Mobile Communications 2012

Mobile
Communications 2012

[1] Wireless Digital Communications Dr. Kamilo Feher/ Prentice Hall 1995
[2] Text: Wireless Communications, Theodore S. Rappaport/ Prentice Hall 1996
[3] RF microelectronics, Razavi/Prentice Hall 1998

Course Contents
A. Introduction
Introduction to Wireless, Cellular, Digital, PCS-Mobile Radio [1- Chap.1,2- Chap.1]
Wireless/Cellular/PCS
Mobile Environment
Regulation
Transceiver Element

B. Mobile Environment
The Cellular Concept [2 Chap.2]
Radio Propagation Models [2 Chap.3-4] [3 Chap. 4] [1 Chap.3]

C.Transceiver Elements
Modulations [2- Chap.5]
Digital Modulations [1- Chap.4]
Channel Coding [2- Chap. 6] [1- Chap.5]
Source Coding [2-Chap. 7] [1- Chap.2]
Spread-Spectrum System [1 Chap.6]
Equalization [2 Chap.6] [1 Chap.4]
Diversity [2 Chap6] [1 Chap.7]

D. Regulations

E. Systems
Multiple Access [2 Chap8]
Wireless Networking [2 Chap.9]
Cases [2 Chap. 10] [1 Chap.8-9]
Course Schedule:

2 23 Introduction
3 1
Overview of Wireless Communications and Cellular
System
3 8
Large Scale Propagations
Small Scale Propagations
3 15
3 22
3 29 Case Study: Bluetooth
4 5 RF Transceivers (I)
4 12 RF Transceivers (II)
4 19
4 26
Digital Modulation and Detection
Spread Spectrum Modulations
5 3
5 10
5 17 Case Study: UWB
5 24 Equalization
5 31 Diversity
6 7 Channel Coding (I)
6 14 Channel Coding (II)
6 21

REQUIREMENTS:
1. 45% Term Exam
2. 45% Final Exam.
3. 10% Class Evaluations
TA: leslie77914@yahoo.com.tw
Office: MIRC 316
Course URL: www.nctutwt.net
Phone: 5731664 (#31664)

1
B Institute of Electronics
2012/1/19
B National Chiao Tung University

.

Ctrl

Wireless Communications
Dimensions of Wireless Information Society
Human Technology
Making technology transparent
Seamless Solutions
Making systems transparent
Virtual Presence
Making distance
transparent
2
B Nat i onal Chi a o Tung Uni ve r s i t y B I ns t i t ut e of El e c t r oni c s
Stella Kuei Ann Wen 2012/1/19
Page 3
Changing Lifestyles
Page 4
Mobile trends
Mobile = Connected and in touch
anywhere

Expanding markets

More capable and affordable mobile
PCs and cellular phones
3
Page 5
Wireless Link Between All Devices
www.bluetooth.com
Page 6
Office Hotel Out and About
The Three In One Phone
LAN
PSTN
PSTN
4
2012/1/19
Applications : System Considerations
Where : Environment (Channel)
How : Regulation
Implementation: Transceiver
KEY Factors on Wireless Design
Page 8
Part A. System Considerations
Part B. Mobile Environment
Content
Part C. Transceiver Elements
Part D. Cases
5
2012/1/19
A. System Considerations
Outdoor/I ndoor ?
Capacity ? Networking ?
Cellular ? Mobility ?
Data/Voice ? Grade of
Service ?
Transceiver
Spectral Spec.
Power Spec.
Cost Consideration
Process ?
Digital/Analog ?
Processor ?
OS ?
Regulations Implementations
Services
Environments
Capacity

Protocol
PHY
6
Page 11
Services:
Voice-Oriented Services
Low-Power, Local Area Systems ( Cordless
Telephone)
High-power, Wide-Area Systems (Cellular)

Data-Oriented Services
High-Speed, Local Area Systems ( WLANs)
Low-Speed, Wide-Area Systems ( Mobile Data)

Page 12
High-power, Wide-Area Systems (Cellular)

PSTN: Public Service Telephone Network
MTSO: Mobil telephone switching office
Base Station
Mobile Station
7
Page 13
PCMCIA
RADIO
BOARD
Modem
PSTN
Cable
.. etc.
Access
Point
Internet
ATM
.. etc.
High-Speed, Local Area Systems
( WLANs)
Page 14
Low-Speed, Wide-Area Systems
( Mobile Data)
8
Page 15

Large Scale Path Loss
Reflection
Diffraction
Scattering
Small Scale Fading
Multipath time delay spread
Doppler spread
Cochannel I nterference
Adjacent Channel I nterference

Environments
Page 16
Doppler Shift
A
B
A
C
Diffraction
REFLECTION
9
Page 17
Capacity
With fixed number of channels to support an
arbitrarily large number of subscribers

Page 18
Cellular Concept
10
Page 19
Cellular Concept (Cell Split)
Page 20
Fixed Channel Assignment:
Each cell is allocated a predetermined set of voice channels
Easy for blocking

Dynamic Channel Assignment
Basestation request channel from MSC on each call

Assignment strategies :
likelihood of future blocking
frequency of use of the candidate
reuse distance
cost function

11
Page 21
Handoff : When a mobile moves into a different
cell while a conversation is in progress, the MSC
automatic transfers the call to a new channel of a
new basestation.

Need to be successful and unfrequented
Page 22
1st Generation Cellular
12
Page 23
2nd Generation Cellular
Page 24

-- Taxi company
-- Fire
-- Police
-- Medical
-- Pager
-- Cordless Telephone
-- Bluetooth
-- WLAN

Non-cellular systems
13
Page 25
Tranceiver :
Propagation Environment :
Path Loss Fading Interference
External Noise
Power Constrain
Bandwidth Constrain
Modulation Equilization
Transceiver Design:
Coding Diversity Multiple Access
Overcome impairments
Encrease bandwidth
Encrease bit rate
Page 26
Transmitter Channel Receiver
Coder
* ECC
* Encryption
Modulator
* Mod
* Spreading
RF Front
End
DeCoder Demodulator RF Front
End
101100111..
ELEMENTS:
14
Page 27
Cases
HFA3524
DUAL
SYNTHESIZER
PRISM Antenna to Bits
HFA3624
RF/IF
HSP3824
BASEBAND
PROCESSOR
A Complete DS Spread Spectrum Radio Chipset
HFA3424
LNA
HFA3724
QMODEM
HFA3925
RF POWER
AMPLIFIER
AND Tx/Rx
SWITCH
I ADC
Q ADC
DE-
SPREAD
DE-
MODULATE
SPREAD
MODULATE/
ENCODE
Tx/Rx
DATA I/O
CONTROL -
TEST I/O
ADC CCA
AP96358 4-4
LO
Page 28
Regulations
IMTS: Improved mobile Telephone Service
FCC: Federal Communication Commission
CCIR: International Radio Consultative Committee
TIA: Telephone industry Association
EIA: Electronic industries Association
CCITT: International Telegraph and
Telephone Consultative Committee
ANSI: America national Standards institute
15
2012/1/19
B. Mobile Environment
Model Analysis
Page 30
Line of Site Transmission Model
LOS Radio Transmission
Design Essentials
Path Analysis Approaches
Outdoor Propagation Model
Conceptual layout of a cellular system
Radio propagation in the mobile environment
Impairments fading in the mobile environment
Indoor Propagation Model

16
Page 31
( 1.) Calculate EIRP (effective isotropically
radiated power) at the transmit antenna.
( 2.) Calculate free-space loss between
TX & RX, f (distance, freq.)
( 3.) Calculate on estimate RSL
(Receive Signal Level) at the first
active stage of receiver.

