS and NNS would produce null subjects. Based on Tomlins (1984) findings, the researcher has modified his experiment on the on-line descriptions to test her hypothesis. She proposes that in an unplanned discourse, should the need for foregrounded information in expanding the discourse be critical, the occurrence of null subjects is rare. With this respect, null subjects are treated as a device marking backgrounded information or non-significant events. The experiment was also conducted under the production constraints identified by Ochs (1979), and Givon (1979). Yuan (1997), and Hilles (1986) studies reveal two different types of null-subject language. Moreover, they suggest a possible device to elicit NNSs awareness of the presence of subjects in Standard English. Gass & Lakshmanans (1991) research has broadened the researchers study to include input since it is essential for the study of language acquisition to understand the nature of the language information available to a learner. Methodology Subject: At the time this study was conducted, the informant was a twenty-three year old Taiwanese student, who had just obtained a Bachelor Degree in Physical Education from a university in Taiwan. She had spent 12 years in school from grade 1-12, and another four years in university. Her native language is Chinese. At school, she studied English grammar and reading. At university, even though she was not required to study English since her major was Physical Education, she attended English grammar and reading courses in her last year. She thought that English would be useful for her teaching career in Physical Education and believed it could help clarify the concepts of physical education to her students, given the fact that Chinese has a limited vocabulary in this subject area. After graduation, the informant planned to pursue her studies for an MA degree in Physical Education at a university in the United States of America. She then took a paper-
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based TOEFL exam; however she only scored 439. Hence, she decided to enroll in an Intensive English Program (IEP) at a university in the Midwest of America in order to improve her English proficiency. It was her hope that she wouldl score high enough to be admitted to study in the M.A program in Physical Education at the university where she was attending the IEP program. The informant attended IEP classes for three sessions. During her first session, she had class everyday from Monday to Friday, from 8 am. to 12 pm. Her courses included grammar, writing, reading, and communication. Every week, she was assigned to write an essay, read an article or a story, and prepare for a discussion in the class. The informant liked grammar and thought she was good at it, but not at writing, reading or speaking. The informant was an intermediate learner of English. When the researcher first met her, she was in Level 4 out of 7 levels. After two months at IEP, she managed to pass an IEP proficiency test and was then in Level 5. At the beginning of the session, she felt that it was difficult to express her ideas in English or understand an English passage because she had a limited vocabulary. Too shy to initiate a conversation in English, she usually went out with her Chinese friends, and conversed in Chinese. However, living in an English speaking environment exposed her to the language, people and their cultures. She seemed to grow confidence in expressing herself in English, and has more outside contact with native speakers in Bloomington. She sometimes talked to the canteen staff at her dormitory, or the staff of the university main library and the county public library. She read the campus newspapers on weekends in addition to her daily reading assignments. When she stayed in her room, she usually listened to music and news channels in English on a radio. She did not have her own television set, but she watched TV in the common room in the dormitory three times a week. She and her other Taiwanese classmates occasionally joined a party organized by some conversation club on campus. She was also assigned by her IEP instructor to an American partner to interact with in English. They meet once a week. In all, she seems to be highly motivated to learn English. Instruments: The data for the study were collected in three ways: 1. Picture-based narrative (two data sets) 2. Free conversation (four data sets) 3. On-line (play-by-play) descriptions of the unfolding action in an animated cartoon broadcast on a TV channel (one data set) It was anticipated that the three tasks would elicit performance representative of the features of planned and unplanned speech regarding null subjects. However, the on-line task was intended to tap performance different from Ochs (1979), and Givons (1979) predictions on the frequent use of null subjects in unplanned discourse. Picture-based narrative Tasks: In order to elicit oral narrative, the researcher asked the informant to tell in English two stories based on two sets of pictures. The first set consisted of eight pictures about a boy who was going to a summer camp, but left his luggage at a railway station. His parents caught up with him and gave him the luggage. The second set consisted of eight pictures about a family on holiday. They did a lot of activities: for example, going to an island, exploring caves, shopping for presents and souvenirs.
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Procedure: The informant was given a set of pictures and was allowed to look at them for five to ten minutes. She was then asked to give an oral narrative of the story. The tasks were done and recorded in two separate weeks. Given that the informant had ample time to both determine the content of the story and to organize her idea, it was expected that the picturebased narrative tasks would provide opportunity for planning discourse. Analysis: Approximately ten minutes of oral narrative for each story were collected. These oral data were transcribed and analyzed in terms of the types and tokens of nouns-pronouns in a subject position in a sentence, and non-referential It/Thereii. Any word that could not be clearly transcribed was excluded form the analysis. Obligatory contexts for subject nouns and pronouns were then counted. Each subject noun/pronoun occurring in the whole passage was scored. So was each null subject. The ratio of existing subjects to null subjects, existing subjects to obligatory subjects, and null subjects to obligatory subjects were calculated. The appearance of subject nouns/pronouns, and their absence in each narrative were both presented in percentage. All types, tokens, ratio, and percent were tabulated. Free conversation Tasks: In the interviews, the informant conversed informally with the researcher on a free topic. Procedure: Speech data were collected on a weekly basis during visits lasting approximately 30 to 40 minutes. Recordings were made in interview situations in which the researcher was an active interlocutor. The topics of the conversations ranged from the informants family, her studies in Taiwan and the United States, her likes and dislikes and so on. To encourage her to speak, the researcher asked her a lot of questions, including Yes-No and Why questions. The free conversation tasks were expected to provide less opportunity for planning, as the requirements of turn-taking in spontaneous conversation restrict the time available for considering responses. Analysis: Four sets of oral data were analyzed in detail, using the same measurement of performance as employed in the picture-based narrative. On-line (play-by-play) descriptions of the unfolding action in a cartoon broadcast on a TV channel Task: To investigate the frequency of null subjects in the oral production where foregrounded information is crucial in developing the discourse, the informant was asked to produce, simultaneously while viewing the cartoon, oral descriptions of the unfolding action. This type of task puts the informant under greater time pressure than an ordinary unplanned conversation. The informant must evaluate and deal with numerous brief events as they arise, taking little time to evaluate or interpret them (Tomlin, 1984:126). Material: The material used to elicit discourse data from the informant consisted of a three-minute Japanese animated cartoon broadcast on a cabled cartoon channel. The film had spoken language dubbed in English, music and sound effects. The cartoon told the story of a group of teenagers actions in three different scenes: at home, at school, and on a picnic. A cartoon was selected because of its lack of language. However at the time of the experiment, no silent cartoon was aired. Thus the Japanese animated cartoon was randomly chosen. Unfortunately, the cartoon was already half shown when the informant began to
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watch it. Considering that the informant had never seen this cartoon before, she had to rely on guessing the content and storyline. Procedure: The researcher turned down the volume so that no spoken words could be heard. She then had the informant describe the cartoon and recorded her on-line narrative. Before she started, the informant had been instructed in English to describe the action appearing on a TV screen in as much detail as she could manage at the moment she saw it occur. Analysis: The on-line descriptions were transcribed. The measurement of subject noun/pronouns and null subjects followed the steps taken in the picture-based narrative analysis. Results Planned discourse (story-telling) Table 1. The first set of data Obligatory Correct Incorrect Correct: Incorrect Correct: Obligatory Incorrect: Obligatory *Unclear on tape: 4 Table 2. The Second Set of Data Obligatory Correct Incorrect Correct: Incorrect Correct:Obligatory Incorrect: Obligatory *Unclear on tape: 3 Unplanned discourse (free conversation) Table 3. The first set of data Obligatory Correct Incorrect Correct: Incorrect Correct: Obligatory Incorrect: Obligatory *Unclear on tape: 5 Noun/Pronoun 60 49 (82%) 11 (18%) 49:11 49:60 11:60 Nonreferential It/there 11 2 9 2:9 2:11 9:11 Noun/Pronoun 25 25 (100%) Nonreferential It/there 2 2 (100%) Noun/Pronoun 23 21 (91%) 2 (9%) 21:2 21:23 2:23 Nonreferential It/there -
ICLC 2010 Proceedings Table 4. The second set of data Obligatory Correct Incorrect Correct: Incorrect Correct: Obligatory Incorrect: Obligatory *Unclear on tape: 4 Table 5. The third set of data Obligatory Correct Incorrect Correct: Incorrect Correct: Obligatory Incorrect: Obligatory *Unclear on tape: 4 Table 6. The fourth set of data Obligatory Correct Incorrect Correct: Incorrect Correct: Obligatory Incorrect: Obligatory *Unclear on tape: 8 Noun/Pronoun 196 178 (91 %) 18 (9%) 178:18 178:196 18:196 Nonreferential It/there 24 14 (58%) 10 (42%) 14:10 14:24 10:24 Noun/Pronoun 99 90 (91%) 9 (9%) 90:9 90:99 9:99 Nonreferential It/there 9 5 4 5:4 5:9 4:9 Noun/Pronoun 49 45 (92%) 4 (8%) 45:4 45:49 4:49 Nonreferential It/there 4 4 0:4 0:4 4:4
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Unplanned discourse (on-line descriptions) Table 7. Noun/Pronoun Nonreferential It/There 39 5 37 (95%) 5 (100%) (full noun 31%, pronoun 64%) Incorrect 2 (5%) Correct: Incorrect 37: 2 Correct: Obligatory 37: 39 Incorrect: Obligatory 2: 39 *Unclear on tape: 9 * The informants comments were not counted. Obligatory Correct
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Table 8. Overview of results Planned discourse Unplanned discourse Occurrence of subject nouns/pronouns 96% 90% (90% -free conversation) (95%- on-line descriptions) Occurrence of null subjects 4% 10% (10%-free conversation) (5%-on-line descriptions)
Table 1 and Table 2 show an almost 100 percent use of subject nouns/pronouns (91% and 100%) in two planned speech tasks. The informant scored higher in the second task. It can be seen that when the discourse is planned, null subjects are rarely found or absent at all. Tables 3, 4, 5, and 6 show the increased use of subject nouns/pronouns, and the decrease in frequency of the null subjects in unplanned discourse across the four sets of data. The informant has made good progress in employing subject nouns/pronouns. Table 7 shows the high frequency of subject nouns/pronouns (95%) in the on-line unplanned discourse. The full nouns have a 31% share and the pronouns, 64%. The occurrence of null subjects in this on-line task is very low (5%). Evidently, null subjects are treated as non-significant information. Table 8 shows the comparison between the use of subject nouns/pronouns and null subjects in both planned and unplanned discourse. The informant produced more null subjects in unplanned speech (10%) than in planned speech (4%). Within the category of unplanned discourse, null subjects in the free spontaneous conversations are found in higher frequency (10%) than the on-line descriptions (5%). General picture of the interlanguage regarding null subjects in speech The informants interlanguage in regard to the occurrence of null subjects in her oral production in English is probably influenced by three factors: (1) The apparently universal concept of recoverability, which allows null subjects in a context where a referent is recoverable (2) The notion that null subjects are unmarked in Chinese (Yuan, 1997) (3) Degree of speech planning (planned and unplanned discourse) Affected by the first two factors, the informant in the first phase adopted the use of null subjects in a sentence. However L2 (Standard English) input is not consistent with these two factors. This led her to the IL stage of testing the new knowledge while maintaining the old. This is evident in the fact that the informant alternated between supplying and omitting subject nouns/pronouns in her speech in English. As she passed along an interlanguage continuum, the degree of speech planning played a part in determining the frequency of subject nouns/pronouns, and null subjects in the speech. As the informant received more grammatical input, both in the classroom and in natural situations in an English-speaking environment, she noticed a mismatch between her own speech production and that of native speakers. What she did is part of a process noted by Gass & Lakshmanan (1991). Gradually, the informant restructured her IL grammar to make it conform to TL rules, as evidenced by the decrease of null subjects, and the increase of subject nouns/pronouns in her planned and unplanned discourses.
ICLC 2010 Proceedings Discussion
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A general finding in this study is that null subjects occur in an oral context, in which there is the possibility of referent recoverability or topic predictability. Shared knowledge between a speaker and a listener, and foregrounded information in the context generally give rise to such a possibility. Additionally, the acts of planning and not planning discourse affect the frequency of the occurrence of null subjects. There is a likelihood of the production of null subjects in unplanned discourse rather than planned discourse, except for situations in which significant information is crucial for developing the discourse. These findings support the researchers original hypotheses as explained below. The evidence confirms that null subjects often occurred in response to a Yes-No question where the information has already been foregrounded (Example 1) Example 1 Researcher: Informant: Informant: Do you feel comfortable using English in your conversations with the others? Before not comfortable using English, but now maybe better. Speaking so so. I think speaking before must be very poor, but
come here maybe I improve better than before.