Path Analysis Approaches

Page 32
17
Page 33
Page 34
Free Space Path Loss:
Friis free space equation: P
r
(d)=

P
t
: transmitted power P
r
(d): received power
G
t
: transmitted antenna gain G
r
: receiver antenna gain
L: system loss factor not relate to propagation
L d
P
t
2 2
2
) 4 (
) Gr( Gt
- I f an istrophic radiator is fed by a transmitted power P

t
,
P
t
/4d
2
(W/m
2
) will be radiated at a distance d.
18
Page 35
EIRP = P
t
G
t

Free-space path loss :
P
r
(d)=
P
d L
t
Gt Gr( )
( )
2
2 2
4
PL = 10log (P
t
/P
r
)= -10log (P
r
/P
t
)
= -10logG
t
G
r

2
/ (4d)
2
. (=c/f )
(Unit Gain Antenna, Gt=Gr=1)
= -10log
2
/ (4d)
2
. (=c/f )

Page 36

= -10log
2
/ (4d)
2
. (=c/f )
= -10logc
2
/ (4df)
2
. (=c/f =3*10
5
km/f=3*10
5
*10
-9
/f(GHZ)*10
-9
)
= -20logc+20log4+ 20log
10
F
GHz
+20log
10
D

= 96.6 + 20log
10
F
GHz
+ 20log
10
D
(path distance in statute miles)
= 92.4 + 20log
10
F
GHz
+ 20log
10
D
km

19
Page 37
Conceptual layout of a cellular system
MTSO: Mobil telephone switching office
CGSA: Cellular geographic survey area
Cell site apart: 6.4~12.8Km
Outdoor Propagation Model
Page 38

Radio propagation in the mobile environment
Additive factor to LOS communications: motion
(1) path loss:
CCIR formula #:
L
dB
= 40log(d
m
)- 20log(h
T
h
R
)
h
T
: height of transmit antenna above plane(m)
h
R
: height of receive antenna above plane(m)
d: distance(m)

20
Page 39
O Indoor Model
.

Figure 6.2 Tx and Rx at different floors. B3 is in the building. B4
outside the building, at street level. B5 outside the
building , above street level.
M1
B3
M2
M5
M4
M3
B4
B5
Page 40
M6
M7
B1
M9
M8
M2
M1
M4
M5
B1
Figure 6.1 Indorr environment
Indoor Model :
21
Page 41
Construction materials.
Types of interiors.
Locations within a building.
Location of Tx and Rx antennas
Parameters Being Considered
Page 42
Model 1: B1 to M1(base 1 to mobile 1).
Inside a hall or a large area.
P
1
= S + 10n
1
log(d)

P
1
: path loss
S : free space loss
n
1
: environment factor, n
1
= 2 ~ 6
d : distance

22
2012/1/19
Transceiver Overview
Theoretic Brief
Building Blocks Brief
C. Transceiver Elements
Page 44
A/D
Protocol
Coding
Scramble
Framing
Mod.

TX
RX

Demod

Decoding D/A
Protocol
Transmitter Channel
Receiver
OTransceiver Overview
23
Page 45
Continous Variable Slope Delta-Modulation
(CVSD)
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 . . . . . . .
Bluetooth Audio
Page 46
Packet Format

access code packet header payload
72 54
0-2745
BT Packets
24
Page 47
Times Frames, Time Slots and Bursts
0 1 2047 2046 2 2045 3 2044
1 hyperframe = 2048 superframes = 2715648 TDMA frames ( 3h 28min 53s 760ms )
0 1 2 3 47 48 49 50
1 superframes = 1326 TDMA frames ( 6.12s )
= 51 (26-frame) multiframes or 26 (51-frame)multiframes
0 1 24 25
GSM Packets
Page 48
Times Frames, Time Slots and Bursts
0 1 2 3 22 23 24 25 0 1 2 3 47 48 49 50
1(26-frame) multiframes (120ms)
= 26 TDMA frames
1(51-frame) multiframes (235ms)
= 51 TDMA frames
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 TDMA frames (4.615ms) = 8 time slots
GSM
I nterleave
25
Page 49
O Forward-Error Correction (FEC)
1/3 rate: bit-repeat code
2/3 rate: (15,10) shortened Hamming code
O Automatic Retransmission Query (ARQ)
1-bit fast ACK/NAK
1-bit sequence number
header piggy-backing
BTError Control Coding
Page 50
BT Error Checking

OHEC
OCRC
26
Page 51
Modulation Brief
Page 52
(1): Baseband TX/RX
Baseband Tx

27
Page 53
1 0
0
Baseband RX
Page 54
Signal Detection Basics
28
Page 55
(2): Passband TX/RX :
Modulation ( Transform baseband signal to radio signal )

Page 56
29
Page 57
Wave being transmitted in wireless environment :
1 Impairments: Carrier wave and Timing
Page 58
30
Page 59
Page 60
[Example] BPSK:
Data: a
i
= { 1 ,0, 1, 0 }

Data to phase : (t) = 0 if ai=1, (t) = if a
i
=0

Modulated data signal : S(t) = Acos(
c
t+ (t) ) = Acos(
c
t)

BPF

Antenna

Data in Data to phase Mod BPF ANT
ANT Amp Carrier
Recovery
Decoding
- Correlation
- Integral
- Decision
- Timing
BPF DeMod
31
Page 61
Received: V(t) = Acos(
c
t + ) : phase delay caused by transmission.

Carrier recovery : V
2
(t) = A
2
cos
2
(
c
t + ) = (1/2)[A
2
+

A
2
cos2(
c
t + )]

Freq. divided by 2 carry recovered: cos(
c
t + )

Demodulation by multiply:
Acos(
c
t + ) 2cos(
c
t + ) = (A)[1 + cos2(
c
t + )]
Lowpass filtering for cos2(
c
t + ) and I(t) =+A extracted !

Actual case : with noise : domodulation with matching
Acos(
c
t + ) + n(t) x -------> Integral --> Sample at T +(A
2
T + N) --> Decision
2 Acos(
c
t + )

Decoding by integrator + symbol timing recovery circuit
output = integrator output at the end of bit interval
T
dt
0
-Coder : Binary signal + code + multiple access scheme
+Spectral Efficiency & I SI reduction
+ Multiple Access Scheme
Error control/correct
DeCoder

- Modulator : Coded signal + Carrier + Modulation Scheme
DeModulation
+Equalization ( matching ) ------ Shaping
Carrier Recovery ---------------- Recover carrier
+Synchronization ----------------- Recover timing
+BPSK, QPSK, MSK etc. ---- Recover signal
+Spreading

RF Front End ( FROM Wireless RF Training
Sam Pritchett and Matt Harrison )

OBuilding Blocks Brief
32
Multiple Access Scheme
Page 64
101100111..
Coder
* ECC
* Encryption
Modulator
* Mod
* Spreading
RF Front
End
End
RF Front End ( FROM Wireless RF Training
Sam Pritchett and Matt
Harrison
RF Front End: For Frequency Shift
Design Parameters: Spectral Processing, Selectivity, Sensitivity
33
Page 65
m(t)cos
c
t
x
2cos
LO
t
m(t)cos
IF
t (
IF
=
c
+
LO
)

2m(t)cos
c
tcos
LO
t=m(t) cos(
c
-
LO
)t+cos
LO
(
c
+
LO
)

t
e.g. :
IF
=281MHz
c
=2.4GHz ..
LO
=(2400-281) MHz

Image Signal :
c
+ 2
IF
IF
= (

c
+ 2
IF
) +
LO

= (

c
+ 2
IF
) + (
IF
+
c
)
=
IF

Frequency Shift Basics
Page 66
34
Page 67
Page 68
Constant Envelope Modulation
O GMSK v.s MSK
35
Page 69
O GFSK v.s FSK
Page 70
O Bluetooth v.s GSM
36
Page 71
Page 72
37
Page 73
Page 74
38
Page 75
Page 76
39
Page 77
Page 78
40
Page 79
Page 80
Function Block Overview
Coder Modulator IF RF
Equalizer
Synchronizer
Matched Filter
Coherent Detection
Timing Recovering
CRC
Viterbi
Speech Codec
(RPE-LPC,
CELP...)
Scrambler
Amp
Mixer
Limiter
Filter
VCO PLL
VCO
Frequency Syn.
Frequency Syn.
41
Page 81
Transceiver Overview (Cont.)
:
Page 82
Modules
RF
Baseband
Audio
Link Manager
LMP
L2CAP
TCP/IP HID RFCOMM
Applications
Data
O A hardware description
O An application framework
42
Page 83
HFA3524
DUAL
SYNTHESIZER
HFA3624
RF/IF
HSP3824
BASEBAND
PROCESSOR
A Complete DS Spread Spectrum Radio Chipset
HFA3424
LNA
HFA3724
QMODEM
HFA3925
RF POWER
AMPLIFIER
AND Tx/Rx
SWITCH
I ADC
Q ADC
DE-
SPREAD
DE-
MODULATE
SPREAD
MODULATE/
ENCODE
Tx/Rx
DATA I/O
CONTROL -
TEST I/O
ADC CCA
LO
2012/1/19
1
WS Wuen WS Wuen
National Chiao Tung University
Mobile Communications 1
Mobile Communications
Overview of Wireless Communications
Trans Wireless Technology Laboratory
WS Wuen WS Wuen
2 Mobile Communications
Outline
History of Wireless Communications
Wireless Vision and Future Trends
Technical Issues and Challenges
Modern Wireless Communication Systems
Wireless Spectrum, Regulations and Standards