Researcher: Informant: In Taiwan, do people have to use a lot of English in their daily life? No, not many. not often use. Sometimes maybe I think they think I speak not well, maybe I speak is wrong, so afraid to speak English, so not use English. Researcher: Informant: Researcher: Informant: Are there any Taiwanese students in your class? Yes, yes, have three. Do you know all the people living in this wing?
not know, but saw.
Null subjects are also found in an answer to a Wh-question where the shared knowledge between the researcher and the informant is established (Example 2). Example 2 a. Researcher: Informant: When you said you studied hard, what did you do?
concentrate in my textbook, and my homework. review today class, and do my best to understand, and maybe
Why did you go to bed so late?
b. Researcher: Informant:
homework, homework.
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ICLC 2010 Proceedings How do you prepare yourself for the writing class? I dont know how to prepare. Did your instructor tell you?
c. Researcher: Informant: Researcher: Informant:
just teach and OK today homework, and blah blah and go. Thats
it.
Null subjects are probably related to their recoverability from discourse (Williams, 1989), in addition to first language influence (Yuan, 1997). Obviously, the informant produced null subjects on the basis that there is no loss or little loss of meaning. It is clear that in the majority of occurrences, the referent of the null subject is recovered within the text (Examples 1 and 2). The preceding referent appears within one or two clauses before the null subjects. In this manner, continuity of reference is maintained by proximity (Williams, 1989:181). Therefore, the topic may be predictable or identified. The predictability of topic then results in the use of zero anaphora or null subjects (Givon, 1983:359). In example 2c, a null subject was used in place of a subject pronoun. However, the subject pronoun he or she is implied in the question (instructor) and is therefore recoverable. Ochs (1979) and Givon (1979) suggest an increase in the use of null subjects in unplanned discourse. Their claim holds true regarding the informants performance. Compared to her two picture-based narrative tasks, her four time-free conversations with the researcher exhibit characteristics of Ochs and Givons definition of unplanned discourse (Ochs 1979, Givon 1979). The contrast could be attributed to the time allotted for forethought and organizational preparation in the story-telling task, and the instantaneous turns at talk in the conversations. Surprisingly, the experiment on the on-line descriptions of animated cartoon yielded a rather different result. We can see that null subjects are hardly found in the informants unplanned on-line descriptions. On the contrary, there is a repetition of a full noun and pronoun (Example 3). A pronoun copy occurs once (Example 4). This confirms both Tomlins findings, and the researchers hypothesis based on his study. While watching the cartoon, the informant was using a foregrounding strategy of producing foregrounded informationiii at the expense of backgrounded information. Example 3 A picnic scene. Maybe one of them (a new group) xxx Oh! one is eating food like a sushi, Japanese food. There are two people. They may be picnic now. One is girl. One is boy, and something fly on a sky. They may be a couple. The girl xxx really like a boy, and a boy say Will you marry me? A girl shake her head. Someone coming, and a boy go out and leave a girl. A girl feel sad. Example 4 A home scene. Now a girl (the second girl) is a cooking. A girl (the third girl), a blue hair now she say (Oh, I dont knowmy informants comment). The underlying cause could be that contrary to what happens in spontaneous conversation, shared knowledge between a speaker and a listener does not take place or seldom does in an extended narrative where there are no short turns at talk. Furthermore, the
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situation at that moment called for foregrounded information to describe the significant actions or events of the cartoon as the film progressed. Three other factors should also be taken into consideration: (1) The informant did not watch the whole cartoon. In fact, because she missed almost half of the story, she had to start in the middle when the storyline had already been established. She then had to try her best to describe the cartoon as clearly as she could. (2) There are many characters in the cartoon, at least more than five. Clarity would have been at risk if null subjects had been used to identify each character. (3) Time pressure and the increasing pace of the film were an additional factor which forced the informant to describe only the important events. Under these production constraints, the full noun, pronoun copy, and even pronoun, rather than the null subject, were employed for two purposes; to introduce the significant events, and to maximize clarity. To recap, there is a tendency for null subjects to show up in unplanned discourse rather than planned discourse. Nonetheless, null subjects might be occasionally found in unplanned discourse if significant information is needed to develop the discourse. On the whole, the informants preference to fill in the subject position in her oral production seems to be determined by its function: 1. Null subjects are used when they refer to recoverable referents in the environment where there is no ambiguity (Givon 1979, Williams 1989). They represent an insignificant topic or information. They are never used to introduce a new topic or event. 2. Full nouns and pronoun copies are used when there is a potential ambiguity or low continuity/predictability in a speech context (Givon, 1983). These two devices mark important themes. A pronoun copy in particular is employed to highlight or focus the referent when it can be confused with other semantically compatible referent in the closest environment (the second girl and the third girl in Example 4) or when the referent is presented for the first time (Example 5), which is in accord with Williams findings (1989:182). Example 5 Your parents, your family, they can sometime water, electric. You can get 50% discount. Conclusion Overall, the findings of this study validate the researchers hypothesis; that the occurrence of null subjects is rare in unplanned discourse when the need for foregrounded information in expanding the discourse is critical. Null subjects are therefore treated as a device marking backgrounded information or non-significant events. Limitation and Recommendation This is just a preliminary study. More evidence is required to identify the occurrence of a null subject when a referent is recoverable in a context. The investigation should include the performance of more non-native speakers of English in planned and unplanned discourse. Subjects should come from different countries with varieties of languages such as a Pro-drop
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and other discourse language. The examination should cover the appearance of null subjects in their L1 based on the notion of recoverability. If the same results were reported, they would not only verify the researchers hypotheses, but would also present more evidence in support of the notion that recoverability could be universal concept. The first goal of future investigation should probably be to make a clear distinction between the two types of written discourse. It could begin with Ochs (1979) definitions of planned and unplanned discourse. As for a planned written narrative, writing a story based on a picture would be a good choice. For an unplanned discourse, a task to elicit written discourse would pose a problem due to the nature of a written task, which in itself is a planned discourse. To solve the problem, informants might be asked to engage in an on-line chat, which is informal in nature like a free conversation. However it s important to have time set for short turns during the chat. A carefully planned procedure is required. References Gass, S., & Lakshmanan U., (1991). Accounting for interlanguage subject pronouns. Second Language Research 7 (3), 181-203. Givon, T., (1979). From discourse to syntax; grammar as a processing strategy. in T. GIVON (ed.) Discourse and Syntax: Syntax and Semantics, Vol. 12, New York: Academic Press, pp. 81-112. Givon, T., (1983). Topic continuity in spoken English. in T.GIVON (ed.) Typological Studies in Language, vol. 3, Topic continuity in discourse: A Quantitative Crosslanguage Study. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 343-63. Hilles, S., (1986). Interlanguage and the pro-drop parameter. Second Language Research, 2 (1), 33-52. Ochs, E., (1979). Planned and unplanned discourse. in T. GIVON (ed.) Discourse Syntax and Semantics, Vol. 12, New York: Academic Press, pp. 51-80. Tomlin, R., (1984). The treatment of foreground and background information in the on-line descriptive discourse of second language learners. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, vol.16, No.2, pp. 115-43. Wiliams, J., (1989). Pronoun copies, pronominal anaphora and zero anaphora in second language production. in S. Gass (ed.) Variation in Second Language Acquisition, vol. 1: Discourse and Pragmatics. Philadelphia: Multilingual Matters, pp. 151-89. Yuan, B., (1997). Asymmetry of null subjects and nul objects in Chinese Speakers English. SSLA, 19, 467-497.
For the purpose of his study, Tomlin (1984) has divided the foreground-background continuum into three discrete levels: Pivotal information: Propositions which describe the most important events in the narrative. Foregrounded information: Propositions which describe successive events in the narrative. Backgrounded information: Propositions which elaborate PI or FI or which perform any other function in the narrative. ii Since the hypotheses for this study center around recoverability, non-referential It/There data were not interpreted in the results nor were they discussed. The data on those utterances containing non-referential It/there are shown in Tables though. iii Note that the foregrounded information in this context is subject to Tomlins (1984) study.
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The Relationship between the Usage and the Understanding of Prepositions in Reading Comprehension among Thai Students Associate Professor Dr. Natchaya Chalaysap School of Language and Communication, National Institute of Development Administration (NIDA) Bangkok 10240, Thailand. natchaya@nida.ac.th
ABSTRACT This research aimed to examine the relationship between the preposition usage ability and comprehension of the parts of English sentences where prepositions were deleted. The subjects were sixty graduate students in different fields of study who were divided into three proficiency-level groups. The students were asked to fill in each blank in the cloze test with a preposition and to translate the passages into Thai to measure their comprehension. A significant difference was found only between the high- and the low-proficiency groups in the mean scores of preposition usage and of comprehension. It was found that the ability to use English prepositions had little impact on comprehension, for the readers could use their background knowledge, including their mother tongue to detect the text meaning. It was therefore recommended that students be trained to speed up their reading by quickly scan through, or even overlook, most prepositions. Background of the Problem Prepositions are a part of speech that has several interesting aspects. First, some words are followed by only a specific preposition. e.g., They believe in God. We are interested in tourism. The adviser commented on his thesis. Secondly, some words can be followed by different prepositions, depending on the information expressed in the noun phrase after it. e.g., Im disappointed in you. I really thought I could trust you! They were bitterly disappointed at the result of the game. He was disappointed by the quality of the dissertation. He was very disappointed with himself.
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Thirdly, some nouns are preceded by only a specific preposition. e.g., on the road in the street on the radio on TV in a panic
Fourthly, some nouns can take different prepositions in front of them. The usage depends sometimes on the degree of formality. e.g., He is a researcher from/at/of a university in Thailand. Fifthly, in some instances, the word meaning depends partly on the preposition after it. e.g., The environmentalists are concerned about global warming. (are worried about) The article is concerned with global warming. (discusses about) Sixthly, the meaning of some prepositions is not consistent. Many have more than one meaning. e.g., The baht appreciated against the dollar. They voted against the tax reform proposal. He studied palmistry out of curiosity. (because of) He went out of the building. Lastly, traditional grammar classifies prepositions as structure words or function words, whereas modern linguistics considers them as a kind of content word. (Wardhaugh, 2003) Prepositions are considered a linking device. They show the relationship between words in sentences. However, the number of research on prepositions as a linking device is small. So far, researchers have been interested in studying discourse markers as a linking device. In his dissertation on The Relationship between Understanding Prepositions and Reading Comprehension, Foust (1982) used as his sample 127 Grade 4 pupils in many public schools in Colombo, Ohio, USA. These pupils were divided into three groups based on the economic status of their families. They were administered an IQ test, a reading skill test, and a cloze test with prepositions as variable. He found statistically significant relationship between understanding the relationship shown by prepositions and reading comprehension. He also found that prepositions are varied in difficulty and that comprehension of the relationship shown by prepositions was related to the familys economic status and the IQ, but no significant difference was found between genders. Arlin (1983) found that understanding of prepositions increased as children became more mature. Grabowski and Weiss (1996) studied the factors affecting the understanding of prepositions and the relationships expressed by prepositions in five languages: German, Dutch, French, Italian and English. They found that the discourse situation in which a preposition was used was significantly related to the usage and the understanding of prepositions of time and place in all the five languages. Mikk (1997) conducted an experiment to find out how much each part of speech could predict an individuals reading ability. He used a cloze test as an instrument and found that texts with a large number of nouns and adjectives were more difficult to read than those with a large number of verbs and adverbs. The difficulty also depended on the function of a word in the sentence and the subclass of that word. However, he stated that it was not clear whether prepositions had a significant impact on the reading ability.
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Although the role of prepositions in reading comprehension is still not clear, there has hardly been research conducted on this topic using EFL learners as a sample. In the Thai context, Thai students experience the problem of incorrect usage of prepositions, but the degree of seriousness of the problem is not known. On the other hand, except for idioms containing prepositions (the meaning of which must be interpreted as a whole), Thai students seem to have little problems with understanding the relationship between words linked by a preposition. However, there is no empirical evidence to prove this point. Thus, the problems studied in this research were Is the ability to use English prepositions significantly different from the ability to comprehend part of the sentence where a preposition is deleted? and Does the ability to use English prepositions significantly influence the ability to comprehend part of the sentence where a preposition is deleted? Objectives of the Study The study was conducted for the following objectives: 1. to measure the students ability to use English prepositions; 2. to measure their ability to comprehend part of the sentence where a preposition is deleted; 3. to identify the relationship between the students ability to use English prepositions and their ability to comprehend part of the sentence where a preposition is deleted. Scope of the Study The study included prepositions naturally appearing in a long text. It excluded preposition-like adverbs, such as stand up, sit down and particles in phrasal verbs, such as look into, put off. In addition, the only background variable studied was the reading ability Usefulness of the Study The finding about errors in preposition usage could be used as a guideline to teach prepositions. The finding about the ability to supply prepositions deleted from the text could contribute to the teaching of speed reading. That is, since prepositions do not influence reading comprehension at a high level, students can be trained to quickly pass over prepositions in the reading text, using their background or world knowledge to link the words together to derive the meaning.. Methodology Subjects The subjects of the study consisted of 100 graduate students in four schools at National Institute of Development Administration (NIDA), a graduate institute in Thailand. These four schools were Public Administration, Business Administration, Development Economics, and Applied Statistics. These students were in their first semester at NIDA and were required to take an English reading skill development course for graduate students. They were administered for half an hour a standardized reading test for EFL learners prepared by Harold V. King and Russell N. Campbell in 1987 and only 60 students whose scores were in the range of high, middle, and low proficiency were selected to include in the study. There were 20 students in each reading proficiency group. The reading ability of each group as described in the standardized test was as follows:
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Group High
Range of Scores (%) 80-90
Description
Prepared to pursue college work in any field without handicap as far as reading is concerned. Can read literature for enjoyment
Middle
60-70
Equivalent to those who have completed the usual four-year basic course in English. Ready to start reading unsimplified prose.
Low
30-40
Average elementary student (first or second year). Can read lesson material that has been studied under the teachers guidance.
Materials A cloze test with 50 prepositions deleted was used as a research instrument . The test was composed of two passagesone taken from a daily English newspaper Bangkok Post and the other from a magazine Choices. See the appendix. The test was pretested with students of similar characteristics. It had content validity as measured against the objective of the study and its reliability as measured by the split-half technique was .737. Data collection At the beginning of the semester, about one week after they took the standardized reading test, the subjects were administered the cloze test. They were told to fill in each blank with a preposition (a single word or a multi-word preposition as appropriate). After that they were asked to translate the two passages into Thai. The total time for the test was two hours and a half. Data analysis In grading the test, the researcher consulted an English-speaking instructor at the Institute about the possible choices of preposition in each blank. In assigning scores for comprehension, each part of the sentence where a preposition was deleted was given one point if the student could translate the part correctly, even though the preposition usage was incorrect. The scores were then compared among the groups. Findings Difference in the ability to use prepositions When the three groups of different reading ability were compared by using One-Way ANOVA to find out if there was a significant difference in their preposition usage, no significant difference was found among the three groups. However, when the groups were paired for comparison, it was found that only the High and the Low groups were significantly different in their ability to use prepositions at the .05 level. See Table 1.
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Table 1: Comparison of the ability to use prepositions of the three groups Group Low Middle Low High Middle High Mean 33.05 34.70 33.05 36.15 34.70 36.15 SD 7.21 6.58 7.21 3.42 6.58 3.42 Std. error 1.61 1.47 1.61 .77 1.47 .77 df 38 38 38 t -.756 -1.738 -.874 Sig.(2-tailed) .454 .090 .389
Averagely, the students could use prepositions about 69.26 % correct (66.10 % in the Low group, 69.40 % in the Middle group, and 72.30 % in the High group). In other words, they used prepositions about 30.74% incorrect. The lower reading proficiency group made more errors than the group with higher reading proficiency. Difference in the ability to understand part of the sentence where a preposition was deleted When One-Way ANOVA was used to compare the ability of the three groups in understanding part of the sentence where a preposition was deleted, a significant difference was found mong the three groups at the .05 level. However, when they were paired for comparison by using independent t-test, again only the High and the Low groups were significantly different in their ability to comprehend part of the sentence where a preposition was deleted at the .05 level. See Table 2. Table 2: Ability to understand part of the sentence where a preposition was Deleted Group Low Middle Low High Middle High Mean 48.10 48.55 48.10 48.85 48.55 48.85 SD 1.17 .83 1.17 .49 .83 .49 Std.error .26 .18 .26 .11 .18 .11 -1.398 .172 -2.654 .014 df 38 t -1.409 Sig. (2-tailed) .167
In fact, the mean score for each group was very high; the difference was only in the decimal number. But the standard deviation in the Low group was rather high, higher than the Middle group and the High group, which meant that the scores in the Low group were more deviated from the mean. This suggested that prepositions could cause the problem of reading comprehension in the low reading proficiency group rather the higher reading proficiency group.
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Relationship between the ability to use prepositions and the ability to understand part of the sentence where a preposition was deleted Pearsons Correlation was used to find out the overall relationship between the ability to use prepositions and the ability to understand part of the sentence where a preposition was deleted. It was found that there was a moderately positive relationship between the two variables at the .05 level (r = .486). Table 4: Relationship between the ability to use prepositions and the ability to read Group Correlation Low .375 Middle .662** High .171 Total .486* *Significant at the .05 level **Significant at the Sig. (2-tailed) .103 .001 .470 .000 .01 level
Therefore, the research hypothesis that there is a significant relationship between the ability the ability to use prepositions and the ability to understand part of the sentence where a preposition is deleted was accepted. When individual groups were considered separately, a moderately positive relationship was found only in the Middle group at the .001 level (r = .662). Errors in Preposition Usage The analysis of errors made by the students in filling out the cloze test revealed that errors in each group were rather similar. Many students seemed to focus on the meaning of the sentence, rather than on finding the right preposition to fill in the blank as evidenced by the use of other parts of speech that they thought could help them understand the sentence. Examples of other parts of speech the students used to fill in the first blank of the first passage in the test were said, that, therefore, and, every year. This phenomenon occurred in many blanks and across the three groups. The errors could be said to be attributed to the following factors: 1. Mother tongue interference In certain places in sentences where English needs a preposition, Thai does not need any preposition. Or if a preposition is needed, it is not necessary to be the same as in English. For example, in item # 2 of the first passage, a new study released ____ the World Health Organization Thai can say a new study of the World Health Organization, omitting the word released, to mean the same thing as in English. So many Thai students in the study did not to fill in this blank with by. In addition, Thai and English may use the same preposition, but Thai may have more than one preposition as alternatives to fill in the blank. For example, in item # 22 in the first passage killed ____ the roads, both Thai and English use the same preposition, i.e., on. However, English has only one preposition to use in front of the roads, while Thai can have at in front of this noun phrase. In this case, although Thai students could not supply a correct preposition, they could understand the text. In the same way, English sometimes has some preposition alternatives to link words in a certain place in a sentence, while Thai has only one preposition. The words between, among, during are a
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good example. All the three words have only one Thai word equivalent. Thai students thus had a problem of wrong usage, but not the problem of comprehension. Sometimes preference in the mother tongue plays an important role in choosing prepositions. For example, in item # 31 in the second passage, the product will solve a major headache ___local authorities the right answer is for. Although Thai can usefor in this case, most Thais prefer using of. So many of the Thai students in the study used of, which was of course an error. However, they had no problem in comprehension. 2. Guessing Because the students in this study did not master preposition usage, they made a guess. In guessing they did not depend on their mother tongue (which they should have turned to), but on what they thought should be the correct answer, as they knew that sometimes English and Thai used a different word. Unfortunately, they made errors because they did not remember which preposition to use. One piece of evidence was that they could correctly translate the part of the sentence where a preposition was deleted into Thai, linking the words with the preposition that can be used in both Thai and English. However, they did not think of filling in the blank with such a preposition. For example, in item # 25 an estimated 1.5-2.0 percent ___ GDP, Thai and English use the same preposition in this blank; still some students use other prepositions, such as in, on, to. Some students could not remember the rules of preposition usage, especially prepositions of place. For example, in English in is used for a large place like a city or a country, while at is used with a small place. In Thai, both prepositions can be used for both a large place and a small place. It is not surprising to see Thai students use at in front of the name of the country in items # 23 and 24. Nevertheless, there was no problem for them to comprehend part of the sentence linked by a preposition. Some students preferred to use prepositions of time that they found more often instead of thinking carefully about the exact meaning. For example, in items # 20 and 40 English uses by in front of the year and Thai also has an equivalent word. However, the preposition by and the Thai equivalent are not a common preposition to be used in front of such an expression. The students turned to use in, which was often found in front of the year. Of course, they made an error in both usage and in reading comprehension. Also, some students thought that some prepositions could be used interchangeably. This caused an error in items # 17, 30 and 32. In item # 17, decreasing ____ all OECD countries the preposition in must be used here because the word countries is preceded by all, but many students used among, which was unacceptable in the context. In item# 30, the students used in instead of within. Although both prepositions were possible, only within could fit the context. The meaning changed if in was used. In item # 32, the students used in in front of the world because they thought it could be used interchangeably with around. However, they had no problem in comprehension, although they could not supply the correct preposition. 3. Carelessness Often the students in the study did not pay enough attention to the head word of the noun phrase after the preposition. Or perhaps it was likely that they did not know which word is the head word. The errors could be found in items # 11, 15, and 18. As soon as some
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students saw the word road, they placed on in front of it. In item # 50, many students used for and on instead of of because they did not carefully read the context around the blank. They just tried to find a preposition that could go with the word research. 4. Not knowing which words are prepositions, or giving too much importance to the meaning, neglecting the function of words in the sentence. It is not known for sure what has caused the error of using other parts of speech in the place where a preposition must be used. They seemed to neglect the function of different parts of speech in the sentence. Perhaps the students gave importance to the meaning. They used any word that they thought could be link the parts that they were reading. This phenomenon could be found in about half of all items in the test. Discussion From the statistical analysis it was found that, in preposition usage, the high reading ability group got a higher mean score than the middle reading ability group and the low reading ability group. However, only the mean score of the High group was significantly higher than the Low group when they were paired for comparison. This indicated that the ability to use prepositions was not much different among the students of different reading proficiency. Overall, the students could supply back the deleted prepositions with 69.27% correct. This suggested that preposition usage is an important problem in writing, for they could make about 30.73 percent of preposition errors when they wrote their own compositions. The errors were found to be caused by mother tongue interference and the difference in usage between Thai and English. Guessing was the strategy they used to choose the prepositions to use in the context. The finding also showed that the ability to comprehend part of the sentence where a preposition was deleted was much superior to the ability to use them. This is not a surprising fact; it is the case that L2 learners generally possess a lower ability in production skills than that in recipient skills. Regarding the mean score of comprehending part of the sentence where a preposition was deleted, it was found the students in all the three groups could get almost a full score in their translation. The fact suggested that most students could handle prepositions well in reading. They could use their linguistic knowledge in the mother tongue as well as the world knowledge in comprehending the text, as they could supply their own prepositions to links the words in each sentence. Prepositions caused little problem in reading to the Low, Middle, and High groups alike. Can understanding prepositions be a predictor of reading ability? Based on the findings, understanding prepositions might not be a good predictor for reading ability, as the students from the different reading proficiency level could get a very high score in translation or in comprehension. Also, the significant difference among the groups as shown when the F-test and the t-test were used to compare them might be because students in the same range of reading scores varied a great deal in their ability to handle prepositions. That is why Mikk (1997) could not state whether or not prepositions could predict the reading ability level. Furthermore, this study also reflects the influence of culture in language usage. The way people from different cultures look at the world need not always be the same. This can be seen from preposition usage. Thais do not care whether a place is big or small, the same
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preposition(s) can be used in front of both small and big places: in or at a city or country , in or at a university, while English people are particular in this aspect, and only in is used in front of a big place and at in front of a small place. In addition, Thai and English do not use the same preposition to show the same relationship. And even at the same position in the sentence, the number of prepositions possible to be used in that position varies. In other words, preference in preposition usage exists, although this may not affect comprehension. Language formality also plays a role in preposition usage. For example, in item # 48 in the test researchers _____ the university, three prepositions at, of, and from can possibly be used to fill in the blank, but at is the best choice here. Of in this context sounds too formal (although acceptable to some native speakers), as of is usually used for a person in a high social or work position (e.g., Im an instructor at a university. He is the president of the university.). Next, the findings of this study support Fousts statement that prepositions have different degrees of difficulty. In this research, for example, according to was more difficult than other prepositions; very few students could think of this preposition and supply it in the given passage. However, it did not cause a problem in comprehension. On the other hand, in and within in item # 30 were misunderstood to mean the same thing. Lastly, the findings of this study tend to support traditional grammar which classifies prepositions as a type of function words or structure words because the subjects (readers) of the study could correctly translate part of the sentence where a preposition was deleted, indicating their understanding of the relationship between words or phrases. Conclusions The results of the study reveal that the ability to comprehend prepositions is much higher than the ability to use them, and that the better ones ability to use prepositions, the higher ones ability to comprehend part of the sentence where preposition is deleted. The mother tongue can be said to be both a source of errors as well as a source of assistance in preposition usage. But in reading comprehension the mother tongue and the world knowledge could make a good contribution in facilitating reading. Prepositions do not seem to be a good predictor of reading ability because it has been found that there is variance of scores even within the students in the same range of reading ability. Different prepositions also have a different degree of difficulty in usage as well as in comprehension. Recommendations Recommendations for instruction The findings revealed that students could use their background or world knowledge in identifying the relationship between words (the function of prepositions as a linking device). Therefore, it was recommended that in teaching speed reading, students be trained to pass over prepositions in the text quickly and to use their background knowledge to understand each part of the sentence where a preposition exists. Besides, it is necessary to teach students to recognize both simple and complex prepositions, as the students in this study did not seem to know that according to which is an often used preposition is a preposition.
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Recommendations for further research In this research the same prepositions occurred again and again in the passages, and thus the test might be rather easy. Further research should use more difficult texts. In addition, the passages contained only one multi-word preposition, and such kind of prepositions was found to be very difficult for the students. They hardly thought of using multi-word prepositions when they were asked to fill in the blank with a preposition. Therefore, further research should deal with measuring the degree of difficulty of single-word prepositions and multi-word prepositions in usage as well as in reading comprehension.
References Arlin, Marshall. 1983. Childrens comprehension of semantic constraints on temporal prepositions. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 12 (1), January, pp. 115. Foust, Charles David. 1982. The relationship between understanding prepositions and reading comprehension. Dissertation Abstract, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Grabowski, J. and Weiss, P. 1996. The prepositional inventory of languages: A factor that affects comprehension of spatial prepositions. Language Sciences, 18(1-2), January-April, pp. 19-35. Mikk, Jaan. 1997. Parts of speech in predicting reading comprehension. Journal of Quantitative Linguistics, 4(1-3), pp. 156-163. Wardhaugh, Ronald. 2003. Understanding English Grammar: A Linguistic Approach. 2nd ed. Singapore: Blackwell Publishing Appendix The Cloze Test Directions: In the following passages, prepositions are missing. Fill in each blank with an appropriate preposition. Be careful; some prepositions consist of more than one word. Then translate the whole passages into Thai. Passage 1 1.2 Million Die Each Year in Traffic Accidents Road traffic injuries kill 1.2 million people each year and injure or disable 50 million more, (1) according to a new study released (2) by the World Health Organization and the World Bank. Road accidents are the second leading cause (3) of death (4) among / of five (5) to 29 year-olds, and the third leading cause (6) of death (7) among / of people (8) between / of 30-44 years (9) of age globally. More (10) than 80 percent (11) of road deaths occur (12) in developing countries, although the residents (13) of / in these countries own less (14) than 20 percent (15) of the worlds road vehicles. While both the
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number and rate (16) of vehicle accidents are decreasing (17) in all OECD countries, the numbers or rates (18) of road injuries are rapidly increasing (19) in all developing countries and it is estimated that (20) by 2020 more (21) than 300,000 people will be killed (22) on the roads each year both (23) in China and (24) in India. Automobile accidents cost developing countries an estimated 1.5-2.0 percent (25) of GDP. (Slightly adapted from Choices, June 2004, p. 5.)
Passage 2 Science: British Research Success Finally, gum that wont stick LondonBritish researchers said yesterday they had cracked a sticky problem that scientists have been chewing over (26) for years (27) by inventing gum which is easily removable (28) from shoes, pavements and hair. (29) According to its developer, Revolymer, chewing gum, which should be launched next year, disappears naturally (30) within [in possible with difference in meaning. Here in is considered incorrect.] 24 hours. If it catches on, the product will solve a major headache (31) authorities (32) around / all over the world. (33) In Britain alone, councils spend more (34) pounds ( (35) about / around 10.5 billion baht) (36) per from the streets using chemicals or spray jets. (38) In chewing gum (40) gum available (42) for local
than 150 million year blitzing gum (37)
Singapore, the authorities tackled the problem (39) by banning in 1992, but the measure was relaxed (41) in / by 2004 to make a medical prescription. to / for people (43) with
Professor Terence Cosgrove, Revlymers chief scientific officer who is also an academic (44) at / of / from Bristol University (45) in southwest England, said the gum was less sticky when a polymer had been added (46) to / into the recipe.
The advantages (47) of our Clean Gum is that it has a great taste, it is easy to remove and has the potential to be environmentally degradable, Professor Cosgrove said. Last week, researchers (48) at / of / from University College Cork
southwest Ireland said they were developing a biodegradable gum and added (49) in they needed to do another two and a half years (50) of research to develop the final product. AFP (Slightly adapted from Bangkok Post, Saturday 15, 2007, p.1.)
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Research title: ELT Innovation: Students Participation in Generating Academic Reading Materials Associate Professor Dr. Natchaya Chalaysap Dr. Compol Swangboonsatic Assistant Professor Dr. Kanyarat Getkham Assistant Professor Dr. Kasma Suwanarak Assistant Professor Dr. Ketkanda Jaturongkachoke Dr. Khwanchira Sena Natthinee Klamphonpook, M.A. Assistant Professor Dr. Rujira Rojjanaprapayon Assistant Professor Dr. Saksit Saengboon Assistant Professor Dr. Savitri Gadananij Associate Professor Varasiri Sagaravasi School of Language and Communication, National Institute of Development Administration (NIDA) Bangkok 10240, Thailand. e-mail address: lc@nida.ac.th
Abstract This research paper was aimed at (1) examining NIDA graduate students ability to read English academic texts at the paragraph level, (2) comparing the ability to read such English texts between the group that was taught by having the students participate in generating reading materials at the paragraph level(the experimental group) and the group that was taught by the traditional method, using common core reading materials provided by the language teaching unit, the School of Language and Communication (the control group), and (3) finding out the attitude of the students in the experimental group toward the participation in generating reading materials. The sample consisted of 60 non-major Masters degree students from 6 schools at National Institute of Development Administration (NIDA) who failed LC. 4001: Reading Skills Development in English for Graduate Studies and was required to take a remedial reading course LC. 4011: Remedial Reading Skills Development in English for Graduate Studies in the summer session (3/2009). The experimental group and the control group had 30 students each. They were placed in each group on the basis of their score in LC. 4001. It was found that the average score of the reading ability in the experimental group was 63.62% and that in the control group was 57.11%. Such scores were lower than the passing score of 70% set by the School of Language and Communication.