2012/1/19
2
WS Wuen WS Wuen
Early Wireless Communications
Visual Communication
Line of Sight (LOS) communication
LOS distance further extended by telescopes
e.g. Smoke signals, Heliographs and Semaphore

Heliograph signaling Semaphore signaling Semaphore wheel
[Source: Wikipedia] [Source: Portsdown Tunnels] [Source: ThinkQuest]
WS Wuen WS Wuen
Origin of Wireless Communications
2012/1/19
3
WS Wuen WS Wuen
WS Wuen WS Wuen
2012/1/19
4
WS Wuen WS Wuen
Wireless vs. Mobile Communications
WS Wuen WS Wuen
Wired/Wireless Network Today
Mobile Data
Devices
PC / Server
Broadband
Internet
Service
PCS
Mobile
Network
Ethernet
Cable
GPS
Digital
Camera
DVD/TV/VCR
Printer
Real-Time
Video
PCS
Device
Auto
DSL
USB
RCA
Mobile
Devices
Wired
Devices
2012/1/19
5
WS Wuen WS Wuen
Future of the Wired/Wireless World
Mobile Data
Devices
PC / Server
Broadband
Digital Data
(Fiber/FWA)
BT
WPAN
3G
WWN
802.11
WLAN
OC3
WAN
GPS
Digital
Camera
DVD /
HDTV
Printer
Real-Time
Video
Auto
Consumer
POS
SODA
3G Mobile
Devices
Red: Multi-Mode
Green: Single Mode
Wireless Legend
UWB
WS Wuen WS Wuen
Wireless Industry At A Crossroad
2.8 2.7 2.5
1.7
1.2
0.7
2.6
4.6
6.9
9
11.3
12.3
13.6
0.9
14.3
10.7
12.5
13.2
9.3
5.4
7.3
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Wired Only Wireless Total Purchase
[Source: JupiterResearch Home Networking Model, 8/04]
U
S

H
o
m
e

N
e
t
w
o
r
k
i
n
g

P
u
r
c
h
a
s
e
s

(in millions)
Wireless outsold wired
home networking gear
for the first time in 2004!
2012/1/19
6
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Trend Convergence of 4C
Wireless PAN
Wireless LAN
Wireless MAN
Notebook
PCs
PDAs
Personal Computer
(Internet)
Scanners
Storage
Devices
Printers
Mobile
Communication
3G
Handsets
Cordless
Phones GSM
Consumer Electronics
(Broadcast)
Game
Platforms
DVDs
STBs
Contents
over
Everywhere
Portable
Game Cube
MP3
Players
Digital
Cameras
DV
Camcorders
Portable
Projectors
WS Wuen WS Wuen
Trend Ubiquitous Wireless Connectivity
Wireless Network Infrastructures
3G Mobile
WCDMA, CDMA 2000
Wireless MAN 802.16
4G Mobile
MBWA 802.20
Wireless RAN 802.22
Home
metropolitan
Downtown
Museum
Train
Airplane
Campus
in-house
campus-based
Hospital
regional
Vertical
Handoff
2012/1/19
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Wireless Home Network
Digital Home/e-Home
Broadband
Wireless
Access
Home
Security
Senor
Network
Wireless
Home
Network
Wireless
PAN
Broadband
Internet
xDSL
WS Wuen WS Wuen
Convergence of Consumer Electronic Devices
Unified Wireless Access Platform
NCTU HeRMes
On UniWAN

Digital
Content
Wireless MAN
Wireless LAN
Digital
Video
Broadcast
High Rate
Wireless PAN
(e.g. UWB)
Low Rate
Wireless PAN
(e.g. Bluetooth, Zigbee)
2012/1/19
8
WS Wuen WS Wuen
Wireless Industry Trends
2002 2006 2010
D
a
t
a

R
a
t
e
s

WLAN
>100Mbps
WWAN-Cellular
WPAN-UWB
WPAN BT

300 - 500Mbps
>1 Gbps
WMAN (WiMax)
Technology Issues and Challenges
WS Wuen WS Wuen

Giga-bit WLAN

Heterogeneous Wireless Network Access
4G
Future
Ultra-Wide Band

802.11n

802.11a

802.11g

Ultra-Wide Band
Next Generation
Bluetooth

ZigBee
1Mbps
10Mbps
100Mbps
1Gbps
Bluetooth
Wi-Fi

802.11b

802.11
WPAN WLAN WMAN WRAN
<1m ~10m ~100m >10km
100kbps

Beyond 3G

802.16e, 802.20, 802.22

3G WCDMA, CDMA2000
2.5G GPRS / EDGE
2G - GSM
High
Mobility
High
Data Rate
Desktop Room Building Community
~1km
City
2012/1/19
9
WS Wuen WS Wuen
Challenges in Wireless Communications
Spectrum is scarce License fee
High data rates Multimedia applications
Reliability Quality of service
Mobility Channel characteristics
Portability Low power consumption
Connectivity in various wireless networks Multimode
Interference from other users Limited user capacity
Security Mobile commerce
WS Wuen WS Wuen
Requirements for Multimedia Applications
2012/1/19
10
WS Wuen WS Wuen
Issues of Portable Devices
Power consumption
limited computing power, low quality displays, small disks due
to limited battery capacity
CPU: power consumption ~ CV
2
f
C: internal capacitance, reduced by integration
V: supply voltage, can be reduced to a certain limit
f: clock frequency, can be reduced temporally
Loss of data
higher probability, has to be included in advance into the
design (e.g., defects, theft)
Limited user interfaces
compromise between size of fingers and portability
integration of character/voice recognition, abstract symbols
Limited memory
limited value of mass memories with moving parts
flash-memory or ? as alternative

WS Wuen WS Wuen
Wireless v.s. Wired Networks
Higher loss-rates due to interference, lower reliability
Restrictive regulations of frequencies
Lower transmission rates
Higher delays, higher jitter
Lower security, simpler active attacking
Flexibility and freedom
WIDE AREA CIRCUIT SWITCHING
User
Bit-Rate
(kbps)
14.4
digital
cellular
28.8 modem
ISDN
ATM
9.6 modem
2.4 modem
2.4 cellular
32 kbps
PCS
9.6 cellular
wired- wireless
bit-rate "gap"
1970 2000 1990 1980
YEAR
LOCAL AREA PACKET SWITCHING
User
Bit-Rate
(kbps)
Ethernet
FDDI
ATM
100 M
Ethernet
Polling
Packet
Radio
1st gen
WLAN
2nd
gen
WLAN
wired- wireless
bit-rate "gap"
1970 2000 1990 1980
.01
.1
1
10
100
1000
10,000
100,000
YEAR
.01
.1
1
10
100
1000
10,000
100,000
[Source: Andrea Goldsmith, Wireless Communications]
2012/1/19
11
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Cross-Layer Design for Quality of Service
service location
data rates, delay constraints
adaptive applications
congestion and flow control
quality of service
addressing, routing,
device location
hand-over
authentication
media access
multiplexing
media access control
encryption
modulation
interference
attenuation
frequency
Application layer

Transport layer

Network layer

Access layer

Physical layer
WS Wuen WS Wuen
Cross-Layer Design
Adaptive techniques
Link, MAC, network, and application adaptation
Resource management and allocation (power control)
Diversity techniques
Link diversity (antennas, channels, etc.)
Access diversity
Route diversity
Application diversity
Content location/server diversity
Scheduling
Application scheduling/data prioritization
Resource reservation
Access scheduling
2012/1/19
12
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Wireless System On a Chip
Memory
Controller
CPU
RF
Modules
ADC/DAC
Module
Bridge
Peripheral Bus
UART Timer
USB
1.1/2.0
10/100
MAC
10/100
PHY
Wireless MAC
Wireless PHY
Wireless SOC
Wireless Transceiver
Connectivity interface in SOC
Peripheral Bus
WS Wuen WS Wuen
Wireless SOC
Ref: Alcatel, ISSCC 2001
Ref: A. Reza Rofougaran et al, IEEE Microwave Magazine, Mar 2005
1
st
Single-Chip Bluetooth SOC
Wireless LAN SOC
2012/1/19
13
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Wireless Communications in Physical Layer
Transmitter Channel Receiver
Coder Modulator RF Front
End
End
101100111..
WS Wuen WS Wuen
Wireless Transceiver Elements
Modulation
Source
Coding
Channel
Coding
RF
Front-End
Multiple
Access
Transmission
Technique
Demod.
Source
decoding
Channel
decoding
RF
Front-End
Equalization Diversity
Info.
Source
Info.
Sink
Radio
Channel
Transmitter
Receiver
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Typical RF Transceiver System
0

9
0

LNA
Mixer
VCO
Antenna
0

9
0

Power
Amplifier
Mixer
T/R Switch
Power
Driver
A/D
A/D
D/A
D/A
Power
Control
Logic
PA & PM
RF Front-End
Analog Mixed Signal
Switch & Filter
1/N
F
ref
Reference
I, V, Freq
Clock
Tree
Regulators
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Propagation Channel Effects
P
r
P
t
dB
d
0
log(d)
Multipath + Shadowing + Path Loss
Path Loss
Shadowing + Path Loss
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Interference
890.4
890.4 890.4
890.4
890.4
890.4 890.4
Desired
Channel
MHz 890.4
Co-channel
Interference
Desired
Channel
Adjacent
Channel
Adjacent
Channel
MHz 890.2 890.4 890.6
891.0
890.4
890.8
891.2
890.6
890.0
890.2
Co-Channel Interference Adjacent-Channel Interference
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Noise
Thermal noise
Man-made noise
Receiver noise
TX RX
f
TX
f
RX
S
P
n
=N
0
B
Required
Transmission
Quality
SNR
min
BER[%]
SNR[dB]
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Paging System
Cordless Phone System
Cellular Phone System
Satellite Network
Wireless Local Area Network
Wireless Personal Area Network
Wireless Metropolitan Network
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Paging System
Send brief message to a subscriber
Simplex System
Large transmitter power (~ kWatt)
Low data rate (~ kbps)
PSTN
Paging
Control
Center
Paging
Terminal
Landline Link
Landline Link
Satellite Link
City 1
City 2
Paging
Terminal
Paging
Terminal
City N
Worldwide paging
Local paging
Remote paging
Simulcasting:
Simultaneously
broadcasting a
page
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Cordless Phone System
Full duplex system
1
st
generation primarily for in-home use
Now as extended telephone in-home/in-building use or
outdoor locations within urban centers
Limited range and mobility
PSTN

Public
Switched
Telephone
Network
Fixed Port

Base
Station
Wireless Link
Cordless
Handset
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Cell: coverage of
a base station
transmitter
Cellular Phone System
TAIPEI
HSINCHU
MSC: Mobile Switch Center
MTSO: Mobile Telephone Switching Office
PSTN: Public Switched Telephone Network
Handoff: enables a call
to proceed moving from
one cell to another.
PSTN
MSC
(MTSO)
MSC
(MTSO)
Internet
Long-Distance
Network
High Speed Wired Link
Base
Station
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Fundamental of Cellular Phone System
Frequency Reuse
Signal power falls off with distance
Reuse the same frequency spectrum at spatially-separated
locations
Inter-cell Interference
Interference caused by users in different cells operating on the
same channel set
Must remain below a given threshold for acceptable system
performance
Reuse Distance
Should be as small as possible so that frequencies are reused
as often as possible, thereby maximizing spectral efficiency
more user capacity
Difficult to determine the minimum reuse distance since both
transmitting and interfering signals experience random power
variations due to the characteristics of wireless signal
propagation
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Cell Types of Cellular Phone System
Macro-cell
Early cellular systems used relative large cells (small number
of cells) to cover an entire city due to high cost of base stations
Signal power radiated uniformly in all directions and the circular
contour of constant power yields a hexagonal cell shape for the
system
Mostly in rural areas
Micro-cell, Pico-cell
need for higher capacity
reduced size and cost of base station electronics
mostly in urban areas
less transmitting power is required
smaller cells cause complicated network design, handoff and
location management
difficult to develop general propagation models for small cells
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Common Terms in Cellular Phone System
CAI: Common air interface
FVC: Forward voice channel
Voice transmission channel for BSMS
RVC: Reverse voice channel
Voice transmission channel for MSBS
FCC: Forward control channel
Control channel for setting up a call for BS MS
RCC: Reverse control channel
Control channel for setting up a call for MS BS
WS Wuen WS Wuen
FCC
RCC
FVC
FCC
FCC
RCC
FVC
FCC
Call Process: Landline User Mobile User
Receives page
and matches
the MIN with its
own MIN
Receives MIN,
ESN, Station
Class Mark and
passes to MSC
Acknowledges
receipt of MIN
and sends ESN
and Station
Class Mark
Verifies that the
mobile has a
valid MIN,
ESN pair
Requests BS to
move mobile to
unused voice
channel pair
Transmits data
message for mobile
to move to specific
voice channel
Receives data
messages to move
to specified voice
channel
Connects the
mobile with the
calling party on
the PSTN
Begin Voice
transmission
Begin voice
reception
Begin Voice
transmission
Begin voice
reception
Receives call from
PSTN; Send the
requested MIN to
all base stations
Transmits page
(MIN) for
specified user

MSC
BS
MS
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Call Process: Mobile User 1 Mobile User 2
FCC
RCC
FVC
FCC
FCC
RCC
FVC
FCC
Receives call initiation
request from BS and
verifies that mobile has
a valid MIN, ESN pair
Paging for called mobile,
instructing the mobile to
move to voice channel

Instruct FCC of
originating BS to
move mobile to a
pair voice channels
Receives page and matches
the MIN with its own MIN.
Receives instruction to move
to voice channel.
Connects the
mobile with the
called party on
the PSTN
Begin Voice
transmission
Begin voice
reception
Begin Voice
transmission
Begin voice
reception
Sends a call
initiation request
along with subscribe
MIN and number of
called party
Receives call
initiation request and
MIN, ESN, Station
Class Mark
MSC
BS
MS
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Evolution From 2G to 3G Cellular Systems
IS-95 GSM
IS-136
& PDC
IS-95B HSCSD
GPRS
EDGE
cdma2000-1xRTT
cdma2000-1xEV, DV, DO
cdma2000-1xRTT
W-CDMA
TD-SCDMA
EDGE
2G
2.5G
3G
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Migration of Digital Cellular Systems
UMTS
GSM Circuit-Switched Voice
GPRS
GPRS: General Packet Radio Service
(17.6 kbps x 8)
EDGE: Enhanced Data for GSM Evolution
(59.2 kbps x 8)
UMTS: Universal Mobile Telecomm Systems
EDGE
IS-136 Circuit-Switched Voice
IS-136+
EDGE
Packet Voice & Data
over EDGE
Packet Voice & Data
over UMTS (WCDMA)
Circuit-Switched
Circuit-Switched Voice
Packet-Switched Data
Packet-Switched
CDMA2000
Packet
Data
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Circuit Switched vs. Packet Switched
A
B
C
A
B
C
Circuit-Switched
Packet-Switched
Header Data Trailer
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Multiple Access
FDMA
Frequency Division Multiple Access
TDMA
Time Division Multiple Access
CDMA
Code Division Multiple Access
TDMA
CDMA
time
FDMA
freq
time
freq
TDMA
time
freq
code
WS Wuen WS Wuen
Satellite Network
Inter Satellite Link (ISL)
Mobile User Link
(MUL)
Gateway Link (GWL)
Small cells
(spotbeams)
GWL
MUL
PSTN ISDN GSM
User Data
base station
or gateway
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Wireless Local Area Network
Hub
Server
Switch
Internet
Wireless LAN (WLAN) as an
extension to wired LAN
Access Point
Hub
Workgroup Bridge
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Infrastructure vs. Ad-hoc Networks
Infrastructure
network
AP
AP
AP
AP: Access Point
ad-hoc network
PDA
WiFi Phone
Laptop
Computer
Wired Network (Ethernet)
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Personal Ad-hot Network Cable Replacement
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Security