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Next, the mean score of the reading achievement test of the experimental group was found to be significantly higher than that of the control group at the 0.05 level. In addition, the experimental group was found to have a very positive attitude toward the innovative teaching method. The research results showed the effectiveness of the innovative teaching method, which would be useful for teachers who looked for innovation in English language teaching. Introduction Currently, the teacher-centered approach to language teaching can be said to be outdated and the learner-centered approach has taken its place, at least in theory. In the former approach, all the actual content of the class comes from the teacher or the instructional materials (Hall, 2001). Still, the three key components in language classroomthe teacher, the learner, and the materialsremain unchanged. Even though the learner-centered approach is in fashion, instructional materials are still prepared by the teacher or the language teaching unit that offers the course. Especially in Thailand teaching materials are commercial texts or, in many educational institutions, they are common core materials provided by the language teaching unit for teachers to use. Change has emerged elsewhere in language education to follow the new trend of language teaching, but practitioners seem to neglect the potential for language learners to participate in generating their own learning materials, especially in academic reading courses. Hall (2001: 232) suggests that language learners themselves are in a unique position to look for relevant resource materials, as they know their own needs and interests. So far few research studies have been conducted, if at all, which focus on learners role in generating teaching materials. Arguing for learners participation in generating their own learning materials, Kenny (1993) states that the process of learners searching for materials and then bringing them to class to present to other learners do not involve just simple selection., but they must change their role from being receivers of information to active accountability, because they have to present their selections and defend them. Up to now, only teachers and textbooks have been criticized as repetitive, tedious, uninteresting, irrelevant, and so on. But if learners are involved in all the teaching process, including material development, every component in language classroom becomes accountable. Many teachers may not want their students to get involved in material development. There has been a tendency to rely too much on classroom teaching materials as a tool for effective teaching and learning. But Rea-Dickens and Germaine (2001) contend that unrealistic expectations are made of teaching materials. In fact, the effectiveness of teaching and learning does not depend only upon how good or bad the instructional materials are. Allwright (1981) says that teaching materials are just part of the cooperative management of language learning. This implies that it is not the teacher or the language teaching unit only that should solely responsible for preparing teaching materials, students should be given an opportunity to do so, as well. With regard to teaching reading English for Academic Purposes (EAP), DudleyEvans and St John (1998: 11) state that there are two types of actual content: real content and carrier content. Real content is language skills to be taught, whereas carrier content is used as a vehicle for the real content of the teaching unit or lesson. They gave an example that the life cycle of a plant can be used as a context or carrier content to present and practice the expressions of time sequences as found in the description of the process and cycles, which are the real content.
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As EAP teachers know, carrier content taken from authentic texts are often difficult for EFL students. In most educational programs in Thailand, most textbooks in the mainstream subjects that students are required to read are written in Thai. It is therefore difficult for Thai students to read English textbooks and journal articles in specialized fields. Using authentic texts as carrier contents often hinders teaching real content. However, authentic texts are still considered necessary, especially for graduate students. The question is how the teacher can help reduce the students difficulty in having to read authentic texts. Nuttall (1982) suggests that for L2 or EFL students language skills to develop, materials must be consistent with their needs and wants. McDonough (1984) also suggests the same thing. According to Alvarez et al. (1983: 864), because EFL learners are different and because reading is a personal activity, learners should be given choices as much as possible. This implies that rather than teaching reading skills by the traditional method of teachers providing reading materials and lectures in class, EFL student readers should be given an opportunity to take part in generating materials for learning reading strategies. This can be an innovation in language teaching that deserves an experiment to prove its effectiveness. The results of this study will be useful for teachers who want to have a new alternative method of teaching academic reading, as the innovative method will increase students motivation and bring about a good attitude toward reading English texts. Therefore, the objectives of the study are as follows: 1. to find out the mean score of the reading ability of the students taught by the traditional method (the control group) and the mean score of the reading ability of those taught by the innovative method, i.e., having students participate in generating materials for their reading course (the experimental group). 2. to compare the mean scores of the reading ability of both groups 3. to examine the attitude of the students in the experimental group toward the innovative method. Framework of the Study This study is quasi-experimental research. It is a post-test only design and includes one control group and one experimental group. The independent variable is the teaching methodtraditional VS innovativeand the dependent variable is the students ability to read as measured by a reading achievement test. Hypotheses Two hypotheses of the study are 1. There is difference in the mean score of the reading achievement test between the control group and the experimental group. 2. The students who have been taught by participating in generating reading materials have a positive attitude toward this teaching method. Operational definition Traditional teaching method: prevalent classroom teaching of paragraph reading skills with common core instructional materials supplied by the School of Language and Communication
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Innovative/new teaching method: learner-centered method of teaching paragraph reading skills that allows students to participate in generating reading materials Attitude toward the innovative method: learners perception or feeling about the innovative teaching method in term of level of knowledge gained, usefulness of learning through the innovative teaching method, level of satisfaction of selected passages, applicability of the acquired knowledge and skills, and worthiness of time, energy, and money. Methodology Population and sampling The subjects of the study were Masters degree students from six schools at National Institute of Development Administration: Public Administration, Business administration, Development economics, Applied Statistics, Social and Environmental Development, and Human Resource Development. Sixty students out of 122 who enrolled in LC 4011: Remedial Reading Skills Development in English for Graduates were included in this study30 in the control group and 30 in the experimental group. The students in both groups were assumed to have a more or less similar reading ability, as all of them failed LC 4001 Reading Skills Development in English for Graduates, and they were also grouped by their scores in the LC 4001 course. Instrumentation Two research tools were employed in this study: one is a teachermade reading achievement test and the other was a questionnaire. The test consisted of four passages with questions concerning the topic sentence or the main Idea, the authors purpose, the movement of thought, the details, the relationship between ideas as shown by transitional markers., pronoun references, and guessing the meaning of word by using word analysis and contextual clues. Most questions were in the multiple choice format; a few are in the True/False format, and also a few asked the students to write the short answers. (See Appendix A) The total score was 45. The reliability of the test was .711. The second instrument, the questionnaire, measured the students in the experimental groups opinion on or attitude toward five dimensions of the innovative teaching method as mentioned in the operational definition of the term. (See Appendix B for all the dimensions). Data collection The first half of the semester before the experiment, the students in both the control group and the experimental group were taught sentence reading skills and detecting the meaning of unfamiliar words by using word analysis and contextual clues for 24 hours, using the same traditional teaching method, and the same materials provided by the School of Language and Communication. The experiment began in the second half the summer session of the academic year 2009. It lasted 4 weeks; the class met 6 hours a day, or the total of 24 hours. In the second half of the semester, the control group was still taught by the traditional method with common core reading materials. On the contrary, the experimental group began with teaching of paragraph reading strategies for six hours, during which all the topics concerned, along with a few exercises were covered. For the next session or in the following week the students were asked to form a team of three students, and each team was assigned to bring three single paragraphs and three multi-paragraph passages to consult the teacher in the class. They were asked to give the teacher all the passages before they came to class. Also,
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they were required to identify the topic sentence or the main idea of each passage and other afore-mentioned teaching points. They had to write two questions for each passage, too. They were required to work together to discuss whether their answers were correct. In the second week each team would take turn to consult the teacher, i.e., to have the teacher check their assignments. The consultation lasted one to one and a half hour for each group, as some groups did not turn in their passages beforehand. Some passages were rejected as not suitable and the students had to find new passages. They were to see the teacher outside the class. After the consultation and the check for correctness of the answers they had got (this covered three 3-hour sessions), the students were required to present their passages, discussing what the topic sentence or main idea of each passage was and how they could find it, for example. All students would each get a copy of the passages from others. They could raise questions if they had some doubt about the answers. The student presenter took the role of a teacher trying to explain to other students about the points that were normally taught by the teacher. The teacher acted as a helper. They had confidence in what they were doing because the teacher checked the answers and explained to them anything that was unclear to them. They got a grade for doing all these activities, and because the teacher helped them in every stage, they were assured that they would not failed the exam. This was a good incentive. At the end of the semester both groups were administered the reading achievement test for one and a half hours. After the test, copies of the questionnaire were distributed to students in the experimental group to fill out before they left the room, so all copies of the questionnaire were returned. Data analysis To test the hypothesis, the mean scores of the reading test between the control group and the experimental group were compared by using independent sample t-test. The data from the questionnaire was analyzed by using descriptive statistics, i.e., percentage, mean and standard deviation. Results When the first hypothesis was tested, it was found that there was a statistically significant difference in the reading test score between the control group and the experimental group at the 0.05 level. The latter group performed significantly better than the former group ( X = 28.63 and 25.70, respectively). See Table 1 below. Table 1 Difference in the reading ability between the experimental group and the control group after the experiment Group Experimental Control Mean 28.63 25.70 S.D. 3.773 5.240 t 2.488 df 58 Sig. (2-tailed) .016
Regarding the attitude of the students in the experimental group toward the innovative teaching method, their perception of five dimensions of this teaching method was measured. These were level of knowledge gained by learning reading strategies through this method, advantages or usefulness of learning by this method, satisfaction with reading passages selected by students themselves, applicability of the acquired knowledge, and worthiness of learning by
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this new method. It was found that all the dimensions were rated high by the students. See Table 2 below. The mean scores of all the indicators are shown in Appendix B. Table 2 Attitude of the students in the experimental group toward the innovative teaching method Dimension 1. Knowledge gained from the new teaching method 2. Advantages of the new Teaching method 3. Satisfaction with selected Passages 4. Applicability of the acquired Knowledge 5. Worthiness of time, energy and money Overall Discussion The mean score of the experimental group was significantly higher than the control group and even the lowest score was 9 points higher than that of the control group. This confirms the effectiveness of the innovative teaching method, which is a learner-centered one. That is, students participation in generating academic reading materials was an effective way to develop their paragraph reading skills. However, the mean score of the experimental group was still unsatisfactory, for the passing score for all English courses offered by the School of Language and Communication was 70 % . The mean score of the group was only 28.63 out of 45, or 63.62%. This was perhaps because most students admitted by different schools at NIDA were poor in English. Their reading skills could not be improved quickly by attending one or two English courses. To be fluent readers, students need to read a lot. The School of Language and Communication can only providing students with various reading strategies, but at the same time lecturers in their mainstream subjects must assign them to read at lot in order to improve their reading fluency. As for their attitude toward the new teaching method introduced here, all the indicators showed that the students had a highly positive attitude toward it. They could play an active role in learning how to read. They enjoyed working in team and did not have to listen to the teacher explaining what was correct and what wasnt, and why, all the long hour. It was their responsibility to look for some clues to see why their answers were satisfactory and why not. However, only one indicator in the questionnaire was found to be just moderately satisfying--that is, the degree of interest of student-selected passages. This was perhaps because apart from personal interest of individual students, students in the same class came from different fields of study and the majority took the passages from the textbooks or journals in their fields, thus likely to be difficult for students from other fields to comprehend. The finding was consistent to Alvarez et al.s (1993) finding that every student was different and reading was a personal activity, so each should be given a choice to read what he or she was interested in. Mean 3.65 3.68 3.53 3.61 3.55 3.60 S.D. .741 .764 .632 .722 .719 .715 Opinion high high high high high high
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Problems found during the experiment should be mentioned here. First, the students did not turn in the passages for the teacher to read before they came for consultation. This caused difficulty for the teacher because she had to read the passages continuously at the consultation time and give impromptu advice, so she experienced fatigue and could not concentrate well. Besides, some passages were very specialized, and were difficult to understand quickly. Sometimes she needed to ask the meaning of certain terms from the students. Therefore, the teacher who does not like this kind of challenging task may find it too hard to use this alternative teaching method, while the teacher who wants to learn more about topics from different fields will enjoy this kind of teaching. One reason for the students inability to give the teacher their passages in advance was perhaps because it was the summer session and the students had to take another course offered by their school, so they did not have much time to search for good passages and to do what was assigned about the passages. The situation might be better for regular semesters. Another problem was that the teacher encountered in this experiment was that some single-paragraph passages selected by the students were very short; others could not stand alone, but had to depend on other paragraphs to have a complete idea. For passages with two or three long sentences, the student owners of the passages identified one sentence as a topic sentence. Some passages taken from the Internet were poorly written. These passages were, of course, rejected by the teacher, as they were not suitable as reading texts. However, as many students took 2-3 sentence passages from textbooks in their own fields, the teacher asked to see their textbooks and found out that textbooks in various areas of study today contain mostly short paragraphs. This suggests that focusing on identifying the topic sentence of a single paragraph passage is not enough for paragraph reading. Emphasis should be transferred to training students to group paragraphs together under one main idea, and to see how ideas in different paragraph are related as major and minor supports. This was what the teacher did in the experiment when dealing with reading multi-paragraph passages. From the passages selected by the students themselves, they learned that in real life, one paragraph was related to other paragraphs around it. Teachers selecting only long single paragraphs to teach students paragraph reading is like trying to mislead them; such paragraphs are difficult to find, too. As a matter of fact, it is difficult to find paragraphs which can stand alone and obviously contain a topic sentence that has a complete main idea. In addition, having the students generate reading materials made them realize that external transitional markers are not used as often as they have expected; they are used just once in a while as a cohesive device. To sum up, using mainly single-paragraph passages to illustrate how to grasp the main idea of a single paragraph is not realistic, as this makes students think that most paragraphs must be long. But when they read they own textbooks, they found out that the strategies taught in the reading class could not be applied to their reading texts; thus they did not see the worth of the strategies taught to them. In spite of some problems as mentioned earlier, the students in the experimental group like the innovative method of having them participate in generating academic reading materials. Because they had to finish their assignments on time to discuss with their team members, they learned to manage their time. Next, they learned how to analyze and to think critically, as they had to give comment on the passages picked up by their team members, using the strategies they had been taught. Besides, they did not experience much stress because the teacher acted as a helper. Because they had to search several books and analyze paragraphs there before they could come up with desirable passages that contained all the points the teacher wanted, they had to read a lot. So this innovative teaching method makes
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students read extensively--which is necessary to become fluent readers. All these are good points of the new teaching method, as evaluated by the students in the experimental group. Conclusion In developing EFL reading skills, students must play an active role. They must be motivated in some way. They should also read what they are interested in. One way to achieve this is having them participate in generating reading materials, as evidenced by the experience of students in this research who found that they enjoyed the lessons and felt that they gained applicable knowledge from learning by this way. Recommendations Recommendations for instruction The innovative teaching method as experimented in this research is just an alternative one for teachers who are looking for something new. However, the following are recommended for effective teaching: 1. The academic reading class that will be taught by this innovative teaching method should have students from similar fields of study. As students from the same field of study seem to have similar interests, passages selected by the students would be of interest to most of the class. 2. Many textbooks writers nowadays have a tendency to write short paragraphs. Therefore, emphasis should be placed on reading multi-paragraph passages. Especially, the strategy of grouping paragraphs together to identify the topic sentence and to summarize the main idea should be stressed, including outlining the major and minor support ideas. Also, passages from different text types or genres apart from textbooks should be used as reading materials. Recommendations for further research The following are recommended for future research: 1. As this study was a pilot project on this kind of teaching method, further research should conduct a similar study in a regular semester and should use students in different educational levels as the samples to confirm the effectiveness of the teaching method. Also, the length of the experimental period should be longer. 2. Further research should compare textbooks in different areas of study to find out if there is any remarkable difference between the paragraph writing of old textbooks and that of modern ones.
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References Allwright, D. (1981). What do we need materials for? English Language Teaching Journal. 36(1), 6-9. Alvarez, G., Broca, A. and Bruton, A. (1993). Reading wants and needs in EFL: Learners and teachers perceptions. Reading in a Foreign Language, 9(2), 859-865. Dudley-Evans, T. and St John, M.J. (1998). Developments in ESP: A Multidisciplinary Approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hall, D.R. (2001). Material production: theory and practice. In David R. Hall and Ann Hewings (Eds.) Innovation in English Language Teaching: A Reader,(pp.229239) London: Routledge. Kenny, B. (1993). Investigative research: How it changes learner status. TESOL Quarterly, 27, 217-232. McDonough, J. (1984). ESP in Perspectives. London: Collins. Nuttall, C. (1982). Teaching Reading Skills in a Foreign Language. London: Heinemann. Rea-Dickens, P. and Germaine, K. (2001). Purposes for evaluation. In David R. Hall and Ann Hewings (Eds.) Innovation in English Language Teaching: A Reader,(pp.253-262) London: Routledge. Appendix A Example of Passages in the Reading Achievement Test PASSAGE II Our knowledge about the uneven character of social change suggests that not all changes will contribute equally to a general advance toward a more modern system. On the contrary, some innovations can create situations which make it more, rather than less, difficult for subsequent changes to occur in a smooth fashion. Improvements in public health standards, for example, can readily alter the death rate and produce a rapid growth in population, which will subsequently become a drain on all efforts to raise per capita incomes. Similarly, the expansion of educational facilities at a grossly faster rate than openings of new career opportunities can produce well-recognized tensions and frustrations. . 1. In this passage, the author points out that a. changes do not help in the process toward a more modern system b. sometimes improvements and expansions of some public services create severe economic crises c. results of changes should be taken into consideration before there is implementation of any educational policy d. changes sometimes bring about undesirable results 2. The transitional marker Similarly in the passage indicate a similarity between the case of improvements in public health standards and that of the expansion of educational facilities .
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3. The pronoun it (line 3) refers to . a. creating situations b. a more modern system c. smooth occurrence of subsequent changes d. improvements in public health standards 4. The purpose of the paragraph is . a. to explain the process in creating social changes b. to analyze the causes and effects of social changes c. to discuss some undesirable situations which social changes can create d. to describe some innovations in social changes 5. TRUE or FALSE It can be inferred that a country is sometimes not well-prepared to meet the effects of some innovations. True 6. What is the movement of thought of this passage? (More than one correct answer) a. particular to general b. general to particular c. result to cause d. cause to result e. time order 7. In the context, the phrase become a drain on all efforts means a. use up c. support b. slow down d. prevent all efforts.
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Appendix B Mean Scores of the Indicators of the Five Dimensions in the Questionnaire Please put a cross (X) in the slot that indicates your opinion 1. Knowledge gained (1) Paragraph organization (2) Paragraph components (3) Identifying the topic sentence and the main idea (4) Writers purpose (5) Identifying major/minor support Ideas (6) Relationship between ideas as shown by transitional markers (7) How to get the answers by learning How to pose questions 2. Advantages or usefulness (1) Enjoying learning (2) Not feeling too burdened (3) Learning to analyze and give comments (4) Having more self-confidence in Reading (5) Becoming well-disciplined (6) Getting a habit of loving reading (7) Having more courage to ask the Teacher (8) Better adjust oneself to social life 3. Satisfaction with selected passages (1) Degree of interest (2) Appropriate language level (3) Variety of topics 4. Applicability of the acquired knowledge (1) Reading better (2) Being able to read text alone (3) Being able to use the knowledge as a foundation for writing (4) Being able to develop ones English reading skills later 5. Worthiness (1) Time (2) Energy or effort (3) money for copying reading materials Mean 3.80 3.64 3.77 3.50 3.47 3.87 3.50 3.63 3.77 3.53 3.67 3.90 3.47 3.67 3.87 3.23 3.57 3.80 3.53 3.73 3.47 3.73 3.57 3.67 3.43 SD .664 .661 .679 .820 .860 .766 .731 .850 .858 .776 .711 .759 .629 .802 .730 .504 .679 .714 .681 .740 .776 .691 .679 .661 .817 OPINION High High High High High High High High High High High High High High High Moderate High High High High High High High High High
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Information Status Dynamics and English Cleft Constructions Jennifer A. Piotrowski Assumption Universityiii
INTRODUCTION This paper explores the functions of cleft constructions in terms of Information Structure and information status dynamics. Key concepts related to Information Structure and information status are discussed first, followed by an explanation of how the term cleft construction is understood in this study. Then, aspects of the relationship between cleft subtypes and information status are presented through discussion and authentic examples in context. Evidence from native speaker-hearer judgments is given to provide empirical support for the notion that syntax codes information status. Specifically, the findings show that THERE clefts code newness and IT clefts code contrastiveness. Finally, a discussion of future implications closes the paper. INFORMATION STRUCTURE AND INFORMATION STATUS The way speakers mention referents can change rapidly within a discourse. Take the following excerpt from an aquarium training session, for exampleiii, paying careful attention to all references (in italics) to the original group of penguins at the aquarium: (1) We got the penguins, our original batch of penguins, from, from this zoo in Scotland, uh, and, um, you know, as you know, you ship them over and they go into a quarantine period. And, I do believe it was thirty days. Don't, don't, it's in my literature right there, I'll check for certain. Uh, that is required by the USDA. If we track the references, we notice four different surface forms for the same specific referent, in the space of two sentences. The first reference in this excerpt, the penguins, is a definite lexical noun phrase with a simple definite article and plural noun. The second reference, our original batch of penguins, includes more details, offering clarification of the preceding reference. The next reference is an object pronoun them, followed by a subject pronoun they. Why would a speaker find it necessary to use four different forms in rapid succession to refer to the same entity? Part of the explanation lies in the notion of Information Structure (Lambrecht 1994, 2001) and in the information status dynamics of referents in discourse. INFORMATION STRUCTURE (Lambrecht 1994) is a component of a linguistic system that systematically affects surface forms of utterances in interactive communication. It is based on the premise that interlocutors form mental representations of a discourse as it progresses, and that speakers linguistic choices are influenced both by communicative goals and by speakers sensitivity to listeners mental models of the discourse at hand. Information structure influences various aspects of language, such as article and pronoun use, placement of prosodic prominence, and even syntax.
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Information status is one of the factors that influence Information Structure. Information status involves the presence and prominence of referents in interlocutors mental models of a discourse at a time of utterance. On one hand, it relates to the hypotheses speakers make about whether or not their hearers have created a mental representation for a referent. In Lambrechts terminology, this aspect of information status is IDENTIFIABILITY. If a referent is identifiable, then the speaker believes the hearer already knows about the referent and can access a mental representation for it. Information status also involves whether or not a speaker believes a hearer is currently thinking about a referent, or whether the referent is ACTIVE in the hearers mind at the time of utterance. In the current study, the term NEW is used as a cover term for non-identifiable and/or non-active references; thus, new references are expressions of referents for which the speaker assumes the hearer must either create a new mental representation or activate a stored representation. Pronoun use, as seen in the first example, is among the least controversial phenomena that can be used to illustrate the influence of information status on surface forms. The speakers assumptions about the hearers knowledge and awareness clearly influence the choice between a lexical noun phrase and a pronoun. A definite pronoun can be used felicitously only if the speaker assumes 1) the hearer has a mental representation for the unique referent of the pronoun, and 2) the hearer is currently thinking about that referent. Thus, under normal circumstances, the referent of a definite pronoun must be IDENTIFIABLE (not NEW) and ACTIVE for the hearer. In example 1, above, in the third and fourth references to the specific group of penguins, the speaker likely assumes that the hearers are not only aware of the specific group of penguins she refers to, but also that they are thinking about those penguins when she utters the pronouns them and they. In contrast to pronoun use, if a cooperative speaker assumes that a referent is NON-ACTIVE at the time of utterance, he or she will likely use a full lexical noun phrase to express reference, as in the first reference to the penguins in the above example. Additionally, if the speaker believes that the hearer may have multiple similar (potentially confusable) mental representations in his/her mental model, the speaker may choose a more detailed noun phrase to help the hearer pick out the correct representation for the time of utterance, as in the second reference in the above example. The use of a definite article indicates that the speaker assumes that the hearers already have a stored mental representation for the intended referentthat the referent is identifiable. Thus, in the case of nominal reference in English, information status clearly affects word choice. away from Lambrechts framework, the current study includes as an aspect of information status. If a reference is contrastive, the speaker is framing the referent in opposition to another entity or idea, or as a member of a set of alternatives. To give an example, in a statement like, Excuse me; I am Assistant Manager, not the managers assistant. The italicized noun phrase here would likely carry an emphatically raised pitch to indicate contrast. Contrastiveness is contextual, relates to a speakers communicative goals, and may fleetingly be associated with a particular reference. It affects the prominence and/or presence of referents in a hearers mental model of the discourse, so it is considered here to be another aspect of information status.
CONTRASTIVENESS
Breaking
CLEFT CONSTRUCTIONS Beyond word choice and intonation, the current paper is concerned with the way that information status affects syntax, particularly the use of cleft constructions. To approach this,
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it is first necessary to define the term CLEFT CONSTRUCTION. Following Lambrecht (2001), the current study views clefts as constructions characterized by the use of biclausal syntax to express a proposition that could be expressed more simply, without a change in truth conditions. Thus, the ideas in examples 2 and 3 can be expressed more simply as in example 4 below. (2) Theres a pie that Mom made this morning. (3) Its a pie that Mom made this morning. (4) Mom made a pie this morning. THERE clefts and IT clefts are only two subtypes of a broader class of cleft constructions in English. These two types are formally characterized by a non-referring initial pronoun (i.e. THERE does not actually refer to a place and IT does not actually refer back to a third person singular noun phrase), a clefted element, and a relative clause expressing an open proposition. In examples 2 and 3, the clefted element is a pie and the open proposition is Mom made something. Although examples 2-4 contain the same ideas, one can imagine a different communicative context for each of these sentences. This is presumably because of the different information status characteristics associated with each construction, which native English speakers seem to notice, even when the sentences are heard or read in isolation. Perhaps example 2 would be a snack suggestion directed at someone who has just arrived home, looking hungry. Then, perhaps example 3 would be a correction directed at a young sibling who has just said, Yay I ate all my dinner; so now I can have the cake that Mom made this morning! The simpler declarative sentence in example 4 is more neutral and might be uttered (depending on the intonation) in either context, while examples 1 and 2 could not felicitously be exchanged in their respective contexts. In other words, example 2 would not likely be uttered as a correction, and example 3 would not likely be uttered as a snack suggestion, while example 4 could reasonably be either a snack suggestion or a correction. In example 2, the use of a THERE cleft indicates that the referent expressed by the clefted element is new to the discourse; whereas in example 3 the use of an IT cleft indicates that the referent expressed by the clefted element is contrastive in the discourse. Thus, the use of more complex syntax and the choice of cleft type are motivated, at least in part, by information status dynamics. NEW THERE CLEFTS AND CONTRASTIVE IT CLEFTS In addition to the fabricated, isolated examples in 2-4, some authentic, in-context examples from the Santa Barbara Corpus of Spoken American English may further aid in illustrating the newness of clefted elements in THERE clefts, and the contrastiveness of clefted elements in IT clefts. Example 5 is a segment of speech from the aquarium training session that immediately follows the utterances in example 1. The THERE cleft is italicized, and the clefted element is in bold: (5) Basically there's, there's a disease called N- Newcastle's Disease that is, is very uh- contagious apparently and so there's always the potential of, when you bring a bird over, contaminate, contaminating the poultry business. Okay, and so that is th- background information for the reason for quarantining.
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Looking at the prior context (in example 1), this appears to be the first reference in the conversation to the referent Newcastles Disease, confirming the notion that its status in this utterance is new. Example (6) is from a conversation in which a customer is shopping for a new tape deck. The IT cleft is italicized, and the clefted element is in bold: (6) CUSTOMER: Suppose that I wanna use this tape deck to record, um, conversation. Like we do in linguistics. Between Matt and me, or something like that SALES ASSOCIATE: Let's take a look here. The K110 has provisions for microphones on the front (later) Uh, so the K 110 would be set up for that. CUSTOMER: Hunh. SALES ASSOCIATE: Any of the other, um, cassette decks here. CUSTOMER: Mhm. SALES ASSOCIATE: CUSTOMER: Hunh. SALES ASSOCIATE: I- I take it back. CUSTOMER: Huh. SALES ASSOCIATE: I didn't think the K 11- 111 did. CUSTOMER: Unhunh. Unhunh. SALES ASSOCIATE: Okay it's the, it's the dual one that doesn't. CUSTOMER: Okay. From the context, it is apparent that the sales associate is talking about a dual cassette deck in opposition to the K 111 model, voicing a self-correction. He uses an IT cleft to express the particular point where correction is needed, implying that the open proposition something doesnt have microphone provisions was correct, but it was only a different model than he had previously thought. EVIDENCE FROM SPEAKER-HEARER JUDGMENTS While the above discussion of authentic, contextualized cleft examples (5 and 6) is a bit more objective than the earlier discussion of fabricated examples (2-4), the argument presented here is also supported by multiple native speaker-hearer judgments about authentic data from the Santa Barbara Corpus of Spoken American English. The set of results reported here is a subset of those in Piotrowski (2009). To aid the reader in interpreting the results, a brief overview of the methodology employed in Piotrowski (2009) is presented first. The first phase of the study was a corpus search, which yielded 31 tokens of target THERE clefts and only 14 tokens of target IT clefts. A set of audio files containing these cleft constructions in isolation was then used as stimuli in native speaker-hearer judgment tasks. Upon listening to each cleft construction, ten adult native English speakers completed a forced-choice judgment task determining whether they The K111 has it too. I take-
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thought a clefted element was likely new or given in its larger context. New was defined for participants as, being brought up for the first time, or adding information to the discussion, and given was defined as, already under discussion, or part of what the speakers and hearers already know or already consider relevant to the discussion. A different group of ten adult native English speakers determined whether they thought a clefted element was contrastive or non-contrastive in its larger context. Contrastive was defined somewhat broadly for the participants, as follows: being mentioned in opposition to something else, or as a member or part of a set of alternatives. Participants were able to replay the audio clips, if desired, before making judgments. In the results, NEW tokens of clefted elements are those judged new by a majority of participants, GIVEN tokens of clefted elements are those judged given by a majority of participants, and INDETERMINATE tokens are those for which the participants were evenly split in the binary judgment task. Similarly, for the contrastiveness test, CONTRASTIVE tokens are those for which a majority of participants judged the clefted element as contrastive. The results strongly indicate that clefted elements of THERE clefts are interpreted as new, while clefted elements of IT clefts are not. As shown in Table 1 and Figure 1, twenty six of the thirty one THERE clefts (84%) had NEW clefted elements. In contrast, none of the IT clefts had clefted elements judged new by a majority of participants. TOKENS IN TASK NEW GIVEN INDET.
THERE clefts IT clefts
31 13 44
26 0 26
1 12 13
4 1 5
Total
TABLE 1. Token counts for new/given/intederminate clefted elements