HVAC

Lighting Control

Access Control

Lawn & Garden

Irrigation
Asset Mgt

Process
Control

Environmental
Energy Mgt
Patient
monitoring

Fitness
monitoring
Security

HVAC

AMR

Lighting Control

Access Control
TV

VCR

DVD/CD

RF Remotes
ZigBee
Wireless Control that
Simply Works
RESIDENTIAL/
LIGHT
COMMERCIAL
CONTROL
CONSUMER
ELECTRONICS
PC &
PERIPHERALS
INDUSTRIAL
CONTROL
PERSONAL
HEALTH CARE
BUILDING
AUTOMATION
Chart Copyright ZigBee Alliance 2004
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Wireless Metropolitan Area Network
BWA Operator Network
Backbone
INTERNET
BACKBONE
Mobile
Backhaul
3
RESIDENTIAL & SoHo DSL
LEVEL SERVICE
1
802.16d
FRACTIONAL E1 for
SMALL BUSINESS
T1+ LEVEL SERVICE
ENTERPRISE
BACKHAUL for
HOTSPOTS
2
802.16d
Mobility
5
802.16e
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
WMAN Nomadic Coverage -->
handoff from HOT SPOTS
4
= wide area coverage
outside of Hot Spots
H
WS Wuen WS Wuen
Wireless Regional Area Network
WRAN Hierarchy
Public IP Network
Service Provider IP Network
HA
AAA
SD
ACR ACR
WRAN
BS
CPE
AAA : Authentication, Authorization and Account Server

ACR : Access Control Router HA : Home Agent
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Wireless Regional Area Network
WRAN
Repeater
TV Transmitter
WRAN
Base Station
Wireless
MIC
Wireless
MIC
WRAN
Base Station
: CPE: Customer Premise Equipment
: WRAN Base Station
Typical ~33km
Max. 100km

Deployment Scenario
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Electromagnetic Spectrum
10
8
10
7
10
6
10
5
10
4
10
3
10
2
10
1
10
0
10
-1
10
-2
10
-3
10
-4
10
-5
10
-6
10
-7
10
-8
10
-9
ELF SLF ULF VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF
Wavelength (meters)
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
6
10
7
10
8
10
9
10
10
10
11
10
12
10
13
10
14
10
15
10
16
10
17
Frequency (Hz)
1 m 1 km 1 Mm 1 mm 1 mm 1 nm
1 MHz 1 kHz 1 Hz 1 GHz 1 THz
Radio waves Microwaves
Infra-
Red
Ultra-
Violet
X-Ray
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Spectrum Regulation Agencies
Since frequency spectrum is scarce, the
application of spectrum is regulated by
governments.
Taiwan: National Communications Commission
(NCC)
Japan: Ministry of Internal Affairs and
Communication (MIC)
United States: Federal Communications
Commission (FCC)
Europe: European Telecommunications Standards
Institute (ESTI)
Global: Internal Telecommunications Union (ITU)
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Applications of Frequency Spectrums
US Licensed Band
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Applications of Frequency Spectrums
US License-Exempt Band
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Standard Organizations
Telecommunications Industry Association
represents providers of communications and information
technology products and services for the global marketplace
through its core competencies in standards development,
domestic and international advocacy, as well as market
development and trade promotion programs.
IEEE
leads the way in developing open, leading-edge consensus
standards for Wireless Local Area Networks (Wireless LANs),
Wireless Personal Area Networks (Wireless PANs), and
Wireless Metropolitan Area Networks (Wireless MANs).
ETSI
is officially responsible for standardization of Information and
Communication Technologies (ICT) within Europe.
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Current and Evolving Wireless Standards
IEEE 802.15.3
UWB, Bluetooth
Wi-Media, BTSIG,
MBOA
WWAN
WMAN
WLAN
WPAN ETSI
HiperPAN
IEEE 802.11
Wi-Fi Alliance
ETSI-BRAN
HiperLAN2
IEEE 802.16d
WiMAX
ETSI HiperMAN &
HIPERACCESS
IEEE 802.20
IEEE 802.16e
3GPP (GPRS/UMTS)
3GPP2 (1X--/CDMA2000)
GSMA, OMA
Sensors IEEE 802.15.4
(Zigbee Alliance)
RFID
(AutoID Center)
I
E
E
E

8
0
2
.
2
1
,

I
E
E
E

8
0
2
.
1
8

8
0
2
.
1
9

WRAN
IEEE 802.22
Cellular Systems
Cellular Systems
Wen-Shen Wuen
Trans. Wireless Technology Laboratory
Vincent W.-S. Wuen Mobile Communications 1
Outline Cellular Systems
Outline
1
Cellular System Fundamentals
2
Frequency Reuse
3
Interference and System Capacity
4
Trunking and Grade of Services
5
Improving Coverage and Capacity in Cellular Systems
6
Channel Assignment Strategies
7
Handoff Strategies
Cellular System Fundamentals Cellular Systems
Outline
1
2
Frequency Reuse
3
4
5
6
7
Handoff Strategies
Introdcution
Early mobile radio systems:
Cover a large area by using a single, high powered transmitter
with an antenna mounted on a tall tower.
No frequency reuse, no interference
Limited user capacity
Cellular concept:
Based on power fall off with distance of signal propagation and
reuse the same channel frequency at spatially separated
locations
Sovling problem of spectral congestion and user capacity
Replacing a single, high power transmitter (large cell) with
many low power transmitters (small cells)
Available channels can be reused as many times as necessary
so long as the co-channel interference is kept below acceptable
levels
Cellular System
Each cell is assigned to a unique channel set, C
n
Adjacent cells: cells assigned to a different channel sets
Co-channel cells: cells using the same channel sets
Tesselating Cell Shapes
To approximate the contours of constant received power
around the base station
Hexagonal cells:
Having largest area for a given distance between the center of a
polygon and its farthest perimeter points
Approximating a circular radiation pattern for an omnidirectional
base station antenna and free space propagation
Diamond cells: better approximating contours of constant
power in modern urban microcells
Frequency Reuse Cellular Systems
Outline
1
2
Frequency Reuse
3
4
5
6
7
Handoff Strategies
Frequency Reuse
S: total number of duplex channels available for use
k: number of channels assigned to a cell (k <S)
N: number of cells sharing the S duplex channels
S =kN (1)
Cluster: a group of N cells use the complete set of available
frequencies
C: the total number of duplex channels with frequency reuse
M: number of replica of a cluster
C =MkN =MS (2)
Cluster size: N is typically 4, 7 or 12 for hexagonal cell shape.
Frequency reuse factor: 1/N
For the same cell size at a given area, N MC
Various Cluster Sizes for Hexagonal Cells
Cluster sizes:
4-cell reuse
7-cell reuse
12-cell reuse
19-cell reuse
N-cell reuse
Locating Co-Channel Cells in Hexagonal Cells
Example: N =19, i =3, j =2
Reuse Distance
The distance between co-channel (frequency reuse) cells
Origin: (0, 0)
Nearest co-channel location
P: (i, j)
Reuse Distance, D
D =
3R
i
2
+ij +j
2
(3)
= R
3N (4)
Number of Cells Per Cluster
Number of cells per cluster, N
N =
A
cluster
A
cell
=
3
3x
2
/2
3
3R
2
/2
=
3D
2
/2
3
3R
2
/2
=
1
3
D
R
2
=
1
3
3R
2
i
2
+ij +j
2
R
2
=i
2
+ij +j
2
(5)
Interference and System Capacity Cellular Systems
Outline
1
2
Frequency Reuse
3
4
5
6
7
Handoff Strategies
Interference
Major limiting factor in the performance and major bottleneck
in increasing capacity
Sources of interference:
anothr mobile in the same cell
a call in progress in a neighboring cell
other base station operating in the same frequency band
any noncellular system which leaks energy into the cellular
frequency band
Interference effects:
Cross talk: interference on voice channels
Missed and blacked calls: interference on control channels
System-generated cellular interference
Co-channel interference
Adjacent channel interference
Co-channel Interference
Cannot be combated by simply increasing transmitter power
To reduce, co-channel cells must be separated by a minimum
distance to provide sufcient isolation
Co-channel Interference, contd
Assume
the size of each cell is the same
base stations transmit the same power
co-channel interference ratio is independent of TX power and
is a function of the radius of the cell, R, and the distance
between centers of nearest co-channel cells, D.
Co-channel reuse ratio, Q
Q
D
R
=
3N (6)
Q spatial separation of co-channel cells co-channel
interference
QN MC channel capacity , but co-channel
interferece
Signal to Interference Ratio, SIR, S/I
S
I
=
S
N
co
i=1
I
i
(7)
S: desired signal power from the desired station
I
i
: the interference power caused by the i-th interfering co-channel
cell base station
D
i
: the distance of the i-th interferer from the mobile.
P
r
=P
0
d
d
0
n
I
i
D
n
i
(8)
Assume transmit power of each base station is equal and the
path loss exponent is the same, the
S
I
of for a mobile at cell
boundary:
S
I
=
R
n
N
co
i=1
D
n
i
=
R
n
N
co
D
n
=
3N
n
N
co
(9)
Co-channel Interference For N=7
Consider rst tier of
co-channel cells:
S
I

R
4
2(DR)
4
+2(D+R)
4
+2D
4
(10)
S
I

1
2(Q1)
4
+2(Q+1)
4
+2Q
4
(11)
where Q=D/R and assume n =4.
Example 1
If signal-to-interference ratio of 15 dB is required for satisfactory
forward channel performance of a cellular system, what is the
co-channel reuse factor and cluster size that should be used for
maximum capacity if the path loss exponent is (a) n=4, (b)n=3?
Assume there are six co-channel cells in the rst tier and all of them
are at the same distance from the mobile.
Solution:
(a) Consider 7-cell reuse pattern: Q=D/R=
3N =4.583,
S/I =(
3N)
n
/N
co
=4.583
4
/6 =75.3 =18.66 dB N =7 can be used.
(b) Consider 7-cell reuse pattern: S/I =4.583
3
/6 =16.04 =12.05 dB
<15 dB, therefore a larger N should be used.
N =12 D/R=6, S/I =6
3
/6 =36 =15.56 dB >15 dB, therefore N =12
should be used.
Channel Planning of Wireless Systems
Typically 5% of the entire mobile spectrum is devoted to control
channels and 95% of the spectrum is dedicated to voice
channels.
Air interface standards ensure a distinction between voice and
control channels and control channels are not allowed to be
used as voice channels and vice versa.
Different frequency reuse strategy is applied to control
channels to ensure greater S/I protection in control channels.
For propagation consideration, most practical CDMA systems
limits frequency reuse with f 1/f 2 cell planning.
CDMA system has a dynamic, time-varying coverage region
depending on the instantaneous number of users on the radio
channel. breathing cell dynamic control of power levels
and thresholds assigned to control channels, voice channels for
changing trafc intensity
Adjacent Channel Interference
results from imperfect receiver lters which allows nearby
frequency to leak into the passband.
causes near-far effect, a nearby TX captures the receiver of the
subscriber.
ACI can be minimized through careful ltering and channel
assignments.
Keeping frequency separation between each channel as large as
possible
Avoiding the use of adjacent channels in neighboring cell sites
For a close-in mobile (MS1) is X times as close to the BS as
another mobile (MS2) and has energy leaks to the passband,
the S/I at the BS for the weak mobile (MS2) before receiver
ltering is approximately
S
I
=X
n
for n =4
S
I
40 dB
Trunking and Grade of Services Cellular Systems
Outline
1
2
Frequency Reuse
3
4
5
6
7
Handoff Strategies
Denition of Common Terms in Trunking Theory
Set-up Time: The time required to allocated a trunked radio
channel to a requesting user.
Blocked Call (Lost Call): Call which cannot be completed at time
of request, due to congestion.
Holding Time: Average duration of a typical call. Denoted by H
(in seconds).
Trafc Intensity: Measure of channel time utilization, which is
the average channel occupancy measured in Erlangs.
Load: Trafc intensity across the entire trunked radio system,
measured in Erlangs.
Grade of Service (GOS): A measure of congestion specied as
the probability of a call being blocked (for Erlang B), or the
probability of a call being delayed beyond a certain amount of
time (for Erlang C).
Request Rate: The average number of call requests per unit
time. Denoted by second
1
.
Trunking Theory
Each user generates a trafc intensity of A
u
Erlangs:
A
u
=H
The total offered trafc intensity A for a system containing U
users:
A=UA
u
In a C channel trunked system, if the trafc is equally
distributed, the trafc i ntensity per channel, A
c
:
A
c
=UA
u
/C
Erlang: the amount of trafc intensity carried by a channel that
is completely occupied (1 Erlang = 1 call-hour / hour).
Busy hour trafc, A
b
= call/busy hour mean call holding time.
Example 2
Call established at 2 am between a central computer and a data
terminal. Assuming a continuous connection and data transferred at
34 kbit/s what is the trafc if the call is terminated at 2:45am?
Solution:
Trafc=(1 call)(45 min)(1 hour / 60 min) =0.75 Erlangs
Example 3
A group of 20 subscribers generate 50 calls with an average holding
time of 3 minutes, what is the average trafc per subscriber?
Solution:
Trafc=(50 calls)(3min)(1 hour/60 min)=2.5 Erlangs
2.5/20=0.125 Erlangs per subscriber.
Erlang B: Blocked Calls Cleared
p[blocked] =
A
C
C!
C
k=0
A
k
k!
=GOS
where C: the number of trunked channels offered by a trunked radio
system; A: the total offered trafc.
Assumptions of Erlang B:
There are memoryless arrivals of requests.
The probability of a user occupying a channel is exponentially
distributed.
There are a nite number of channels available in the trunking
pool.
GOS of an Erlang B System
Trunking efciency: a meaure of the number of users which can be
offered a particular GOS with a particular conguration of xed
channels.
Erlang B Chart
Erlang C: Blocked Calls Delayed
Probability of a call not having immediate access to a channel
and being queued:
p[delay >0] =
A
C
C!
A
C
+C!
1
A
C
C1
k=0
A
k
k!
=GOS
The probability that the delayed call is forced to wait more than
t second:
p[delay >t] = p[delay >0] p[delay >t|delay >0]
= p[delay >0] exp
(CA)t
H
(12)
Average delay D for all calls in a queued system
D=p[delay >0]
H
CA
Erlang C Chart
Example 4
How many users can be supported for 0.5% blocking probability for
the following number of trunked channels in a blocked calls clear
system? (a) 1, (b) 5, (c) 10, (d) 20, (e) 100. Assume each user
generate 0.1 Erlangs of trafc.
Solution:
(a) C =1, A
u
=0.1, GOS =0.005, from the chart,
A=0.005 U =A/A
u
=0.005/0.1 =0.05 users
(b) C =5, A
u
A=1.13 U =A/A
u
=1.13/0.1 11 users
(c) C =10, A
u
A=3.96 U =A/A
u
=3.96/0.1 39 users
(d) C =20, A
u
A=11.1 U =A/A
u
=11.1/0.1 111 users
(e) C =100, A
u
A=80.9 U =A/A
u
=80.9/0.1 809 users
Example 5
Trunked mobile networks A, B, and C provide cellular services in an urban
area with 2 million residents. The (no. of cells, no. channels/cell) for the
three providers are (394,19), (98,57) and (49,100). Find the number of
users that can be supported at 2% blocking if each user averages two
calls/hour at an average call duration of 3 min. Find the percentage market
penetration for each provider.
Solution:
System A: GOS =0.02, C =19, A
u
=H =2(3/60) =0.1 Erlangs. For GOS =0.02
and C =19 A=12 Erlangs U =A/A
u
=12/0.1 =120
total number of subscribers is 120394 =47289
System B: GOS =0.02, C =57, A
u
=H =2(3/60) =0.1 Erlangs. For GOS =0.02
u
=45/0.1 =450
System C: GOS =0.02, C =100, A
u
=H =2(3/60) =0.1 Erlangs. For GOS =0.02
u
=88/0.1 =880
Market penetration: A: 47280/2,000,000=2.36%; B:
44100/2,000,000=2.205%;C: 43120/2,000,000=2.156%
Example 6
Given a city area: 1300 mile
2
, with 7-cell reuse pattern, cell radius=4 miles
and frequency spectrum: 40MHz with 60KHz channel bandwidth. Assume
GOS=2% for an Erlang B system, if the offered trafc per user is 0.03
Erlangs, compute (a) the no. of cells in the service area (b) the no. of
channels per cell (c) trafc intensity of each cell (d) the maximum carried
trafc (e) the total no. of users can be served for the GOS (f) the no. of
mobiles per unique channel (g) the theoretical maximum no. of users that
could be served at one time by the system.
Solution:
(a) A
cell
=1.5
3R
2
=2.59814
2
=41.57 square mile. Total no. of cells
N
c
=1300/41.57 =31 cells.
(b) Total no. of channels per cell C =40MHz/(60kHz 7) =95 channels/cell.
(c) C =95, GOS =0.02 trafc intensity per cell A=84 Erlangs/cell.