1.0 Proportions of Tokens in Type 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 THERE IT Indeterminate Given CE New CE
FIGURE 1. Proportions of new/given/indeterminate clefted elements The results for contrastiveness were less striking, but still provide evidence for an association between IT clefts and contrastiveness. As seen in Table 2 and Figure 2, a majority of clefted elements were perceived as contrastive for both cleft types (about 61% for THERE clefts and 69% for IT clefts).
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TOKENS IN TASK
THERE clefts IT clefts
CONTRASTIVE TOKENS 19 9 28
31 13 43
Total
TABLE 2. Token counts for contrastive clefted elements
1.0
Proportions of Tokens in Type
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0 THERE clefts IT clefts
FIGURE 2. Proportions of contrastive clefted elements The similarity in the contrastiveness results for the two cleft types may be due, in part, to the broad definition given for contrastive. On the other hand, perhaps the perceived contrastiveness of clefted elements in THERE clefts is related to the newness associated with them. Newness may be perceived as a weak form of contrastiveness, such that a new element is perceived prominently, in opposition to all the elements already present in the discourse model at the time of utterance. To summarize, the judgments gathered in Piotrowski (2009) show that the subjects perceived information status patterns in the cleft constructions that they heard. Hearers perceived the noun phrases inside the existential portion of THERE clefts (the clefted elements) as new. Further, these results indicate that hearers perceived most clefted elements in THERE clefts and, to a larger extent, IT clefts, as contrastive, under a broad definition of contrastive. These results provide empirical support, beyond a single linguists intuition, for the claim that the cleft subtypes conventionally convey particular information status characteristics. FUTURE IMPLICATIONS The hearer judgment study, in particular, suggests some implications for future research. First, this exploration of information status dynamics should be viewed as an early dip into a complicated area of research. The methods developed for Piotrowski (2009), using authentic data as stimuli in native speaker-hearer judgment tasks should be refined and expanded to further our empirical understanding of language in use. The use of multiple native speakerhearer judgments can be added to the wide range of tools and techniques used in corpus linguistics as one way of reducing ambiguity and increasing objectivity.
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In terms of Information Structure research, it should be noted that although Information Structure relates to the speakers assumptions about the hearers knowledge and consciousness at the time of utterance, this study does not directly tap into the speakers assumptions. Instead, the above analysis relies on hearers interpretations. This is a start, but the development of methods for more directly accessing speakers assumptions and linguistic choices would enable researchers to test hypotheses about information status and information structure more directly. Additionally, some ambiguities arise in interpreting these findings. For example, the result relating newness and THERE clefts is potentially misleading because it may be more appropriate to associate the characteristic newness specifically with the existential portion of the construction (the there is / there are phrase) than to attribute it to the clefted nature of the construction. Finally, when looking at contrastiveness, prosodic prominence may interact with the syntax of a cleft construction. Thus, it is not entirely clear where the coding of information status lies (i.e. is it in the syntax, tied to lexical items or intonation contours, or to combinations of factors?). Because this kind of ambiguity is common among studies based on authentic data, future research in this area should continue looking for effective ways of reducing ambiguities. References Du Bois, J. W., Chafe, W. L., Meyer, C., & Thompson, S. A. (2000). Santa Barbara Corpus of Spoken American English, Part 1. Philadelphia: Linguistic Data Consortium. Du Bois, J. W., Chafe, W. L. Meyer, C., Thompson, S. A., & Martey, N. (2003). Santa Barbara Corpus of Spoken American English, Part 2. Philadelphia: Linguistic Data Consortium. Du Bois, J. W., & Englebretson, R. (2004). Santa Barbara Corpus of Spoken American English, Part 3. Philadelphia: Linguistic Data Consortium. Du Bois, J. W., & Englebretson, R. (2005). Santa Barbara Corpus of Spoken American English, Part 4. Philadelphia: Linguistic Data Consortium. Lambrecht, K. (1994). Information Structure and Sentence Form. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lambrecht, K. (2001). A framework for the analysis of cleft constructions. Linguistics, 39, 463-516. Antwerp: De Gruyter Mouton. MacWhinney, B. (2007). The Talkbank Project. In J. C. Beal, K. P. Corrigan & H. L. Moisl (Eds.), Creating and Digitizing Language Corpora: Synchronic Databases, Vol.1. Houndmills: Palgrave-Macmillan. Piotrowski, J. A. (2009). Information Structure of Clefts in Spoken English. M.A. Thesis, University of Oregon.
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Can Only Native English Speaking Teachers Teach Aural and Oral Skills?
Asst. Prof. Dr. Kasma Suwanarak National Institute of Development Administation
ABSTRACT This research sits within the critical paradigm, taking into account people in their contexts and social equality. The study investigates the views of Thai English teachers (TETs) of one of the critical issues in Thai TESOL, perceived unfairness of allowing only native English speaking teachers (NESTs) to teach Listening and Speaking courses. From a critical stance, the study finds that TETs are aware of the discrimination that marginalises them. However, the acceptance of the non-native speaker label does not mean that TETs have completely lost their professional identity. They can see the differences between NESTs and TETs as well as their strengths in teaching Listening and Speaking courses. To some extent, TETs have challenged this current issue. Various interesting aspects regarding the reactions to the perceived unfair policy are revealed. Were TETs treated as equal partners in English language teaching (ELT), they would become more self-confident in their teaching career. Implications from the study contribute various new perspectives including collaborative team teaching by TETs and NESTs, the development of ELT professionals, and creating chances to discuss the issue of inequality in this particular context to better serve professional identity of TETs. INTRODUCTION According to Chomsky (1965), a native speaker (NS) is defined as an ideal speaker-listener who perfectly knows the language. This has been further supported by Kramsch (1997) who remarks that the ideal of the native speaker is attributed to the importance of spoken, communicative competence in foreign language teaching. Hence, in such literature the idea of being a good model teacher, equipped with linguistic competence, is usually associated with being native. An increasing number of voices have questioned this ideology. Phillipson (1992) calls this ideology a native speaker fallacy to refer to unfair treatment of qualified non-native speakers (NNSs). He perceives that NNSs can acquire such attributes through teacher training. Having gone through the language learning process can make them more qualified to teach a language than NSs. In addition to Phillipson, a number of researchers (e.g., Davies, 1991; Medgyes, 1994; Quirk, 1995) claim that native English teachers (NETs) are not necessarily better than non-native English speaking teachers (NNESTs). Nevertheless, the realms of inequality or injustice between NETs and non-native English teachers (NNETs) have not been sufficiently investigated nor has the massive contribution that NNETs make been accredited proportionally.
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Contextual background and current practice With the aim of developing the English skills of Thai students and the increase in international competitiveness, the Ministry of Education (2009) of Thailand has been gradually implementing the English language as the medium of instruction. In accordance with the policy of the Ministry of Education in Thailand, academic administrators of the context of this study have been concerned about the importance of English proficiency of the undergraduate students. Therefore, it has been decided that only NESTs are allowed to teach Listening and Speaking courses as it is reasoned that the students will be given the best opportunity to learn communicative skills from NSs. Moreover, simply because NESTs have been labeled as native speakers of English, the academic administrators seem to accept that NESTs are indeed in need and more qualified to teach these courses than Thai English teachers (TETs). For these reasons, some native speakers could easily take up positions of English teachers without a degree in English Language Teaching (ELT) or in other related areas. Such a belief has given rise to the idea that the language belongs to its native speakers and has empowered them over non-native speakers in English as a foreign language (EFL) and English as a second language (ESL) contexts (Canagarajah, 1999). From the informal discussion among teacher colleagues about English language teaching in this particular context, the researcher realised that most TETs apparently lack critical views towards the teaching role of English and rarely problematise the issue of unfairness occurring in their teaching context. Nevertheless, some of the TETs might silently struggle against this discrimination. Therefore, the researcher was interested in finding out whether there is a challenge to the notion of Being a native speaker of English is a necessary condition to teach English. Also, the result of this study would make the TETs become more aware of the undue prejudices and discriminations that have marginalised them. Consequently, the findings of this study should help increase Thai English teachers selfesteem in their teaching career, give them a voice, and recognise their position as equal partners in ELT. Theoretical framework The theoretical framework in which this study is undertaken derives from critical approaches to applied linguistics which are fostered by those who believe that applied linguistics itself is absent of such a critical view in ELT (Phillipson, 1992; Pennycook, 1994, 2001). A fundamental principle within critical applied linguistics approach is that anything taken for granted has to be questioned and problematised. In a more specific framework, the research emphasis is on a critical issue in TESOL regarding inequality between native speakers and non-native speakers of English for several reasons. Firstly, based on her past experience in teaching English, the researcher was able to detect sources of injustice within this context. Secondly, during a pilot interview, the researcher asked three of Thai English teachers about their perceptions of differences between TETs and NESTs in terms of qualification of teaching Listening and Speaking courses. Their responses indicated that NESTs are in demand in these courses since they are native English speakers. However, TETs would like to take part in teaching these courses as well. In this regard, their answers were considered crucial and contributive to the professional identity of TETs and EFL teaching in the context. These factors, therefore, are incentive to initiate this study.
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The specific research questions are: 1) What do TETs think of the non-native speaker label?; and 2) How do TETs react to the policy which states that Listening and Speaking courses must be taught by NESTs only? Literature review Critical approaches to TESOL According to Pennycook (1999), a crucial challenge for critical approaches to TESOL always focuses on inequality, oppression, and compassion in a particular situation. Thus, the approaches need to be grounded in some forms of critical theory, subject to a constant skepticism, and see theory and practice as mutually supportive. Since people are trapped in unequal relations of power, they need to act and think differently in order to consider possibilities of change (Pennycook, ibid.). Transformative pedagogy is an important aspect of critical approaches in TESOL. Being transformative has various levels, one of which is a level of awareness. By this, Fairclough (1992) considers that critical language awareness is a fundamental factor of social change. Another main aspect is problematising practice which always questions the role of language or discourse in social and cultural categories (e.g., race, gender, and ethnicity) and language learning. Emancipatory modernism, underlying Marxist thought, is in accordance with this aspect; i.e., critical approaches should emancipate people through ways of thinking and questioning the givens of TESOL. In trying to define critical applied linguistics work in language education, it is important to focus on the contextual concern and to relate aspects of language education to a broader critical analysis of social relations. In this regard, English teachers are at the core of the most crucial educational, cultural, and political issues (Gee, 1994). To take up a challenge, teachers need to develop critical approaches to TESOL because these approaches can help them understand problems that exist in their context and offer the prospect of change. The controversy of native speaker and non-native speaker (NS-NNS) From a sociolinguistic perspective, the debate over the native and non-native dichotomy has generated a number of controversial issues in the ELT profession (Medgyes, 1994). According to Davies (1991), the native speakers identity is considered as a sociolinguistic construct which can be overcome within certain circumstances. Therefore, the idea that a native speaker is uniquely and permanently different from a non-native speaker is rejected. L2 learners can acquire native linguistic competence of the language even if they are outside of the L1 environment. However, a non-native speaker is negatively defined as someone who is not regarded either by him/herself as a native speaker (ibid). In this regard, Braine (1999) comments that acceptance of the title non-native speaker or NNS implies the very distinction and the lack of identity which could lead to low self-esteem as a professional. The question of native versus non-native speaker is recognised as more or less maintained regarding its application to the ELT profession. Medgyes (1992) adopted the NSNNS contrast as a clear distinction. Any NS, with or without EFL qualifications, has a better knowledge of English than NNSs. However, the effectiveness of language teaching is not based on the nativeness or non-nativeness. NNSs have an equal chance of success in their own practices despite being claimed as deficient users of English (ibid.).
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According to the policy of Ministry of Education (2009) in Thailand, the academic administrators in the context of this study have been concerned about the importance of the proficiency in English of Thai students. As a result, it has been determined that Listening and Speaking courses must be taught by NESTs only. According to Canagarajah (1999), the belief that NSs are the best for language teaching would reinforce the label of native speaker and would lead to the assumption that a language belongs to its native speakers. Also, it has empowered them dramatically over NNSs in ESL and EFL contexts. It is very likely that NESTs only have to establish their professional identities as ESL teachers, while NNESTs often have the added pressure of asserting themselves in the profession as competent English speakers (Maum, 2001). Many researchers (e.g., Canagarajah, 1999, Lippi-Green; 1997, Thomas, 1999) reveal that teachers with non-native accents have been perceived as less qualified and less effective and have been compared unfavourably with their native-English-speaking colleagues. However, in accordance with the ideology of native speaker fallacy, Phillipson (1992) argues that qualified and trained NNESTs can contribute in meaningful ways to the field of English language education by virtue of their own experiences as English language learners and their training and experience as teachers. According to Canagarajah (1999), not all NSs may make good teachers of their first language. ESL professionals should go beyond respecting differences. The presence of NNESTs must be valued and acknowledged as equals of NESTs (Edge, 1996). Considering the positive aspects of these two counterparts in the areas of language teaching would be much more worthwhile. An ideal EFL environment should maintain a good balance between NESTs and NNESTs (Medgyes, 1994). In so doing, both can complement each other in their strengths and weaknesses in various aspects such as linguistic, cultural, and educational backgrounds. Research on NS-NNS issues There is evidence of research on critical issues related to nativeness and non-nativeness in various settings. Samimy and Brutt-Griffler (1999) investigated the effects of the NS-NNS dichotomy on NNS students in a graduate TESOL course in the United States. It was found that the students do not consider NSs superior, but only more proficient in the use of authentic English. The NNSs positively saw themselves different from their NS counterparts in the area of linguistic competence in English, teaching methods, and general characteristics. Similarly, Liu (1999) studied how ESL teachers are qualified regardless of NS-NNS status. The study shows that ESL learners tend to appreciate their NNESTs competence and achievement as learners of English. Therefore, from these two studies, it is not clear that successful teaching does not necessarily depend on nativeness. Rather, it is affected by learner factors, teacher factors, and contextual factors. However, the study of Golombek and Jordan (2005) indicates that the native speaker label can affect the credibility of NNESTs. Even though at first the two Taiwanese English teachers did not agree with the fallacy of native speaker superiority, they finally realise that accent and race can negatively affect their teaching professionals. Likewise, the studies of Lee (2000) and Lippi-Green (1997) indicate that teachers with non-native accents have been perceived by students as less qualified and less effective. This bias becomes stronger in an English conversation class where there is an expectation that the teacher should be fluent in the target language, and such fluency is always associated with NESTs (Kramsch, 1997).
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According to the studies of Braine (1999) and Thomas (1999), students initially perceived NESTs as perfect models in language learning, but they become better familiar to qualified, competent NNESTs. This is because NNESTs can better understand their language problems and needs. Method Research rationale This research study was conducted within a critical framework which aims for social equality and emancipation. In order to liberate people, it is necessary to think first that people suffer from inequality and are not free even though challenging unfairness is not always possible. It is apparent that the participants are aware of their rights and situations to some extent. Raising awareness of such inequalities is an important step to overcoming them. Hence, the researcher intends to question unfairness critically, which is considered the first step to emancipation (Pennycook, 2001). This study is based on a critical paradigm which aims at making the teacher participants who are considered as unqualified to teach Listening and Speaking courses realise that this alleged discrimination and injustice is a real challenge for them to make their voice heard and to be free from being treated unfairly. Research methodology A methodology employed within the critical framework is ideology critique. It is a reflective practice which enables participants to reveal their conscious or unconscious interests to see whether a system suppresses a generalisable interest (Habermas, 1976). According to the purpose of critical theory, it aims to understand and change situations based on equality and democracy. This is also in relation to a critical practice which is concerned with questioning what is meant by in our reality and the official accounts of how they came to be the way they are (Dean, 1994). Thus, critical theory has an important role in the process of taking social inequality and the possibility of change. In particular, it seeks to emancipate the disempowered and to enhance individual freedoms (Cohen et al., 2003; Habermas; 1972). Regarding the research purpose, there are three stages in this study. Firstly, the researcher described and interpreted what was going on in the context of this study in addition to accounting for how the inequity came into existence. Secondly, the participants were asked about unfairness happening to TETs in their contexts. Also, the researcher offered them a critical alternative for changing the situation. Finally, the first and second phases were combined and analysed to see what changes to the situation in practice could be made, including how the participants were made aware of the issues of injustice. Participants The participants are 16 Thai English teachers who have been teaching English in a public university in Thailand for 2-17 years. Their ages range from twenty-nine to forty-six. All of them hold at least a Masters degree in English Language Teaching (ELT) or in related areas. Why did you exclude NESTs from your study, which would have led to an interesting comparative work? This study mainly focuses on the views of TETs about the unfairness happening in the context. I have suggested in the part of recommendation for further research that a comparative study which includes NESTs perceptions would be another interesting study.
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Data Collection method It is evident in various studies on critical issues regarding nativeness and nonnativeness that different methods have been employed such as closed questionnaires, openended questionnaires, observation, and interviews. According to Holstein and Gubrium (1995), interviews have been used as the main source of data collection or as a source complimentary to other procedures in many studies. Only semi-structured, in-depth interview was employed in order to allow the participants to express their feelings and thoughts and be guided and focused at the same time. In order to meet the needs of the present study, the researcher constructed her own instrument by formulating specific in-depth interview questions, given the nature of small scale research and contextual and cultural uniqueness of the participants. Findings and Discussion Findings of Research Question 1 What do TETs think of the non-native speaker label? Being a non-native speaker? All of the participants (16) perceived themselves as non-native English speaking teachers. They reasoned that they were native Thai speakers who acquired Thai as the first language. English was not their mother-tongue. They considered Thai their native language as it represented their cultural identity. The following quotations illustrate these:
I dont think I am a native English speaker because I was born in Thailand and have been using Thai as the first language.
and:
English is not my mother-tongue. I cant use English as natural as native English speakers. My English speaking still has Thai accent, I think.
Even though some of the TETs could speak English fluently, they perceived that native English speakers were better language users. In addition, they merely learned English as an additional language. The notion of The ideal teacher of English is a native speaker of English. Ten participants had positive views towards this notion. As English was a native speakers mother-tongue, TETs considered that NESTs were the most expert at their own language and cultures. Interacting and practicing communicative skills with native speakers helps learners to obtain useful expressions and correct pronunciation. One said that:
I think NESTs are more competent in language uses because they are native speakers. They would be more accurate in accents and pronunciation as well as more insightful in their own culture.
However, the English speaking world is very diverse. Many English speaking countries (e.g. the UK, the USA, Canada, Australia, Ireland, and New Zealand) to some extent have different idiomatic expressions and accents. Hence, English language learners surely have a diversity of preference for NESTs.
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Interestingly, another six participants argued that there was no empirical evidence indicating that NESTs were better than NNESTs. Both NESTs and NNESTs have different strengths and weaknesses. Being a native speaker does not mean that he/she was an ideal teacher. Many factors are integrated in an ideal teacher of English; e.g., educational background and teaching experience. In this regard, some TETs who can achieve native-like English proficiency can be ideal English teachers. As quoted from the interview, one explained:
An ideal teacher would be a fantastic teacher, regardless of nationality. In my view, many successful and qualified teachers are not necessary to be native speakers of English.
Effects of professional identities on teaching Listening and Speaking All of the participants (16) believed that professional identities of NESTs and TETs could affect students attitudes and TETs self-confidence. Regarding students attitudes, ten respondents felt that students might not perceive as credible the English proficiency of TETs. Consequently, this could lead TETs to the loss of self-confidence in their teaching profession. One of them stated:
I thought that Thai students prefer to study Listening and Speaking with NESTs who better know how to speak properly and naturally. With regard to this reason, it could make me inferior to NESTs that my confidence declines.
However, one TET commented that professional identity of TETs might not affect the basic level of Listening and Speaking courses. Additionally, teaching experience and qualifications could form credibility of professional identity.
Advantages of NESTs
Ten participants considered that learning Listening and Speaking courses with NESTs would be a definite advantage to Thai students in terms of language competence. The students would have an opportunity to become more familiar with native speakers. The greater possibility is improving proficiency in English. One interesting comment was that learning Listening and Speaking with NESTs required much effort and attention in trying to communicate with the teachers in English. He reflected:
I feel that learning listening and speaking skills with NESTs is more challenging. It is unavoidable to speak Thai with TETs when there are some difficulties in expressing their ideas.
In terms of cultural knowledge, six respondents believed that students could learn the culture of the target language in greater depth from the actual source, and that some discussions about cultural differences could be an interesting topic in class. Additionally, with regard to the English speaking world, differences among NESTs based on their cultural background could provide language learners a diversity of cultural knowledge. Advantages of TETs Even though some of them agreed with the notion of The ideal teacher of English is a native speaker of English., all of the participants (16) considered themselves favourable to TETs teaching Listening and Speaking courses to some extent. The TETs know well how Thai
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students feel when learning Listening and Speaking because they have experienced this stage before. They can provide appropriate lessons and activities which correspond to students abilities and needs. Six respondents suggested that learning the basic level of Listening and Speaking courses with TETs would be more effective. TETs can use Thai to describe basic knowledge of communicative English. Regarding linguistic knowledge, TETs would better understand the differences of phonetic systems between two languages. By this, they can explain clearly the differences of Thai and English articulation. When learners progress to advanced or intermediate level, they should study with NESTs so as to become more familiar to English. Discussion of findings of Research Question 1 From the study, all of the participants comfortably accepted the non-native speaker label, claiming that English is not their native language and they learn English as an additional foreign language. The TETs see themselves as Thai, no matter how much English they have studied and that their deep understanding of Thai and teaching qualification are superior to those of English. According to Braine (1999), the acceptance of the title non-native speakers implies the very distinction and lack of identity. To this point, even though the TETs accept the difference, it does not mean that they completely lose their identity. From the research findings, all of the participants can see the differences between NESTs and TETs as well as their strengths in teaching Listening and Speaking courses. In addition, most of them appear confident that they can be in a better position when teaching the basic level of Listening and Speaking courses. Hence, this would not lead TETs to low self-esteem as a teaching professional as Braine (ibid.) claims. Nevertheless, all of the TETs believe that professional identities of NESTs and TETs can affect students attitudes and TETs self-confidence since students might not be credible to the English proficiency of TETs. This can be implied that the TETs are being discriminated by a non-native label. They accept the added pressure of asserting themselves in the profession as competent English speakers (Maum, 2001). Hence, it is a fact that native and non-native labels have been completely involved in this particular context. From a critical stance, it is apparent that native and non-native speaker labels are so strong that a clear line between native speakers and non-native speakers is drawn regardless of teachers experience and teaching ability. As for TETs, lacking English proficiency compared with NESTs might lead to a loss of credibility of their teaching professionals. Taking Davies (1991) into account, the native speaker identity is considered as a sociolinguistic construct which can be overcome within certain circumstances. A native speaker label implies a false assumption that challenges the credibility of NNSs. With this regard, the TETs may need to be against to what they are labelled. Knowing more than one language and being able to teach in a foreign language can empower them in their EFL context. Their ability to use two languages can benefit from sharing the learners mother tongue and can facilitate the teaching and learning process (Medgyes, 1992). In addition, the TETs can prove to their students that they, Thai English teachers, have in fact acquired a foreign language, and that therefore the students can as well. This is concurrent with Phillipson (1992), who has a view that qualified and trained NNEST can contribute in meaningful ways to ELT by virtue of their own experiences as English language learners and their training and experience as teachers.
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In addition, the results of this study appear parallel to the notions of many scholars who debate over the NS-NNS dichotomy in ELT profession (e.g., Davies, 1991; Medgyes, 1994; Nayar, 1994). The ideology that native speakers are the ideal teachers of language leads to the practice of treating TETs differently from NESTs in the unfair ways; i.e., in this context only NESTs are allowed to teach Listening and Speaking course. Therefore, this ideology needs to be rejected; otherwise, the TETs will be eventually negatively defined as incapable language teachers either by themselves or by the academic administrators. Findings of Research Question 2 How do TETs react to the policy which states that Listening and Speaking courses must be taught by NESTs only? Qualifications for Listening and Speaking teachers From the interview responses, four aspects of teachers qualifications for Listening and Speaking courses emerged. Most participants (14) considered having a degree in ELT or in other related areas as a necessity. Otherwise, having taken a pre-service training course in ELT was necessary. One of them explained:
It would be very beneficial if the teachers degree corresponds to the subject they teach. Knowing only how to speak and use English is not enough. As well as without training in ELT, teachers might not know how to manage the classroom and find it hard to make students understand.
Second, a number of respondents also considered teaching experience as another important qualification. One explained that the more teaching experience the teacher had, the better teaching performance was. Third, in terms of language awareness, linguistic skills and knowledge would help teachers understand the differences of English and Thai phonetic systems and could guide students to articulate words clearly. Additionally, teachers needed to have cultural awareness of the target language and of students language in order to better understand the students attitudes towards EFL learning.
NESTs with a degree in ELT: Is it necessary?
Ten participants indicated that NESTs needed to have a degree in ELT or in other related areas whereas four other respondents perceived that at least NESTs needed to have taken a pre-service training course in ELT. In addition, having some teaching experience would be an advantage. From the interview responses, a degree or a training course in ELT could help guarantee that NESTs know how to teach English and were familiar with other aspects of language teaching (e.g., lesson planning, testing, and teaching evaluation). One commented:
Proficiency in listening and speaking English is not enough. I notice that a NEST without a degree in ELT couldnt explain clearly why he uses grammatical structures that way.
In this particular context, it is not a requirement for NESTs to have a degree in ELT, whereas TETs must hold at least a Masters degree in ELT. Another interesting comment was raised by some respondents. They claimed that it was the values of Thai society which regarded a degree as an official proof of knowledge. Other aspects, such as teaching skills and practices, were more important than having the degree. Many teachers without a degree in this area could teach better than ones who hold a particular degree. The quotation below gives a typical idea of this response:
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Degree qualification merely enhances credibility to English teachers. It sometimes excludes many talented teachers who dont have a degree.
What if TETs teach Listening and Speaking courses? With a degree qualification and teaching experience in ELT, the participants were asked if they would like to teach Listening and Speaking courses as well as if they could teach more effectively. Three different opinions emerged from the interview.
Certainly, I would love to have the opportunity.
Nine respondents were interested in having the opportunity. One of them was confident that she could teach as well as NESTs could do, or even better. The following quotation illustrates this:
I can better understand and deal with Thai students than NESTs. I not only have a good command of communicative skills but know what the differences between Thai and English phonetic systems are.
Another three insisted that at the basic level they could teach more effectively than NESTs. One interestingly noted that students at the basic level still need a lot of assi0stance from TETs to give some explanations in Thai and to discuss what their needs and learning problems were.
Certainly not.
Two other participants asserted that they were not keen on teaching these courses. Without having experience in foreign countries and much exposure to interacting with foreigners, one participant perceived herself incompetent in teaching listening and speaking skills. As English was the NESTs mother-tongue, NESTs could do this job better and more effectively. Similarly, another made a comparison with Thai language teaching and learning; no one could teach Thai better than Thai native speakers. One respondent remarked:
I couldnt be as perfect as NESTs in terms of pronunciation and accent. I dont think I am aware of cultural knowledge of the target language as well as the language owners.
From this viewpoint, it is impossible that Thai people, as foreign language teachers and learners, can speak like native speakers. Additionally, it is the fact that most of the speakers of English in the world are not native speakers of English. The English speaking world is very diverse when we compare countries as different as Ireland, the UK, the USA, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. All have different cultures, idiomatic expressions, accents, and so on. Hence, the nativeness cannot guarantee the best quality of teaching.
Not sure.
Another two respondents could not say exactly whether they could do better or more effectively until they had a chance to try these courses and saw what the teaching and learning outcomes were. One of them added that effectiveness of teaching depended on various factors; e.g., learners ability, teaching performance, course levels, learners
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motivation, teaching evaluation, and learning outcomes. With this, the teachers could not know how effective their teaching practice was by using only their personal judgement. Reactions to the policy: Taking up a challenge? Two different reactions emerged from the participants: positive reactions and negative reactions. According to the positive reactions, four participants concurred with the academic policy. NESTs were considered more qualified to teach these courses as they were competent in English proficiency and could bring the most beneficial learning outcomes to students. One reasoned:
It doesnt matter as long as students are satisfied with their learning outcomes and NESTs teaching practice.
Regarding negative reactions, twelve participants felt resistant inside and have never expressed their feeling aloud. They considered it unfair. At least, TETs should be given an opportunity to try these courses. One of them reflected:
Its not fair! I wish the policy makers took this issue into consideration. Some of us are better qualified to teach in terms of understanding of different aspects between Thai and English, and learning problems of Thai students.
In respect of professional identity, eight respondents remarked that both NESTs and TETs were English language teachers, but they were treated differently. Conflicts and potential problems could happen to TETs: the loss of credibility and self-esteem in teaching profession, for instance. In this regard, eight of the participants would like to see some changes. Yet, no one has opposed the policy explicitly and has revealed what the actual reactions were. One interestingly noted:
We should stand up for our rights. We shouldnt just comment on the unfair policy. Instead, this issue must be raised up and discussed formally at the faculty meeting in order to have some change.
Discussion of findings of Research Question 2 The results of the study showed that a degree qualification was considered the most important aspect for teaching Listening and Speaking courses, and training courses in ELT and teaching experience were also required. Considering the educational background and teaching experience of TETs in this context, their qualifications meet all the requirements. Hence, TETs wondered why it was not necessary for NESTs to have a degree in ELT or even in other related areas: one of them had only six months teaching experience of English at a private school in Thailand. Interestingly, one TET made a pointed remark about the degree qualification of NESTs:
At least NESTs qualification matches with the academic policy as they were native English speakers.
It is in the light of this that in the EFL context in Thailand, teachers who are native speakers of English usually seem to be equipped with privileges in relation to teaching professionals merely because they are native speakers. In accordance with one participants claim, the reaearchers assumption is that the academic administrators are not concerned about the value of Thai society which regards a degree as a knowledge evaluation and a fair
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credential when recruiting NESTs. To add to this, according to Maum (2001), a growing number of native English speakers without teaching qualifications have been hired than qualified and experienced NNESTs. This can be attributed to a native speaker label which undermines the required qualifications for English language teaching. In terms of language and cultural awareness, the participants believe that these two aspects are also important for teaching Listening and Speaking, whilst these might be considered more important than a degree qualification in other contexts. It can be drawn up that most of the TETs perceived themselves to be inferior to NESTs in communicative competence although they have superior degree qualifications. They accepted that NESTs were more qualified in language proficiency and cultural knowledge. Similarly, Samimy and Brutt-Grifflers (1999) study reveals that the NNS graduate students in TESOL do not consider NSs superior in every aspect, but only more proficient in the use of authentic English. The participants have a view which is consistent with Medgyes (1992) that effectiveness of language teaching is not based on nativeness or non-nativeness. Instead, effective teaching could possibly depend on other factors (Liu, 1999; Samimy and BruttGriffler, 1999); e.g., learner factors, teacher factors, and contextual factors. Even though 12 out of 16 participants have negative reactions to the policy, they have never expressed their actual feelings aloud. Coming from the same culture, the researcher is in accord that their acceptance of this unpleasant situation is because of the attitude that they cannot change. Therefore, it is culturally appropriate to accept it calmly. However, the participants gave opinions that an objection to the perceived unfair policy should be raised in a formal discussion among the academic administrators or policy makers. Their feeling of resistance inside should be expressed. From their responses, to some extent they are concerned about the current issue which could lead them to the potential problem of low selfesteem in their teaching profession. According to Pennycook (1994), a crucial challenge for critical approaches to TESOL always focuses on inequality and oppression in a particular situation. By and large, the inequality of teaching profession exists in this context and others. In this study, through their responses to the last question regarding the reactions to the policy in particular, it is apparent that most TETs are aware of the unfairness and discrimination that marginalise them in teaching Listening and Speaking courses. Evidently, the TETs perceive themselves as being labelled as non-native speakers of English and how they react to the perceived unfair policy. Implications The findings of this study suggest several implications. First, both TETs and academic administrators need to understand what the realistic aim of English language teaching in a Thai context is. The main purpose is not to teach Thai students to speak like native speakers of English, but to use English as a foreign language and to achieve a number of English skills which will be beneficial for their future careers. Therefore, it is not necessarily to study English with NESTs. The majority of English teachers in the world, including in Thailand, are not native speakers of English. They are people who speak other languages; nevertheless, they can contribute their best knowledge and abilities in teaching profession as well as or even better than native speakers of English. The acceptance of being called non-native speakers reflects that TETs are contributing their own discriminatory. Then, the assumption that NESTs represent the ideal teachers of English needs to be rejected because both TETs and NESTs can be equally good
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teachers in their own terms. The differences in the areas of culture, language, and teaching should not be seen as negative and contradictory but should be recognised and valued as positive and complementary. The unique contribution of TETs should be acknowledged as an important and very credible force in the TESOL profession. TETs should have more selfrespect in their own abilities and worth. When TETs are not considered as inferior to NESTs in teaching abilities either by themselves or by others, at least in teaching Listening and Speaking courses, the discrimination against TETs and a sense of inferiority will not happen. The issue of inequality of native and non-native teachers has been recognised in literature of critical issues in TESOL (e.g., Braine, 1999; Davies, 1991; Liu, 1999; Medgyes, 1992; Phillipson, 1992). Nevertheless, oppression regarding unfair policies has not been considered a critical issue of teaching career in my particular context. Hence, as the final implication, there should be more formal discussions on specific issues and concerns related to the equality of NESTs and TETs. Also, the continuation of using native and non-native labels which is the source of discrimination and injustice may be argued. On a regular basis, seminars and workshops should be organised in my work context to increase the opportunities for giving voice and to help define where the TETs are now in terms of ELT professionals. Consequently, these important issues should be raised in the university annual conference which is recognised as a forum for academic discussions. In this way, various new perspectives, such as collaborative team teaching by TETs and NESTs, and the fairer policy would be given greater consideration. Conclusion From the study, the participants have offered various viewpoints regarding native and nonnative speaker issues and reactions to this perceived unfair policy. With the methodology employed, ideology critique, the participants provided their subjective critical perspective allowing them to see the inequality and discrimination existing in their workplace. It was apparent that The participants accepted the non-native label and could see the differences between NESTs and TETs as well as their strengths in teaching Listening and Speaking courses. To some extent they were concerned about the issue of inequality which could lead them to the potential problem of self-esteem in their teaching profession. Various interesting aspects regarding the reactions to the unfair policy were revealed. Even though the participants have realized what their strengths and weaknesses are compared with their native counterparts, it is not possible to clearly indicate who are better English teachers. Rather, the two counterparts would complement each other in their strengths and weaknesses by having collaborative team teaching in order to provide the most advantages to students. Taking this into account, the academic administrators must reconsider the policy in order to bring some changes for the better. References Amatashew, L. (2000). A Study of English teaching by native speaker project in elementary schools under the jurisdiction of the Bangkok metropolitan administration. Unpublished Master of Education thesis, Chulalongkorn University, Thailand. Braine, G. (Ed.) (1999). Non-native educators in English language teaching. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Canagarajah, S. (1999). Interrogating the native speaker fallacy: Non-linguistic roots, nonpedagogical results. In G. Braine (Ed.), Non-native educators in English language teaching (pp. 77-92). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
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Chomsky, N. (1965). Aspects of the Theory of Syntax.Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. Cohen, L., Manion, L. and Morrison, K. (2003). Research Methods in Education, (5th Ed.). London: Routledge Falmer. Davies, A. (1991). An introduction to applied linguistics: From theory to practice. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University press. Dean, M. (1994). Critical and Effective Histories: Foucaults methods and historical sociology. London: Routledge. Edge, J. (1998). Natives, Speakers, and Models. JALT Journal, 9(2), 123-157. Fairclough, N. (Ed.). (1992). Critical language awareness. London: Longman. Gee, J. (1994). Orality and litracy: From the savage mind to ways with words. In J. Maybin (Ed.), Language and literacy in social practice (pp. 168-192). Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters. Gill, S. and Rebrova, A. (2001). Native and Non-Native: Together Were Worth More. The Weekly Column, 52(3). Retrieved on September 20, 2009 from http://www.eltnewsletter.com/back/March2001/art522001.htm Golombek, P. and Jordan, S. R. (2005). Becoming Black Lambs Not Parrots: A Poststructuralist orientation to Intelligibility and Identity. TESOL Quarterly, 39(3), 513-533. Habermas, J. (1972). Knowledge and Human Interests. London: Heinemann. Habermas, J. (1976). Legitimation Crisis (trans. T. McCarthy). London: Heinemann. Harmer, J. (1991). The Practice of English Teaching. Harlow: Longman. Holliday, A. (2002). Doing and Writing Qualitative Research. London: Sage. Kramsch, C. (1997). The privilege of the nonnative speaker. PMLA, 112, 359-369. Lee, I. (2000). Can a nonnative English speaker be a good English teacher? TESOL Matters, 10(1), 1-3. Lippi-Green, R. (1997). English with an accent: Language, ideology, and discrimination in the United States. New York: Routledge. Liu, J. (1999). From Their Own Perspectives: The Impact of Non-Native ESL Professionals on Their Students. In G. Braine (Ed.), Non-Native Educators in English language Teaching (pp. 159-176). Mahwah, New Jersey: LEA. Maum, R. (2001). Non-native English Speaking Teachers in the English Teaching Profession. ERIC Digest. Retrieved September 18, 2009 from http://www.ericdigests.org/20034/teaching-profession.htm Medgyes, P. (1992). Native or Non-Native: Who's worth more?. ELT Journal 46(4), 340-349. Medgyes, P. (1994). The Non-Native Teacher. London: Macmillan. Nayar, P. B. (1994). Whose English is it? TESL-EJ, 1(1), F-1. Retrieved September 12, 2009, from http://www-writing.berkeley.edu/TESL-EJ/ej01/f.1.html. Pennycook, A. (1994). The cultural politics of English as an international language. London: Longman. Pennycook, A. (1999). Introduction: Critical approaches to TESOL. TESOL Quarterly, 33(3), 329-348. Pennycook, A. (2001). Critical Applied Linguistics: A Critical Introduction. London: LEA. Phillipson, R. (1992). Linguistic imperialism. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Quirk, R. (1995). Grammatical and lexical variance in English. London: Longman. Rampton, B. (1990). Displacing the native speaker: Expertise, affiliation, and inheritance. ELT Journal, 44(2), 97-101. Samimy, K. and Brutt-Griffler, J. (1999). To be a native or non-native speaker: perceptions of non-native students in a Graduate TESOL Program. In G. Braine (Ed.), Non-Native Educators in English Language Teaching (pp.127-144). London: Lawrence Erlbaum.
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Swales, J. (1993). The English Language and its Teachers: thoughts past, present and future. ELT Journal 47(4): 283-291. The Ministry of Education (2009). Untitled document. Retrieved October 15, 2009 from http://www.moe.go.th/main2/project/project.htm Thomas, J. (1999). Voices from the periphery: Non-native teachers and issues of credibility. In G. Braine (Ed.), Non-native Educators in English Language Teaching (pp. 5-13). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Widdowson, H. G. (1994). The ownership of English. TESOL Quarterly, 28, 377-392.
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Communication Strategies by Thai University Students in English Language Learning
Asst. Prof. Dr. Sureepong Phothongsunan, Faculty of Arts, Assumption University, Thailand
Abstract This paper presents a small-scale investigation into communication strategies employed by a class of Thai university students in a context in which English is required and undertaken primarily as a medium of instruction. This action research arose out of the researchers attempt to understand and problem-solve English communication difficulties as experienced and reported by participants in an English classroom. Two research methods are used: unobtrusive observations and semi-structured interviews. It is revealed that most participants have no serious intention of communicating in English on campus or even in classrooms unless required by the teacher or class work. Justifying that they generally have no trouble with receptive skill, almost all accept that they do not see the need to use English as they feel much more comfortable and confident using Thai, their native language. Avoidance strategies were observed and reported as the favored means among most participants. Particularly, topic avoidance, in which the student, when asked a specific question, does not know the answer and therefore will just keep silent, appears to be the most frequently adopted strategy, leading to the occurrence of the topic being avoided or changed. On the other hand, compensatory strategies, involving compensation for missing knowledge, were reported being used by several students, especially, with fluent spoken English. Among these, prefabricated patterns, stalling, and appealing for help were the three most commonly employed respectively. As evidenced from the data, a number of the students have limited language acquisition and lack necessary skill on how to cope themselves when confronted with some unfamiliar English words or expressions. Implications from the study suggest that compensatory strategies, in particular, could be used and trained to a greater extent to promote learners communicative competence. Teachers thus play an important role in conveying communication strategies to students and thereby assisting them in practicing English. Learners should then also be motivated to apply communication strategies as greater motivation relates to higher frequencies of strategy use. Furthermore, a genuine English-speaking environment needs to be generated to the largest extent, because by continual exposure to natural conversation students could learn through opportunities both to hear more of the target language and to produce new utterances to test their knowledge. Key words: Communication strategies, Avoidance strategies, Compensatory strategies, Unobtrusive observation Introduction and Contextual Background Today, because of international communication needs, more attention is focused on EFL learners communicative competence in English. Wherever English is used as a communication tool, EFL students communicative competence needs to be raised to fulfill the urgent need of international communication (Chang, 2001). Thai university students, with no exception, need to be able to expand their linguistic knowledge while communicating and make themselves interact better in the current global village The use of communication strategies,
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therefore, has played an important role in assisting EFL university students in compensating for their finite English knowledge and integrating their reading and writing competence into more practical communication. It is found that the learners belief systems in L2 learning show connections with the communication strategies L2 learners use to compensate for communication problems and enhance the effectiveness of communication in L2 (Canale, 1983). Thai students studying English in a context in which English is used strictly as a medium of teaching and learning, just like being in an English speaking environment albeit mainly during class time, are bound to encounter various communication difficulties in their daily communication with the teachers and the classmates. According to Dornyei (1995:51), a significant proportion of real-life L2 communication is problematic, especially when being exposed to a completely new language and culture environment. In particular, participation in academic or classroom discussion has been noted as an area of major difficulty (Jordan, 1997). There is a body of research addressing EFL students difficulty in listening and speaking tasks when studying in an L2 speaking environment (Clennell, 1999; Morita, 2000). According to Jordan and Mackays survey (Jordan, 1997), it was found that the EFL students in their study had the greatest trouble with understanding spoken English, particularly in expressing themselves in speech involving fluency and self-expression. Another investigation by Graham (1997) suggested that in order of difficulty, EFL students under study ranked speaking as first and listening as second when being exposed to authentic L2 learning ambience. In spite of some of the studies in this area as far as a Thai perspective is concerned, there are very few studies that examine Thai EFL learners communication strategies employed and communication difficulties encountered in such a unique learning context. Rationale This research arose from the researchers attempt to understand and problem-solve Thai students English communication difficulties. The study is significant in that it provides language educators insights into English communication strategies used by students in a certain context in relation to their spontaneous communication response. This mainly deals with guessing the meaning of an unknown word or expression in English while communicating and using paraphrase if the English word is not known. Two research questions are raised as the focus of the study: 1. What are the communication strategies used by Thai university students studying in an English class? 2. In what ways can teachers help the students minimize their communication problems? While the purpose of the study is not to generalise the findings to a larger population but rather to offer better understanding of the issues under investigation, several objectives of the study can be accounted for. Firstly, the study is set out to reveal the communication strategies used by a group of Thai university students in an English-as-a-medium context. Secondly, attempts would be made in turn to find ways to minimize communication problems as reported by the participants. Finally, it is hoped that the study will pave the way for and encourage undertaking small-scale classroom action research which can be realistically carried out by a class teacher.
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Methodologically action research and qualitative in nature, this study utilizes an interpretative approach focusing on the researchers responsibility to engage in transactions with the participants, aiming to understand and make sense of their views and positions.The researcher moreover ensures that the participants are treated without prejudice or favoritism for an empirical study. Also, the establishment of a trustworthy basis is significant as it would encourage the participants to articulate what they actually feel and the researcher would also be able to revisit the participants to improve the research by feeding back findings for discussion and elucidation. Literature Review Various difficulties face EFL learners especially in the area of communication. Linguistic competence alone does not guarantee successful communication. Rather, these students need other competence such as sociolinguistic, discourse and strategic competence to effectively communicate. Scholars in the communication strategy domain advise that language learners can use communication strategies to resolve their linguistic problems and talk more comprehensibly (Rababah, 2005; Bialystok, 1990). Canale and Swains Framework of Communicative Competence Canale & Swain (1980) developed a widely cited framework of communicative competence, which takes into consideration communication strategies, as well as grammatical competence and sociolinguistic competence. Later, it was determined that this limited spectrum of competencies was inadequate for a communicative approach to language teaching and learning. Canale (1983) revised this framework by allowing for the inclusion of four main areas of competence: grammatical competence, sociolinguistic competence, discourse competence and strategic competence. Strategic competence is determined by ones mastery of verbal and non-verbal communication strategies that may be utilized for two main reasons: (a) to compensate for breakdowns in communication due to limiting conditions in actual communication (e.g. inability to recall something) or to insufficient competence in one or more of the other areas of communicative competence; and (b) to enhance the effectiveness of communication (e.g. deliberately slow down for a rhetorical effect). Canale & Swain (ibid.) suggested that this type of competence is demonstrated when individuals use communication strategies. Typical examples include the use of paraphrase, avoidance of difficulties, and requests for repetition, simplification, clarification or slower speech. Canale & Swains main contribution to communicative competence theory is that they have integrated into their model communication strategies that people often employ to cope with difficulties that arise during the course of communication. Definitions and Classifications of Communication Strategies There have been many definitions proposed regarding the communication strategies of second language learners. Bialystok (1990) points out that, although research scholars offer various definitions for communication strategies, these definitions seem to share three main features: 1. Problematicity: Problematicity includes strategies that are not normally used during routine language operations. Strategies are adopted when problems in either learning or production are perceivedproblems that may interrupt communication.
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2. Consciousness: This refers to either the learners awareness that a strategy is being employed for a particular purpose, or the awareness of how that strategy may lead to an intended effect. 3. Intentionality: This refers to the learners control over those strategies so that particular ones may be selected from a range of options and deliberately applied to achieve certain effects. Kasper & Kellerman (1997) described the term communication strategies as identification of communication strategies depends to a great extent on what one considers communication strategies to be, and in this respect, it matters very much whether one conceives of communication strategies as intra-individual or inter-individual events. (p. 3). There are two different approaches to communication strategy research in the current body of research literature, intra-individual and inter-individual. According to Faerch & Kasper (1983:7), communication strategies are potentially conscious plans for solving what to an individual presents itself as a problem in reaching a particular communicative goal. This intra-individual view locates communication strategies in models of speech production (Dechert, 1983; Faerch & Kasper, 1983) or cognitive organization and processing models (Bialystok, 1990). In early work, most notions of communication strategies restricted the concept to such a problem-solving activity. Faerch & Kaspers definition of communication strategies focuses on the learner or, more precisely, to the problems experienced by the learner in speech reception, and in the planning and execution of speech production. This definition conceives communication strategies as mental plans implemented by the L2 learner in response to an internal signal of an imminent problem, a form of self-help that does not require support from the interlocutor for resolution (Faerch & Kasper, ibid.). This implies that the learner may make use of a communication strategy without signaling his interlocutor to indicate that he or she is experiencing a communication problem or, requesting assistance from the interlocutor. The inter-individual view of communication strategies (Tarone, 1983: 62) suggests that the term communication strategies relates to a mutual attempt of two interlocutors to agree on a meaning in situations where requisite meaning structures do not seem to be shared. Meaning structures here would include both linguistic structures and sociolinguistic rule structures. This definition introduces an inter-individual perspective. In Tarones words, communication strategies are seen as tools used in a joint negotiation of meaning where both interlocutors are attempting to agree as to a communicative goal (ibid.:72). The negotiation of meaning as a joint effort between the interlocutors is central to the concept of communication strategies. This inter-individual perspective allows for an inclusion of various repair mechanisms. If those repair mechanisms were applied to clarify intended meaning rather than simply correct linguistic form (1983: 71), Tarone considers them communication strategies. The aim of the present study is to investigate more on the intra-individual communication strategies that do not require the interlocutors interference rather than those inter-individual communication strategies that emphasize how interlocutors can achieve mutual comprehension. A review of the literature shows that there are many kinds of communication strategy taxonomies, most of which are rather similar. According to Dornyei and Thurrell (1994), learners need some specific communication strategies such as message adjustment or