(d) Maximum carried trafc=no. of cells trafc intensity per cell =
3184 =2604 Erlangs.
(e) Trafc/user=0.03 Erlangs Total no. of users = 2604/0.03=86800 users
(f) no. of mobiles per channel= no. of users/no. of channels =86800/(40
MHz/60 kHz)=130 mobiles/channel.
(e) The theoretical maximum no. of served mobiles (all channels are
occupied)= CN
c
=9531 =2945 users
Example 7
A hexagonal cell within a four-cell system has a radius of 1.387 km. A total
of 60 channels are used within the entire system. If the load per user is
0.029 Erlangs and =1 call/hour, compute the following for an Erlang C
system which has a 5% probability of delayed call: (a) how many user per
square kilometer will the system support? (b) the probability that a delayed
call will have to wait for more than 10 seconds? (c) the probability that a
call will be delayed for more than 10 seconds?
Solution:
Cell area=2.598(1.387)
2
=5km
2
. no. of channel per cell C =60/4 =15
channels.
(a) For Erlang C of 5% probability of delay with C =15, the trafc
intensity=9.0 Erlangs.
no. of users=total trafc intensity/trafc per user = 9/0.029=310 users for
5 km
2
or 62 users/km
2
(b) H =A
u
/=0.029hour =104.4 second.
p[delay >10|delay] =exp((CA)t/H) =exp((159)10/104.4) =56.29% (c)
p[delay >0] =5%=0.05
p[delay >10] =p[delay >0]p[delay >10|delay] =0.050.5629 =2.81%
Improving Coverage and Capacity Cellular Systems
Outline
1
2
Frequency Reuse
3
4
5
6
7
Handoff Strategies
Cell Splitting
Let R and keeps D/R
unchanged
P
r
[at old cell boundary] P
t1
R
n
P
r
[at new cell boundary] P
t2
(R/2)
n
for n =4
P
t2
=
P
t1
16
Cell Splitting
Example 8
Assume each BS uses 60
channels and large cell radius of 1
km and microcell radius of 0.5
km. Find the number of channels
in a 3 km by 3 km square around
A when (a) without the use of
microcells (b) the labeled
microcells are used (c) all original
BS are replaced by microcells.
Solution:
(a) 560 =300 (b) (5+6) 60 =660
(2.2x) (c) (5+12) 60 =1020 (3.4x)
Sectoring
Increasing S/I ratio, keeping cell radius R the same and
decreasing D/R DN frequency reuse cluster size
N can be reduced because of S/I is improved.
Sectoring, contd
Microcell Zone
Microcell Zone
Channel Assignment Strategies Cellular Systems
Outline
1
2
Frequency Reuse
3
4
5
6
7
Handoff Strategies
Channel Assignment Strategies Cellular Systems
Fixed channel assignment
each cell is allocated to a predetermined set of voice channels
the call is blocked is all the channels are occupied.
borrowing strategy: a cell is allowed to borrow channels from a
neighboring cell if all of its own channels are occupied.
MSC supervises the borrowing procedure to ensure no disrupting
calls or interference with any of the calls in progress in the donor
cell.
Dynamic channel assignment
the serving BS request a channel from MSC whenever a call
request is made.
following an algorithm considering the likelihood of future
blocking in the cell, the frequency of use of the candidate cell, the
reuse distance of the channel and other cost functions.
MSC needs to collect real-time data on channel occupancy, trafc
distribution, and radio signal strength indicator (RSSI) of all
channels on a continuous basis. increasing storage and
computational load on the system.
Handoff Strategies Cellular Systems
Outline
1
2
Frequency Reuse
3
4
5
6
7
Handoff Strategies
Handoff
When a mobile moves into a different cell when a conversation
is in progress, the MSC automatically transfer the call to a new
channel belonging to a new BS.
Many handoff strategy prioritize handoff requests over call
initiation requests when allocating an unused channel.
Handoff threshold: a signal level slightly stronger than the
minimum usable signal for acceptable voice quality.
=P
r,handoff
P
r,min.usable
too large unnecessary handoffs burden MSC
too small may be insufcient time to complete a handoff
before a call is lost
Handoff Scenario at Cell Boundary
Handoff Decision
Monitor the signal level of MS for a period of time
to ensures MS is actually moving away from the serving BS.
Dwell time
The time over which a call may be maintained within a cell,
without handoff, depending on propagation, interference,
distance between the MS and BS, and other time varying
effects
Monitor RSSI
BS monitors the signal strengths of all its reverse voice
channels to determined the relative location of each MS.
Locator receivers monitor the signal strength of users in
neighboring cells need of handoff and report RSSI to MSC.
Mobile assisted handoff (MAHO)
MS measures the received power from the surrounding BSs
and continuously reports to the serving BS.
Faster handoff time than rst generation analog system
Suited for microcellular environments
Handoff Considerations
Prioritizing Handoffs
Guard channel concept: reserves a fractional of total available
channels exclusively for handoff reducing total carried trafc
combining with dynamic channel assignment to offer
efcient spectrum utilization
Queuing of handoff requests: using the nite time interval
between the time the received signal levels drops below the
handoff threshold and the time the call is terminated not
guarantee a zero probability of forced termination
Handoff Considerations
Umbrella cells
Cell dragging
Hard handoff
Soft handoff
Large-Scale Propagation Effects
Large-Scale Propagation Effects
Wen-Shen Wuen
Trans. Wireless Technology Laboratory
WS Wuen Mobile Communications 1
Outline Large-Scale Propagation Effects
Outline
1
Radio Wave Propagation
2
Transmit and Receive Signal Models
3
Free Space Propagation Model
4
Ray Tracing Path Loss Models
Reection
Diffraction
Scattering
5
Empirical Path Loss Models
Outdoor Propagation Models
Indoor Propagation Models
6
Practical Link Budget Design Using Path Loss Model
Link Budget Analysis
Simplied Path Loss Model
Log-normal Shadow Fading
Percentage of Cell Coverage Area
Radio Wave Propagation Large-Scale Propagation Effects
Outline
1
2
3
4
Reection
Diffraction
Scattering
5
6
Reection, diffraction and scattering
Line-of-sight (LOS) path : direct path between a transmitter
(TX) and a receiver (RX)
Radio Wave Propagation, contd
Propagation channel properties
Noise, interference, and other channel impediments
Channel impediments change over time
Random and unpredictable due to user movement Limits the
reliability and performance of wireless communications and
requires channel models to characterize
Propagation Models
Large-scale models predict the mean signal strength for an
arbitrary TX-RX separation distance (100 to 1000 m)
Small-scale/fading models characterize the rapid uctuation of
the received signal strength over very short travel distances (
wave lengths) or short time duration ( seconds)
Radio Wave Propagation, contd
Propagation channel properties
Noise, interference, and other channel impediments
Channel impediments change over time
Random and unpredictable due to user movement Limits the
reliability and performance of wireless communications and
requires channel models to characterize
Propagation Models
Large-scale models predict the mean signal strength for an
arbitrary TX-RX separation distance (100 to 1000 m)
Small-scale/fading models characterize the rapid uctuation of
the received signal strength over very short travel distances (
wave lengths) or short time duration ( seconds)
Propagation Effects
Propagation Effects