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avoidance, paraphrasing, approximation, appeal for help, asking for repetition, asking for clarification, interpretive summary, checking, use of fillers hesitation devices to function well in the informal everyday conversation. Also adopted for the present study after a list of categories was derived from the existing literature, the taxonomy of Celce-Murcia et. al. (1995) consists of five main categories: 1. Avoidance strategies consisting of message replacement, topic avoidance, and message abandonment; 2. Achievement or compensatory strategies taking into account circumlocution, paraphrases, and gestures; 3. Stalling strategies comprising fillers and repetition; 4. Self-monitoring strategies mainly involving repairing; and 5. Interactional strategies largely including appeal for help, and request for confirmation. Communication Strategies and Interlanguage It is generally thought that communication strategies were first invoked to account for errors made by learners of a second language. While there is general agreement that conversational interaction can facilitate interlanguage development, communication strategies are thought to be one of the factors affecting interlanguage development. The term interlanguage refers to a separate linguistic system based on the observable output which results from a learners attempted production of a target language norm (Selinker, 1972). When, in the attempt to communicate meaning, the learner feels that the linguistic item needed is not available to him or her, he or she can resort to a variety of communication strategies in order to get his or her meaning across. The linguistic forms and patterns used in such attempts may become more or less permanent parts of the learners interlanguage. As a central component of interlanguage, the notion of communication strategies refers to the approach that learners use to overcome the inadequacies of their interlanguage resources (Ellis, 1994: 396). Interlanguage thus represents an attempt to analyze the learners developing linguistic system in a more systematic way. Within the framework of communication strategy, there are concerns over drawbacks for EFL learners to employ communication strategies in real communication. Even though using these strategies could make communication easier and help learners start interacting in English more rapidly, strategies might lead to markedly non-native sounding speech (Tarone, 1980) or result in a loss of face (Faerch and Kasper, 1983). Moreover, Johnson (1992) in his study finds that the success in real communication is achieved too early with students employing the communication strategies; thus, learners make no progress in terms of the linguistic competence and their interlanguage fossilized in a too early stage, which means that they become the victim of their own highly developed strategic competence. Teachability of Communication Strategies Different views of the pros and cons of communication strategies pose another question: are communication strategies teachable? Dornyei (1995) points out L2 learners might benefit from instruction on how to cope with performance problems since a large proportion of reallife L2 communication is complicated. Supporting this view, Hatch (1978) posits that learners
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should be told to use whatever fillers they can to show that they make every effort to communicate. Dornyei (ibid.) also asserts strategy training provides the learners with a sense of security in L2 by allowing them room to maneuver in times of difficulty, Rather than giving up their message, learners may decide to try and remain in the conversation and achieve their communicative goal. In this sense, communication strategies are teachable. However, some researchers believe that communication strategies are acquired, not learned. According to Bialstok and Kellerman (1987), it is argued that most adult language learners already have a fairly developed level of this competence, involving a repertoire of applicable communication strategies regardless of their level of L2 proficiency. Canale and Swain (1980) also assert that communication strategies are most likely to be acquired in reallife communication and not developed through classroom practice. The discrepancies between the pros and cons of using communication strategies and whether it is teachable provide more room for further research, especially from a particular group of learners as Thai university students studying in such a certain context. Methods Taking into account the specific research context, the exploration of communication strategies of a particular group of Thai EFL university students, the researcher adopts the qualitative tradition. This focuses on data collection with extensive explanations and details being provided on the context and participants in the research (Burns, 1999). Within the qualitative convention by means of action research, a case study is adopted to address the research questions. Being particularistic, descriptive and heuristic (Merriam, 1988:16), the study draws attention to the question of what specially can be learned from the single case rather than generalization beyond (Stake, 2000). Unobtrusive observations and semi-structured interviews are tools used to gather data. The findings were derived from observations from which numerous observations were conducted using field notes to yield reliable data. Also, semi-structured interviews were employed in which the participants would be offered an opportunity to express their ideas, feelings and perspectives about the issues studied. The interviews would also offer the researcher the opportunity to make on-the-spot evaluation and follow up on certain responses in the narrative or sequence provided by the participants. Participants A class of 31 Thai university students serves as the participants of the study. They had mixed learning performance and in the third and fourth year of their 4-year undergraduate program. The vast majority of the participants (N=27) are Business English majors while the rest represent students from the School of Management and the School of Communication Arts. In terms of gender, this group of participants comprises 25 females and 6 males. The course undertaken by the sample was an English for Specific Purpose course, English for Hotels, which lasted 45 hours over a 1-semester period. Data Collection Methods and Procedures Initially, unobtrusive observations were used. The researcher took into account ethical issues involving informed consent and invasion of privacy. Thus, the participants were informed of being observed for one semester at a start of the term by the teacher researcher. Since the researcher was also the teacher of the course, this has validated the investigation into
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problems according to the action research principle (Nunan, 1990) particularly with the use of observation. The observations were conducted 4 times at equal intervals throughout the semester using field notes. To code the observation, repeated instances of communication strategies used were noticed using hash marks. Then, the most and least detected cases in point on strategies were analyzed and then categorized. Afterwards, semi-structured interviews were employed. 15 participants with interesting instances from the observations were purposively selected. Interviews are also used for crosschecking the observational notes (Radnor, 2002). With the semi-structured format, the participants were able to expound on the topics asked. The interview also enabled the researcher to prompt the interviewees to expand their ideas when necessary. During the interview conducted both in Thai and English, the interview questions were allowed to flow naturally, based on information provided by the respondents. The researcher, while listening, tried to interpret and seek clarity and a deeper insight into the respondents throughout the interview. The researcher also ensured that there were smooth transitions from one topic to the next. All responses were audiotaped and then transcribed. Non-verbal behaviors were also observed and recorded as they occurred. The researcher also documented his own reflections showing his views and feelings as soon as each interview was completed.Questions asked mainly included the participants personal data, their perceived communication strategies used, justification for the most and least preferred strategies and ways to improve their communicative competence. The interview scripts were sent back to the participants for verification. Unclear points were also discussed and missing ideas added.To analyze the data from the interviews, the data were first content examined, the main constructs developed and the transcripts marked in agreement with the constructs. A Thai TESL researcher helped to provide validity with the responses by confirming the groupings. Findings and Discussion To answer the research questions, this section describes and discusses the results from the observations and the interviews. Research Question 1: What are the communication strategies used by Thai university students studying in an English class? From the observations, the researcher found that a great number of the participants made use of avoidance strategies, leading to the occurrence of the topic being avoided or changed. In many cases, silence was a reaction to indicate message ignorance. A smile and other shunning non-verbal communication such as stroking the head and keeping the face down could also be observed at times in conjunction with the hush. Other strategies adopted in order of frequency were prefabricated patterns, stalling and appealing for help accordingly. When the participants were asked why they employed such communication strategies, almost all justified that they had no serious intention of communicating in English in class or at the University unless it was required by the class teacher or class work. They felt more comfortable and confident using Thai especially with group discussions. Only when it was necessary to use English for communication, they would feel compelled to do so. Many also pointed out they more or less had more trouble with aural skills compared with oral skills. However, it was found that a few students with fluent spoken English employed compensatory strategies, involving compensation for missing knowledge quite considerably. These participants attempted to communicate comprehensibly at their best. They argued that
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they would try by all means to express themselves to get the message across using gestures to convey meanings, paraphrases, and even circumlocution. Most participants in the study acknowledged that they preferred to use strategies that would be rather easy to implement such as stalling and avoidance strategies as little efforts would be required while trying to use them. On the other hand, strategies that would require any challenge or courage from the users, which could then lead to embarrassment or awkwardness in the classroom were thus less favoured. In line with the results from the interviews, most of the participants appeared to have limited language acquisition. Also, they were found and indeed as many admitted lacking skill on how to cope themselves when confronted with some unfamiliar English words or expressions. Some added that they always feel nervous or fidgety by the time they see new vocabulary or phrases in English and that keeping communication to a minimum would put them on safe side. It can be said that all participants to some extent used communication strategies in the classroom when encountered the difficulties. Some used the strategies consciously and some unconsciously. This finding seems to support the views held by some researchers as Bialystok and Kellerman (1987) and Canale and Swain (1980) that communication strategies are acquired in real life communication and not developed through classroom learning. Ignoring the topic as well as keeping silent as found to be the most used strategies suggested that the participants lack training in using proper communication strategies when there were difficulties. This indicates that in language learning classrooms, teachers should provide good models for using communication strategies and particularly the use of compensatory strategies should be strongly encouraged and even explicitly taught (Liu, 1999). Most participants held positive attitudes towards using communication strategies as at least they could be used to facilitate negotiation in meaning. However, a few participants mentioned that the use of communication strategies hindered their development in using English accurately. This is supported by Johnsons findings that the success in real communication by using communication strategies may cause fossilization in learners interlanguage. (Johnson, 1992). In spite of the differences, the communication strategies used by the participants were within the framework suggested in previous studies. Various communication strategies such as avoidance, paraphrasing, approximation, appeal for help, use of filler hesitation devices and others were all reported to be emp0loyed by the participants to cope with communication needs while studying in an English class. Research Question 2: In what ways can teachers help the students minimize their communication problems? The results showed that the participants used different communication strategies with varying degrees according to their language levels.Most of the participants recognised that to promote communicative competence, they needed to employ certain communication strategies. As part of action research, there is a need to implement the change in the classroom; therefore the researcher started to openly introduce and instruct compensatory strategies to and upon
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the participants. The purpose was to train and encourage the application of such strategies to promote the participants communicative competence. The class was later observed again to determine the results of the change in comparison with the previous observation. This time improvements were notices especially on the participants greater efforts to communicate and also the more used of strategies such as appeal, circumlocution and confirmation checks. As reflected from the observations and the interviews, the strategies of circumlocution, approximation, and self-repairs were found in the participants with high and middle levels of oral proficiency. Those with a low level of oral proficiency might not have enough language skill to use L2-based strategies. Experiencing language problems, they were likely to use other types of strategies. Students with high and middle levels of oral proficiency used circumlocution, approximation, and self-repairs in similar ways. Message or topic avoidance was observed among the participants with middle and low English proficiency. In fact, they should learn how to tell the conversation partner directly that they could not continue with that topic. As compared to other types of strategy, avoidance was used much more and topic avoidance was found to be the most prominent. This is probably because the participants did not want to lose faces in class or become the center of attention. The findings are in contrast to what Wannaruk (2003) found in her study on the use of communication strategies of Thai EFL students. She reported that most participants in her study wanted to keep the conversation going and tried to communicate as much as they could. Only when they realized that they could not continue did they stop talking about that topic. Modification devices, communication devices employed in order to keep the conversation going smoothly were found to be most frequently used. As Dornyei (1995) points out, the culture and contextual differences of any specific learning settings could yield different research results although the population is considered similar. Implications The findings of this study have implications in the field of foreign language teaching including the areas of strategy training and teaching methodology. As suggested by Oxford (1990), strategy training should not be abstract and theoretical but should be practical and useful for students. Therefore, the practice of compensatory strategies or modification devices is to be supported instead of avoidance strategies. This would allow learners to attempt to compensate for missing knowledge in various ways as possible. They might not directly help the learners solve the problem of limited knowledge in L2, but they would help the conversation to continue smoothly and effectively. Evidently, EFL learners are able to utilize communication strategies. Nevertheless, they might not always be able to use them effectively and spontaneously. If teachers can make learners more aware of the communication problems they might encounter and the advantages of applying different communication strategies, they might be able to choose more appropriate communication strategies and use them more creatively and effectively. To benefit EFL learners, all types of communication strategies and their uses should be conveyed to the learners because each might be useful in different situations. Particularly, L2-based strategies should be encouraged most because they are most likely to lead to successful communication and they would assist learners in practicing English. Story-telling or describing a picture can be an effective start in the practice of communication strategies
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because they provide the learners with the opportunity to become dominant in a conversation and to make use of communication strategies to overcome a lack of L2 knowledge. In addition, to become a proficient EFL user, learners should be encouraged to apply communication strategies as much as possible as greater motivation relates to higher frequencies of strategy use. Conclusion This study focuses on the use of communication strategies when learners interacted with a teacher and their classmates in an English class where English is used as a medium of instruction. In addition to the findings revealed, the researcher wishes to propose that a genuine English-speaking environment be generated, because by continual exposure to natural conversation students could learn through opportunities both to hear more of the target language and to produce new utterances to examine their knowledge. The alternative of communication strategies and the success in using them are indeed influenced by various factors, be it teachers attitude, learners characteristics, learning styles, etc., which will affect the ways learners use communication strategies. It is found that the participants under study try to convey the messages and reach their communicative goals using different communication strategies, although sometimes their use might not be practical and effective because of a lack of training. As a minimum, this investigation contributes to the ways of teaching students how to communicate when they have insufficient oral proficiency in English. References Bialystok, E. (1990). Communication Strategies: A Psychological Analysis of Second Language Use. London: Blackwell. Bialystok, E. & Kellerman, E. (1987). Language strategies in the classroom. In B. K. Das (Ed.), Communication and learning in the classroom community, pp.160-175. Singapore: SEAMEO Regional Language Centre. Burns, A. (1999). Collaborative Action Research for English Language Teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Canale, M. (1983). From communicative competence to communicative language pedagogy. In J.C. Richards & R.W. Schmidt (Eds.), Language and communication (pp. 2-27). London: Longman. Canale, M. and Swain, M. (1980). Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second language teaching and testing. Applied Linguistics, (1), pp.1-47. Celce-Murcia, M., Dornyei, Z., & Thurrell, S. (1995). Communicative competence: A pedagogically motivated model with content specification. Issues in Applied Linguistics, 6(2), pp. 5-35. Chang, J. (2001). Chinese Speakers. In Swan, M. and Smith, B.(Eds.), Learner English: A Teachers Guide to Interference and Other Problems. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Clennell, C. (1999). Promoting pragmatic awareness and spoken discourse skills with EAP classes. ELT Journal, 53(2), pp.83-91. Dechert, H. W. (1983). How a story is done in a second language. In C. Frch & G. Kasper (eds.), Strategies in Interlanguage Communication, pp. 175-195. London: Longman. Dornyei, Z. (1995). On the Teachabiliy of Communication Strategies. TESOL Quarterly, 29(1), pp.57-84. Dornyei, Z. & Thurrell, S. (1994). Teaching conversational skills intensively: course content
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and rationale. ELT Journal, 48(4), pp.40-49. Ellis, R. (1994). The study of second language acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Faerch, C. and Kasper, G. (1983). Strategies in interlanguage communication. London: Longman. Graham, S. (1997). Effective Language Learning: Positive Strategies for Advanced Language Learners. Clevedon: Multilingual. Hatch, E. (1978). Discourse analysis and second language acquisition. In E. Hatch (Ed.), Second Language Acquisition, pp. 401-435. Rowley, Ma.: Newbury House. Johnson, H. (1992). Defossilizing. ELT Journal, 46(2), pp.180-190. Jordan, R. R. (1997). English for Academic Purpose: a guide and resource book for teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Kasper, G. & Kellerman, E. (Eds.). (1997). Communication Strategies. Harlow: Longman. Liu, J. (1999). Non-Native English Speaking Professionals in TESOL. TESOL Quarterly, 33(1), pp. 85-102. Merriam, S. B. (1988). Case Study Research in Education. San Francisco: Jossey Bass. Morita, N. (2000). Discourse Socialization Through Oral Classroom Activities in a TESL Graduate Program. TESOL Quarterly, 34(2), pp.279-310. Nunan, D. (1990). Action research in the language classroom. In J. Richards & D. Nunan (Eds.), Second language teacher education, pp. 62-81. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Oxford, R. (1990). Language Learning Strategies: What Every Teacher Should Know. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House. Rababah, G. (2005). Communication Problems Facing Arab Learners of English. Journal of Language and Learning, 3(1), pp.180-197. Radnor, H. (2002). Researching Your Professional Practice: Doing Interpretive Research. Buckingham: Open University Press. Selinker, L. (1972). Interlanguage. International Review of Applied Linguistics and Language Teaching, 10(3), pp.209-30. Stake, R. E. (2000). Case studies. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (2 Ed.), pp. 435-454. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Tarone, E. (1980). Communication strategies, foreigner talks, and repair in interlanguage. Language Learning, 30, pp.417-431. Tarone, E. (1983). Some thoughts on the notion of communication strategy. In C. Frch & G. Kasper (eds.), Strategies in Interlanguage Communication, pp. 61-74. London: Longman. Wannaruk, A. (2003). Communication Strategies Employed by EST Students. SLLT,12, pp. 1-18.
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PIDGIN-ENGLISH IN THE NIGERIAN MUSIC AND FILMS: The Benefits Opoola B.T. (Ph.D) and Opoola A.F. (Mrs.) Federal College of Education (Special), Oyo, Oyo State, Nigeria. dropoola@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT Title: Pidgin-English In The Nigerian Music And Films: The Benefits This paper investigates the sociolinguistic interference in the use of Pidgin-English by Nigerians. It focuses its analysis on selected Nigerian music and films. It is a presentation that examined English and English variation in Nigeria, a nation of 250 tribes and 400 indigenous languages. The paper highlighted the benefits of the Pidgin-English as medium of entertainments in Nigeria. The study discovered the use of nativisation, ideophone among others as strategies of many Nigerian Artists in achieving better performance and wider Audience. BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY AND REVIEW OF LITERATURE Nigeria is a linguistic heterogeneous and most populous nation in Africa with more than 150 million inhabitants. It is a nation of 250 tribes and about 400 indigenous languages. Though all Nigerian languages are officially recognized as media for school instruction, up to junior primary basic 3, English is the approved language for teaching up to tertiary level of education, from basic 4 of the primary school system (NPE 1977, 1991, 1995 and 2004).(National Policy on Education). English in Nigeria is a unified language. It functions as the language of communication and understanding among Nigerians of diverse tongues. It plays vital roles in Nigerians education, administration, economics, social and religious activities. English crept into Nigerians soil as the language of trade and religion propagation by the Christian missionaries, traders and administrators. It was, however, introduced as a medium of governance and formal schooling as soon as schools were established at Lagos and Abeokuta in 1843 and 1848, respectively. Opoola, (1999) cited Emenanjos (1994) presentation of the Colonialists intent as directed by the Superintendent of Education for West Africa colonies as thus: We must at present do our best to form a class who may be interpreters between us and the millions whom we govern. A class of persons, Africans in blood and colour, but English in taste, in opinion, in moral and intellect. English has been a savior language for Nigerians to the extent that nineteen (19 years) after independence (1979), the Nigerian constitution still stipulated that: the business of the National Assembly shall be conducted in English, and in Hausa, Ibo (Igbo) and Yoruba when adequate arrangements have been made therefore (p23) In appreciating English values to Nigerians, Fadeiye (1996) cited Obasanjo with the following assertion: English is the language that provides Nigerians with a means of communication among the diverse groups. The search for Lingua-franca in Nigeria is therefore a fruitless and time wasting venture (p102). As English came in contact with the Nigerian languages, there emerged other varieties of English which are a cultural-bond.
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Nigerians speak and write English in various ways with each tribe mixing English lexical, phonological, syntactic, semantic socio linguistic words and structures with that of their indigenous languages. In other words, there are many variations of English in Nigeria as there are many Nigerian languages. A popular variety of English in Nigeria is known as the Pidgin English Eka (1995) appraising L1 and L2 teaching and learning with English as main focus confirmed that: In learning L2 the learner often exhibits tendency to transfer the features present in the second system of the L1 The colorization of the Standard English gave birth to, among, others tribal based English variation in Nigeria. We therefore for instance have Hausa-English, Yoruba-English, Fulfulde-English, Igbo-English and other English variation as communicative media in the nation. In this paper, Pidgin English receives prominent attention. It has been examined through the linguistic analysis of one hundred (100) sentences extracted from four (4) Nigerian music waxed in video CD and two (2) Nigerian films. In the end, the benefits and beauty of employing Pidgin-English were highlighted though not without being mindful of its educational implications - i.e its impact on Nigerian school children and teaching and learning of the English language. The Pidgin-English in Nigerian Music and Films. Music and films are two fundamental concepts in mass media. Mass media as an elusive concept has been defined by Ezenwilo(1980) in Atolagbe, and Atolagbe, (2007) as:the complex operation of transmitting information, ideas and attitudes to a sizeable and diversified audience (p2) There are numerous entertaining, spiritual, educative and informative indigenous type of music and films in Nigeria. A lot of these entertainment materials were rendered in Nigerian and English languages. In the old days, Nigerian traditional songs were composed and played using the traditional musical instruments. Among the Yoruba people of western Nigeria for instance, instruments like ilu bata- Bata drum ilu-dundu dundun drum sekere a beaded gourd, agogo- gong and others were skillfully used for entertainment (see the photographs on Appendix A.) In place of films, community theatre involving masquerades and other traditional dancers were engaged. The advent of the western civilization has however influenced the Nigerian peoples culture. A lot of traditional songs and dances are recently with dilution in quality, quantity and presentation with western civilization. The languages implored nowadays are either English, Pidgin-English or uncoordinated Nigerian indigenous languages. Nigerian films produced in Nigerian languages are subtitled in English while a reasonable number of Nigerian music are rendered in Pidgin English. This study investigates the creative nativization manifested in the use of expressions by musicians, actors, actresses in the analyzed Yoruba music and films. Among the reference frames for this study is Bamgbose (1995) work cited in Igboanusi (2002) as thus: the nativization of English in Nigeria is not limited to the usual features of transfer of phonological, lexical, syntactic and semantic patterns of Nigerian languages into English, it also includes the creative development of English including the evolution of distinctively Nigerian usages, attitudes and pragmatic use of the language.
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As identified in the selected Nigerian music and films Pidgin-English has been skillfully and effectively utilized in communicating to an unlimited number of audiences. Most Nigerians with no western education opportunity daily procure Nigerian films and music VCD, particularly produced in Pidgin English. The analysed music are those of: 1. 9ice written and produced by Gongo Aso (life performance Blacknights, U.K. VCD compilation Volume 1. 2. Wande Coal and Don Jazzy International blue magic entertainment. 3. no time for P. Square video with Bracket ft, P-Square, D-Banj, Ogbona Felifeli, Bumper2Bumper. PURPOSE OF THE STUDY To establish the sociolinguistics influence of Nigerian languages in the discourses of Nigerian English Bilinguals in Nigerian Films and Music. We also intend to highlight the benefits inherent in the use of many varieties of English in Nigeria particularly the Pidgin English and its beauty in Nigerian music and films. METHODOLOGY Four types of Nigerian Music rendered in Pidgin-English and two Nigerian films were appraised critically .In the end One hundred sentences were elicited and analyzed. DATA ANALYSIS The Taxonomy table as used in the analysis displays the presumed sociolinguistic reasons for construction of Pidgin-English sentences in the analyzed materials. Details of the results are as presented in the attachment tagged Appendix-A, Taxonomy of Cultural Influence in the Pidgin English Expressions of the Analyzed Nigerian Music and Films. This study observed that expressions of Musicians, Film Actors and Actresses in Pidgin English are traceable to some identified cultural and sociolinguistic presumed reasons, as in the table below: Table 1 Taxonomy of reasons Reason in figure Idiom 1 Majestic plural/wrong pluralization 2 Semantic shift 3 Ideophone 4 Serialized verbs 5 Analogical derivation-myth 6 Acronym 7 Nativization/ Indigenization 8 Reduplication 9 Ellipsis 10 1. Idiom: African languages are known with idiomatic and proverbial expressions. This influence was notable in some Pidgin English utterances of the bilinguals of the analyzed films and music see appendix B 2. Majestic plurals were used in the speech of the film actors and musicians. The feature is common in Yoruba peoples culture of politeness. An individual is addressed as if he is more than one person, just as in the following example of Yoruba sentences:
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Baba re nko? How is your father? Won wa dada. They are fine instead of He is fine. Se egbon binrin re wa nile? Is your elder sister in the house? Beeni won w anile. Yes they are in the house instead of Yes she is in the house. More examples of these utterances are in appendix B 3. Semantic Shift: a lot of utterances rendered in Pidgin-English reflected the native language of the Musicians, Actors And Actresses. Several sentences produced in pidginEnglish have Yoruba meanings. 4. Ideophones: This is a notable feature in African languages. It involves the use of reduplication of morphemes to press home a vivid description of incidents, persons, animals, places or things. E.g /lanti-/ big Ori re lantilanti n lo fi gbami nigbo. He knocked my head with his extra large and strong head. See more examples, as shown in the pidgin-English sentences on the attached Appendix B. 5. Verb Serialization: Is part of African languages syntactic structure. In Yoruba, there are instances of strings of verbs without intervening items. This is a descriptive strategy as in the following example. Oluko wa je iresi lana Our teacher came, ate rice yesterday. Our teacher came and ate rice yesterday. As in appendix B, some Pidgin-English sentences showed the influence of Yoruba verb serialization feature. 6. Analogical Derivation- Myth: African belief in the spiritual world also influenced some utterances uttered in pidgin-English in the analyzed works. Yoruba people, for instance, have faith in the transition of the dead Spirit referred to as Ara-Orun Heaven Inhabitants who yearly appear as Masquerade. 7. Acronyms were also employed in the construction of pidgin-English sentences in Nigerian music and films. The Nigerian educational agents like, The Joint Admission and Matriculation Examination Board was accronymized into JAMB. See more examples on Appendix B. 8. Nativization and Indigenization of English words and sentences were also adopted in the production of some pidgin-English sentences of the analyzed Nigerian films and music. There was transfer of Nigerian languages features into Pidgin-English at phonological lexical, syntactic and semantic levels. See appendix B. 9. Reduplication of words, phrases, clauses and sentences is a viable stylistic instrument among African languages Poets. This feature has greatly influenced pidgin-English expressions in Nigerian music and films. See Appendix B. 10. Ellipsis was also used with more dots than necessary . Apart from the above listed reasons, presumed to be responsible for some expressions in the analyzed works, this study also discovered that the following linguistic strategies were adopted by Nigerian musicians, actors and actresses. They are: 1. Code-mixing: Many expressions were loaded with both Yoruba and English words and sentences. Some sentences that started in Yoruba ended with English phrases and clauses and vice-versa. 2. Code-Switching: In the course of presentations, many Yoruba English bilinguals started some discourses in English and ended them in Yoruba.
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3. Transliteration: In order to construct Pidgin English sentences, Nigerian musicians and actors in the analyzed works transliterated some English words like wetin for what see appendix B. 4. Loan words: A lot of English and Yoruba words were borrowed producing utterances in Pidgin-English in the analyzed music and films. see appendix B 5. Coinage: Many English sentences were coined to suit their circumstances of usage. This also goes for some Yoruba words, e.g.change and moneth for money see appendix B. 6. New Words: The stylistic use of words that are not in English or Yoruba also beautifies the communicative utterances of the Musicians Actors and Actresses. E.g words like Palava, Jah Jehovah For clarity of purpose, a total of one hundred sentences, elicited for this analysis were as presented in the attachment/appendix B. Each sentence has the figure that indicates presumed reason for its existence and the alphabetic letter that reveals the strategies adopted by the person that made such a utterance. The sources of the educated utterances were the oral discourses of both the musicians, the actors and actresses as well as the subtitled sentences which were done in both Pidgin and Standard English. THE BENEFITS OF PIDGIN-ENGLISH IN THE ANALIZED SONGS AND MUSIC. Pidgin English as employed in the analyzed Nigerian music and films has the following benefits: 1. Achievement of Effective: Communication with wide numbers of audiences (i.e achievement of mass media intents) 2. Provision of pleasant entertainment for people: A great number of audience have their nerves relaxed. This is a better therapy for stress management. 3. Moral Instruction were touched. The plays and songs exposed the social vices in the society, with their negative consequences. Listen to the clips in Appendix C 4. Use of Pidgin English in the analyzed materials provided good health education. For instance, the Artists dance drama on the consequences of promiscuousness and unsafe sexual intercourse among adolescents, as in Aloomas Eekan Doyun, i.e sex done once resulted in pregnancy. See video clip in appendix C. 5. Political orientation also came into play. The need for good governance in Nigeria was emphasized, with a focus on loving ones country patriotically, T.K. Bosuns track on Nigeria presented in pidgin English preached unity, contentment, and patriotism among Nigerians as it echoed on peace thus: A love Naija, A No go lie Na inside am a go live and die I am a bigi boy refer to appendix C for extracted video clip. 6. The use of Pidgin English as exemplified in the analyzed works promotes Nigerian culture. Some Yoruba proverbs and words used alongside English lexical and phrasal items exposed the language beyond the original location of native speakers. 7. Pidgin-English informs the world of the potentials in the Nigerian entertainment industry and shows how creative Nigerians are and how productive if given necessary incentives to create job opportunities for the youths, by the youths. 8. The educative nature of the analyzed films and songs cannot be overemphasized for instance, 9ice must have taught many people what we
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may consider simple, but of which we are ignorant, through his mathematics reference to number of days and weeks in a year thus; Check your calendar; you see some pieces of number, 365 days make 52 weeks refer to the video clip in appendix C. CONCLUSION The use of Pidgin-English has provided ample opportunities for both the musicians, actors and actresses as well as the Nigerian viewing audience. It is also essential not to note that this variation of English has assisted many Nigerians with no opportunity of Western education to understand a lot of English words and sentences with which they transact business and communicate with each other in a nation of about 250 tribes and 400 languages. The influence of the music and film medium style on the teaching and learning of English in Nigerian schools where the large number of music and film audience members are adolescents of school age cannot be overemphasized, as it assists the teaching and learning of Standard English. RECOMMENDATIONS
1. Both children and adults need more education in standard and other varieties of English, particularly the Pidgin English in Nigeria. 2. ``Film Producers should encourage more Nigerian Artists with flare for Pidgin English of singing and acting plays. 3. The Nigerian government needs to encourage Nigerian Artists through loans and international exposure. A lot should be done in promoting Nigerian culture and traditions through the Nigerian music and film Industry. 4. The people of Nigeria are in need of Mass Education on politic, economic emancipation, war against corruption and corrupt leaders, unity, peace, love and sincerity of purpose. In order to achieve these, production of more music and films in Pidgin English are imperative.
REFERENCES Atolagbe S.A. and Atolagbe, A.A. (2008) The Mass Media and The Millennium Development Goals: Tasks Ahead. Paper presented at the 2nd National Counference, School of Languages, F .C. E. Obudu. Balogun Olatunji (2008) TaiwoTaiwo 129, Nnamdi Azikwe Str. Idumota Lagos: Olasco Film. Bamgbose (1995) English in the Nigerian Environment, In A. Bamgbose and A Thomas (eds) New Englishes. A West African Perspectives. pp 9 -26: Mosoro Publishers. Eka D. (1995) Comprehensive Analysis and the Teaching of English Pronunciation in current Trends in educational practice. Mlonged, Uyo Emason Ltd.
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Ezenwilo (1980) The Role of the Mass media in a Literacy campaign in Federal Ministry of Education: Towards the National Literacy campaign. Lagos, Federal Ministry of Education. Fadeiye J.O. (1996) Language and National Integration: The Nigerian Experience. In St. Andrews Journal of Languages, Oyo, Vol.1 No. 1 April, pp 16 107. Federal Republic of Nigeria (1977) National Policy on Education, Lagos, Government Press. Federal Republic of Nigeria (1981) National Policy on Education, Lagos, Government Press. Federal Republic of Nigeria (1995) National Policy on Education, Lagos, Government Press. Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004) National Policy on Education, Lagos, Government Press. Igboanusi H. (2002) A Dictionary of Nigerian Usage, Ibadan: Enicrownfit Publushers. Julia, Eka R. (2009) Translating for the Media: On faithfulness In T.J. Riyanto, L.S. Limanta and S. Divi (eds) Media in A Fast Changing World Indonesia Petra Christian University. Pp 218 223. Kanayo O.N. (1984) A Prolegomenon to Government and missionary enterprise and rivalry in Nigeria: The Igbo experience (1841- 1844) Part II In Obudu Journal of Education Studies, Vol 3 No. 1 Makurdi Onavi Publishers pp 12 -20 Mobolaji Tajudeen (2008) Kosowominibi-Abosi Lagos. NAJ Investment Nigeria Enterprises Limited. Noah Paulinus (1986) Case Against Wazobia. An Unpublished Departmental Seminar SeriesUniversity of Calabar. Opoola B.T. (1999) Languages in context. A case study of the Influence of English on the Discourses of Selected Yoruba-English Bilinguals. An Unpublished Ph. D. Dissertation. University of Calabar, Nigeria. Opoola B.T. and Adebiyi, M. (2009). Mass Media and Politics in Globalised System: The Nigerians Experience In T.J. Riyanto, L.S. Limanta and S. Divi (eds) Media in A Fast Changing World, Indonesia Petra Christian University. Pp 63 68. Oyelaran (1983) Linguistic and National Integration Lecture delivered on the occasion of the teaching of linguistic students association. University of Ibadan.
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Health Discourse and Health Knowledge: a preliminary study of the Thai Rath Daily Newspaper
Compol Swangboonsatic, PhD.
Graduate School of Language and Communication National Institute of Development Administration
Abstract Newspapers are one of the media that has been used for various communication purposes. Several studies have documented its influence on changing audiences attitudes and behaviors and its reflection of audiences beliefs and cultural values. When used for health communication, newspapers can shape its readers knowledge of health. This study investigates such effect by adopting critical discourse analysis. A sample of 150 pieces of health news articles published in the Thai-language Thai Rath, Thailands best-selling daily newspaper, between October 2009 and January 2010 were used as data. Analysis shows that this health news discourse is composed of an unequal coverage of health topics. The health discourse is subordinate to science and technology discourse. The discourse structure is in the conventional inverted pyramid format of brief news reports. This health discourse is argued to have had a negative impact due to the incomplete and insufficient knowledge about health of the Thai Rath newspapers readers.
Introduction The importance of health communication has recently been realized by the Royal Thai Government, the Public Health Ministry, medical and healthcare professionals, community leaders, the Thai media and the public. According to the 9th and the 10th National Health Development Plans (2001-2006 and 2007-2011), the government emphasizes promoting healthy behaviors and life styles with the aim of protecting their citizens from sickness and reducing unnecessary spending on health through the national budget. Newspapers are one of the Thai media that has realized the significance of health promotion and has increasingly participated in the health communication activities. Newspapers usually inform the public of the spread of a deadly disease. Very often such news is reported with warnings and advice from the Ministry of Public Health on how to protect oneself against infection with the main purpose of controlling the disease.
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Newspapers have also contributed to the development of national health by including more articles which provide information about health. One of the local newspapers in Thailand that has engaged in these activities is Thai Rath. Thai Rath claims to have the countrys highest circulation, selling in excess of
1,000,000 copies per day reaching some 12,000,000 readers across the country. Thai Rath has therefore fulfilled the criteria as the main printed media in Thailand, corresponding to the functions of the media as mentioned by Biagi (2007) and Neillis (2004). A particular page (page 7) of Thai Rath is dedicated to news updates of development in science, technology and agriculture. It is on this page where articles related to health are normally presented in the top half of the page. As health communication is at its early stages in Thailand and a significant amount of effort has been devoted to the creation of media products to promote health, a limited amount of research is documented. Moreover, there is a lack of investigation into the practices of the print media with an emphasis on its impact regarding the establishment of health knowledge. It is therefore necessary to study these health articles published by Thai Rath utilizing the discourse approach and critical discourse analysis, which should enable the study to identify the health discourse and the possible influence of these articles on the knowledge of the readers. To achieve such objectives, the following research questions are asked: 1. What is the discursive practice in the health news articles under the Cheoncheewit, Loaksopin and Thunloak columns in Thai Rath? 2. How is the discourse in these articles associated with health knowledge?
Literature Review Health Communication Geist-Martin, Ray and Sharf (2003) define health communication as a process by which individuals semiotically exchange information for mutual understanding regarding health issues. According to Ratzan et al (1994 quoted in Intaratad, 2005), health
communication involves the use of artistic and strategic communication to inform, influence
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and motivate a targeted audience of individuals, organizations, and the public. Moreover, the Popular Health Communication System Research and Development states that health communication employs communication strategies via various media and communication technologies to distribute health-related information to the public with the aim of maintaining the publics interest in particular issues within the health field. The organization insists that health communication should holistically enlighten the public to realize the contribution of good health to development. Apfel (1998 quoted in Intaratad, 2005) suggests that successful health communication should include the provision of health information in a timely manner that meets the need of the group targeted. It should reach a large group of people and the receiver should have
access to health information regularly. Health information should be accurate, reliable and consistent. Health information should also have a good balance that is culturally, socially and environmentally appropriate for the receiver. Moreover, health information should be
evidence-based, having a creditable reference of the origin of information and should be multidimensional. Finally, health communication activities should provide comprehensible health information. Health Communication Studies Three perspectives have so far been suggested in the research of health communication: process-based, message-based and ecological perspectives. Research
adopting process-based perspective focuses on the meaning making and communicating process in health communication (Du pre, 2005 quoted in Dutta, 2009). Research strategies for effective health communication is the goal of studies with message-based perspective (Murray-Johnson & Witte, 2005 quoted in Dutta, 2009). highlights the influence of context on health communication. These perspectives have been adopted in the research of health communication with descriptive, explanatory, predictive and controlling purposes. Some of the research includes media effect such as Brannstrom and Lindblads (1994) project which studied the influence of media on health behavior in Sweden. They argued that the presentation of health issues, content and concept in news reports had an impact on its audience. Brannstrom and Lindblad analyzed news coverage of heart disease and diabetes in the media for five years and its effect on Swedes aged 16 to 80 years old. They found that laypeople who were personally The ecological perspective
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impacted by the ailments in question were used as presenters and their opinions and healthy behaviors were used as role models in the news reports. The presentation of health issues was intended for middle-aged men more so than women, children or the elderly. Their analysis showed that the targeted audience was interested in health issues and content. In particular, Brannstrom and Lindblad reported on the significant influence of health issues, content and concept on audiences health behavior and the correlation with their gender and social status. In Thailand, research into the audiences comprehension of the H1N1 prevention campaign on TV was conducted during the outbreak of the disease in 2009. Punsakul (2010) evaluated the understanding of viewers of a short movie used during the campaign targeting 25-year-olds. The results showed that most of the viewers were aware of the spread of the disease, and were influenced by the use of background music and language to portray the situation, as well as the use of comedian presenters as a communication strategy for persuasion purposes. In another study, Toniti (2010) measured the effect of sound, images, and language used in a short movie during a cervical cancer campaign on a group of Thai viewers understanding. The study revealed that the use of only sound to present causes and symptoms of the illness in the movie possibly led to a weak and incomplete knowledge of the viewers. Making references to sources of medical information in advertisement has also been investigated and the findings are alrming. Hopscroft (2002) analyzed referencing in
advertisements of medicine and medical equipments in medical journals including - the New Zealand Family Physician, NZ Doctor, New Zealand GP and New Ethicals Journal. It was found that 18% of the references were literally taken from research papers and were incomprehensible to the general public. Thirteen percent of references were meaningless or incomplete and lacked important details. The largest proportion of 69% referred to medical and laboratory research almost half of which was inaccessible. Some of these references were incorrect interpretation of the research findings and several referred to abstracts of research papers. These studies conducted utilizing the adopted perspectives have demonstrated that various elements of health communication can exert an influence on peoples knowledge concerning health.
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Health Communication and Discourse There are two approaches to discourse. The Formalist approach focuses on the
linguistic features and views discourse as a linguistic unit of sentence or larger than clause (Stubbs, 1983:1 quoted in Schiffrin, 1994). Van Dijk extends the Formalist approach to cover various levels, dimensions, types, forms of linguistic units or realization (1985:4 quoted in Schiffrin, 1994). However, the Functionalists approach emphasizes linguistic function and views discourse as language use to achieve certain goals in communication. Discourse is viewed as discursive practices with meanings arising from interpersonal and social interaction and identity. In media studies, Burton (2009: 53) broadens the concept of discourse to include the use of various signs to communicate certain meanings. Human communication is therefore composed of discourses which have influence on our understanding, experience and interaction with our environment. Burton also contends that discourse is related to ideology and reflects our society. Based on Burtons view and the linguistic approaches to discourse, health communication can be conceived as a use of signs to communicate meanings of health concerns, which reflects values, beliefs, interests and many other elements of the society. Public Discourse of the News According to Manning (2001), public discourse is language use in the mass media. The term is derived from the concept of the public sphere, which Habermas proposed, referred to the space where people gather to voice opinions, exchange ideas, and criticize leaders. News reports are usually written in the inverted pyramid structure. The
conventional structure composes of headline, lead, and story (Conboy, 2007; Lanson and Stephens, 1994). The headline is written with a particular discourse to attract readers. The lead summarizes the content of the news while the story provides readers with details of the news. These three parts are organized based on their weight in engaging readers, typically as evaluated by the journalist. This type of public discourse in the newspaper can have an influence on the attitude, feeling and knowledge of the readers. Discourse Analysis in Health Communication Both the linguistic approach (Schiffrin, Tannen and Hamilton, 2003; Bhatia, Flowerdew and Jones, 2008) and the communication approach to discourse (Burton, 2009)
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have been employed to study different types of texts in various health communication contexts. Examples are Anaesthetic Talk in Surgical Encounters (Pope, Mort, Goodwin and Smith, 2007), Corridor Conversation: Clinical Communication in Casual Spaces (Long, Iedema and Lee, 2007), Dialogues for Negotiating Priorities in Unplanned Emergency Surgical Queues (Lum and Fitzgerald, 2007), and The Role of Signs and Representations in the Organization of Medical Work: X-rays in Medical Problem Solving (Maseide, 2007). Critical Discourse Analysis Critical discourse analysis (CDA) draws on identifying ideology, attitude, belief, and value associated with power, gender, identity, etc., which are reflected in the discourse (Van Dijk, 2003; Wodak, 2005). Fairclough proposed CDA to be used to study both the form and function of text in relation to textual production and consumption, and to society (Richardson, 2007:37). several related elements. Adopted in media studies, CDA enables researchers to identify For example, the Thais sociocognitive model from the news
headlines and leads (Gadavanij, 2003), political ideology of the U.S. and British governments during the War on Terror (Chantarawandi, 2008), and the Royal Thai Governments policy towards news broadcasting as reflected in the news discourse (Chanput, 2007).
Methodology A sample of 150 health news articles written in Thai published in Thai Rath between October 2009 and January 2010 was used as data. The set of data was then analyzed utilizing the discourse analytical approach and CDA.
Results Analysis in the topic of health information, aspect of health information, position, and compositional structure of the health discourse of the articles suggests some possible impact on the readers health knowledge as demonstrated by the following findings.
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Topic of Health Information Analysis shows that there is an unequal coverage of health topics. The topic of Diseases/Illnesses was highest among the identified fourteen topics as shown in the Table of Topics of Health Information below: Table of Topics of Health Information
Topics
Frequency (N= 150) 23 19 19 18 14 10 9 9 8 7
Diseases/ Illnesses Medicine Medical Technology Physical & Mental Care Food Physical Exercise Mental Health Danger from Communication Technology Alcohol Danger from Household Tools, Ornaments, Clothes, etc. Coffee & Tea Cigarette & Addicted Drugs Food Supplements Relaxation
5 3 3 3
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Cancer was mostly mentioned followed by H1N1 as shown in the Table of Topic of Diseases/Illnesses below: Table of Topic of Diseases/Illnesses
Diseases/Illnesses Frequency (N= 23) 5 4 3 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1
Cancer H1N1 Obesity Heart Disease Alzheimer Oral Diseases Parkinson Blood Pressure Joint Pain Tuberculosis (TB) Epilepsy
This suggests that health information may be given different levels of significance by the newspaper and its readers, which is possibly related to the weight of the health concerns to the readers and can affect the readers holistic knowledge about health.
Aspect of Health Information It was also found that opposing aspects in terms of positive and negative effects to health of alcoholic drinks, food supplements, medicine, electronic gadgets, and tools are portrayed, which possibly creates contradictory knowledge about these items in association with health as shown in the Example 1: Alcoholic Drinks (Positive Aspect) and Example 2: Alcoholic Drinks (Negative Aspect).
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Example1: Alcoholic Drinks (Positive Aspect) - Beer Against Cancer
Example2: Alcoholic Drinks (Negative Aspect) - Alcoholic Drinks Cause Cancers
Position of the Articles Moreover, these health news articles were positioned in the section of scientific discoveries and technological innovations as shown in the Example 3: Article Position. This further demonstrates that health information is less emphasized by the newspaper, possibly resulting in an unclear boundary between knowledge about health and science and technology.
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Example3: Article Position
Compositional Structure Analysis of their structure shows that most health news articles were composed in the conventional inverted pyramid structure of brief news reports and in the format of research abstract containing four or five paragraphs of short and important health information with references to reports of research studies conducted overseas as shown in the Example 4: Inverted Pyramid Structure. Example 4: Inverted Pyramid Structure
Headline
Paragraph2, 3 &4: Details
Paragraph1: Lead
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In addition, some of the articles are composed in the snapshot structure with a very brief piece of health information set aside a picture related to the topic as shown in Example 5: Snapshot Structure. Example 5: Snapshot Structure
Although these inverted pyramid and snapshot structures of the articles are quick to read and easy to digest, it may provide an insufficient amount and low quality of health information for the readers. This, therefore, indicates the hasty writing process of the
composer and the newspapers view of health news as a commodity under the contextual influence of the media industry.
Conclusion Utilizing the discourse analytical approach and CDA, the findings related to the discursive practice of these health news articles demonstrate that there is an unequal coverage of health topics and a presentation of opposing aspects of some topics in terms of positive and negative effects to health. This health discourse is subordinate to scientific and technological news discourse. The discourse structure is of brief news following the conventional format. The discursive practice of these health news articles could possibly have a negative impact on the health knowledge of readers due to incomplete and insufficient information being provided.
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Bhatia, V.K., Flowerdew , J. and Jones, R.H. 2008, Approaches to discourse analysis (p.p.1-21) in V.K. Bhatia, J. Flowerdew, and R.H.Jones (Eds.), Advances in Discourse Studies, Routlege: London. Biagi, S. 2007, Media/Impact: An Introduction to Mass Media, Wadsworth: Boston. Brannstrom, I. and Lindblad, I. 1994, Mass Communication and Health Promotion: The Power of the Media and Public Opinion, (p. 21), Vol. 6, Issue 1, Health Communication. Burton, G. 2005, Media and Society: Critical Perspectives, Open University Press: Berkshire. Chanput, P. 2007, Reflection of Governments Policy on News broadcasting: An Analysis of Channel 11 News Discourse, M.A. Minor Thesis, National Institute of Development Administration, Bangkok. Chantarawandi, C. 2008, Democracy or Imperial Sovereignty?: A Critical Discourse Analysis of George W. Bushs and Tony Blairs Speeches on War on Terror, (p.p.52-88), NIDA Language and Communication Journal. Conboy, M. 2007, The Language of The News, Routledge: London. Dutta, M. 2009, Health Communication: Trends and Future Directions (p.p. 59-92) in J. Parker and E. Thorson (Eds.), Health Communication in the New Media Landscape, Springer Publishing: New York. Gadavanij, S. 2003, Sociocognitive Aspects of News Discourse: A Preliminary Analysis of the Macrostructure of Thai News Articles, (p.p43-64), NIDA Language and Communication Journal. Geist-Martin, P., Ray, E.B., and Sharf, B.F. 2003, Community Health: Personal, Cultural, and Political Complexities, Thomson Wadsworth: Toronto. Hopscroft, D. 2002, References in Medical Advertising Too often a Blend of Fact and Fiction?, (p.p.1-2), Vol. 115, No 1156, The New Zealand Medical Journal. Intaratad, K. 2005, Health Communication: Revolution and Challenges in the 21 century (p.p.1-18) in P. Yenjaborg (Ed.), Health Communication, The Academic Health Communication Project, Bangkok. Lanson, G. and Stephens, M. 1994, Writing and Reporting the News, Harcourt Brace College Publishers. Long, D., Iedema, R., and Lee, B.B. 2007, Corridor Conversation: Clinical Communication in Casual Spaces (p.p.182-200) in R. Iedema (Ed.), The Discourse of Hospital Communication: Tracing Complexities in Contemporary Health Care Organizations, Palgrave Macmillan: London. Lum, M. and Fitzgerald, A. 2007, Dialogues for Negotiating Priorities in Unplanned Emergency Surgical Queues (p.p.90-108) in R. Iedema (Ed.), The Discourse of Hospital Communication: Tracing Complexities in Contemporary Health Care Organizations, Palgrave Macmillan: London. Maeseide, P. 2007, The Role of Signs and Representations in the Organization of Medical Work: X-rays in Medical Problem Solving (p.p.201-221) in R. Iedema (Ed.), The Discourse of Hospital Communication: Tracing
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(The acquisition of connective expressions in Japanese: The case of Thai-speaking learners) Tewich Sawetaiyaram, Ph.D., National Institute of Development Administration

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(2008). 11:122-140. (1993).The Oral Proficiency Interview 31-41. (2006). 13-2169-179. (2002). . (2006). 8 253-268. (1996).. Ellis, N. (2006). Selective attention and transfer phenomena in L2 acquisition: Contingency, cue competition, salience, interference, overshadowing, blocking, and perceptual learning. Applied Linguistics,27, 164-194.
() 2 Dynamism of Language and Communication in Society ICLC 2010 5-6 2553
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Notes to Authors/Contributors of Proceedings:

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Notes to Readers/Users when using any portion of these Proceedings:

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Saksit Saengboon, Ph.D.,

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Savitri Gadavanij, Ph.D.,

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viii ICLC 2010 Proceedings

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Table 1.1: Accent ranking; summary

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Table 2.1: Perceived intelligibility ranking; summary

SD 2.89 2.88 2.62 2.86 2.76 n=48

Table 2.2: Perceived intelligibility ranking; nationality

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Table 1.3: Accent ranking; circle model

2.88 2.62 n=48,

Table 2.3: Perceived intelligibility ranking; circle model *n=144

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Figure 1.1: Accent and Intelligibility correlation; summary n=23

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2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Tony Blair The 10 Downing Street Website 2 1 3 2 1 2 2

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Fig. 3 Amount of published research (n=201) by institutions

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ICLC 2010 Proceedings Appendix A Instruction for the Writing Task

3. Conclusion Synthesizes discussion and affirms the validity of the thesis.

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( ) (_) 1. _________________________________ 2. _ ________

3. _____ 4. ( 1-4: 1 4 ) _ _ _ ___

_ _ 15. He would have refused to do it.

_ _ 17. He says he's done.

_ _ 18. "Why do you want it?" said Harry.

_ _ 20. I wish I hadn't left my copy at home.