Path Loss: caused by dissipation of power radiated by the TX
as well as effects of channels
Shadowing: caused by obstacles between the TX and RX that
attenuate signal power through absorption, reection,
scattering and diffraction
Multipath Fading
The received signal of a mobile moving over very small distances
is a sum of many contributions coming from different directions.
The received signal power
a
may vary by as much as three or four
orders of magnitude (30 or 40 dB) when the receiver is moving by
only a fraction of a wave length.
a
Measurement of local received signal power: Average signal power
measurements over a measurement track of 5 to 40. e.g. f
c
=1 2 GHz,
=c/f
c
=0.3 1.5m measuring the local average received power over movements
of 1m to 10m.
Propagation Effects
Propagation Effects
Multipath Fading
a
a
c
=1 2 GHz,
=c/f
c
of 1m to 10m.
Propagation Effects
Propagation Effects
Multipath Fading
a
a
c
=1 2 GHz,
=c/f
c
of 1m to 10m.
Relation of Path Loss, Shadowing and Multipath
Transmit and Receive Signal Models Large-Scale Propagation Effects
Outline
1
2
3
4
Reection
Diffraction
Scattering
5
6
Transmit and Receive Signal Model
s(t) Channel, h(t) +
n(t)
r(t)
Transmitted
Signal
Received
Signal
Noise
Transmitted signal: s(t) =Re
_
s(t)e
j2f
c
t
_
Received signal: r(t) =Re
_
r(t)e
j2f
c
t
_
+n(t)
For time-invariant channels: r(t) =s(t) h(t)
Representation of Bandpass Signals
A bandpass signal s(t) at carrier frequency f
c
:
s(t) =A(t) cos
_
2f
c
t +(t)
_
=Re
_
A(t)e
j(t)
e
j2f
c
t
_
(1)
Let
A(t)e
j(t)
s
I
(t) +js
Q
(t) (2)
envelope: A(t) =
_
s
2
I
(t) +s
2
Q
(t) (3)
phase: (t) = tan
1
_
s
Q
(t)
s
I
(t)
_
(4)
The information can be carried in the envelope A(t) and/or
phase (t) of a carrier.
Representation of Bandpass Signals
Complex lowpass representation of s(t)
s(t) =s
I
(t) cos(2f
c
t) s
Q
(t) sin(2f
c
t) (5)
s
I
(t) and s
Q
(t) are real lowpass (baseband) signals with
bandwidth B f
c
and also called in-phase and quadrature
components of s(t).
s(t) = Re
__
s
I
(t) +js
Q
(t)
__
cos(2f
c
t) +j sin(2f
c
t)
__
(6)
= Re{s(t)} cos(2f
c
t) Im{s(t)} sin(2f
c
t) (7)
= Re
_
s(t)e
j2f
c
t
_
(8)
s(t) s
I
(t) +js
Q
(t) is the equivalent lowpass signal for s(t) or
its complex envelope.
Free Space Propagation Model Large-Scale Propagation Effects
Outline
1
2
3
4
Reection
Diffraction
Scattering
5
6
TX and RX have a clear, unobstructed LOS path in between
Examples: satellite communication systems and microwave
LOS radio links
Friis Free Space Equation
P
r
(d) =
P
t
G
t
G
r
2
(4)
2
d
2
L
(9)
P
t
: transmitted power,
P
r
(d): received power at T-R separation distance d meters,
G
t
: transmitter antenna gain,
G
r
: receiver antenna gain,
: wave length in meters,
L: system loss factor not related to propagation (L 1).
Free Space Propagation Model, contd
System Loss Factor: L(L 1), usually due to transmission line
attenuation, lter losses and antenna losses; L =1 no loss in
the system hardware
Received Power: P
r
1
d
2
20 dB/decade
Isotropic Radiator an ideal antenna which radiates power
with unit gain uniformly in all directions.
Effective Isotropic Radiated Power, EIRP =P
t
G
t
the
maximum radiated power available from a transmitter in the
direction of maximum antenna gain, as compared to an
isotropic radiator
Effective Radiated Power, ERP as compared to a
half-wave dipole antenna.
dBi vs dBd: dipole antenna has a gain of 1.64 (2.15 dB above
an isotrope) EIRP [dB] =2.15+ERP [dB]
Power Flux Density
Power ux density P
d
(W/m
2
) in free space
P
d
=
EIRP
4d
2
=
P
t
G
t
4d
2
=
E
2
R
fs
=
E
2
=
|E|
2
120
=
|E|
2
377
W/m
2
(10)
R
fs
: the intrinsic impedance of free space; |E|: the magnitude of the
radiating portion of the electric eld in the far eld
Received Power
Received Power
P
r
(d) =P
d
A
e
=
|E|
2
120
A
e
=
P
t
G
t
G
r
2
(4)
2
d
2
=
|E|
2
G
r
2
480
2
W (11)
where A
e
=
G
ant
2
4
is effective aperture of the antenna.
Received Power
P
r
(d) = P
r
(d
0
)
_
d
0
d
_
2
, d d
0
d
f
(12)
P
r
(d) [dBm] = 10log
_
P
r
(d
0
)
0.001W
_
+20log
_
d
0
d
_
(13)
d
0
is the reference distance and typically chosen to be 1m (indoor)
or 100m1Km (outdoor).
Equivalent Received Voltage at Receiver Input
Equivalent Received Voltage at Receiver Input
P
r
(d) =
V
2
rx
R
ant
=
(V
ant
/2)
2
R
ant
=
V
2
ant
4R
ant
V
rx
=
_
R
ant
P
r
(d) (14)
Example 1
Transmitter power, P
t
=50 W; Carrier frequency, f
c
=900 MHz;
Transmitter antenna gain, G
t
=1; Receiver antenna gain, G
r
=2;
Receiver antenna resistance R
ant
=50 ; Transmitter and receiver
distance, d =10 km; Find (a) the power at the receiver, (b)
magnitude of E-eld at receiver antenna, (c) the rms voltage
applied to the receiver input assuming that the receiver antenna is
matched to the receiver.
Solution:
(a) P
r
(d) =10log
_
P
t
G
t
G
r
2
(4)
2
d
2
_
=10log
_
5012(1/3)
2
(4)
2
10000
2
_
=61.5 dBm
(b) |E| =
_
P
r
(d)120
A
e
=
_
P
r
(d)120
G
r
2
/4
=
_
710
10
120
20.33
2
/(4)
=0.0039 V/m
(c) V
rms
=
_
P
r
(d)R
ant
=
710
10
50 =0.187 mV
Path Loss
Path Loss in Free Space
PL [dB] =10log
P
t
P
r
=10log
_
G
t
G
r
2
(4)
2
d
2
_
(15)
valid for d in the far-eld (d d
0
d
f
)
a
of the transmitter antenna.
a
Far Field (Fraunhofer Region): d
f
=
2D
2
, d
f
D, d
f
, where D is the largest
physical linear dimension of the antenna.
Example 2
Find the far eld distance for an antenna with maximum dimension
of 1m and operating frequency of 900MHz.
Solution:
far eld distance d
f
=
2D
2
=
2D
2
c/f
=
2(1)
2
310
8
90010
6
=
2
1
3
=6m
Free-Space LOS Received Signal
Free-Space LOS Received Signal
r(t) =Re
_
G
t
G
r
e
j2
d
4d
s(t)e
j2f
c
t
_
(16)
Example 3
If a transmitter produces 50W of power, express the transmit power
in (a) dBm (b) dBW. If 50W is applied to a unit gain antenna with a
900MHz carrier frequency, (c) nd the received power in dBm at a
free space distance of 100m from the antenna. (d) What is
P
r
(10km)? Assume G
r
=1.
Solution:
(a) P
t
(dBm) =10log(P
t
(mW)/1mW) =10log(5010
3
) =47dBm
(b) P
t
(dBW) =10log(P
t
(W)/1W) =10log(50) =17dBW
(c) P
r
(d) =
P
t
G
t
G
r
2
(4)
2
d
2
L
=
50(1)(1)(1/3)
2
(4)
2
(100)
2
(1)
=3.510
6
W=3.510
3
mW
P
r
(dBm) =10logP
r
(mW) =10log(3.510
3
mW) =24.5dBm
(d) P
r
(10km) =P
r
(100m) +20log
_
100
10000
_
=24.540 =64.5dBm
Ray Tracing Path Loss Models Large-Scale Propagation Effects
Outline
1
2
3
4
Reection
Diffraction
Scattering
5
6
Tracing radio ray propagation paths
Reection
Diffraction
Scattering
Reection of Radio Waves
When a radio wave propagating in one medium impinges upon
another medium having different electrical properties partially
reected and partially transmitted.
Material of 2
nd
medium
Perfect Dielectric: partially transmitted into the 2
nd
medium
and partially reected back to the 1
st
medium, and no loss of
energy.
Perfect Conductor: all energy is reected back without loss of
energy.
Lossy Dielectric: absorbs power complex dielectric constant:
=
0
r
j
=
0
r
j

2f
(17)
0
=8.8510
12
F/m is the free space dielectric constant.
Material Parameters at Various Frequencies
Material Relative Conductivity Frequency
Permittivity
r
(s/m) (MHz)
Poor Ground 4 0.001 100
Typical Ground 15 0.005 100
Good Ground 25 0.02 100
Sea Water 81 5.0 100
Fresh Water 81 0.001 100
Brick 4.44 0.001 4000
Limestone 7.51 0.028 4000
Glass, Corning 707 4 1.810
7
1
Glass, Corning 707 4 2.710
5
100
Glass, Corning 707 4 0.005 10000
Good conductor:
r
and are generally insensitive to operating
frequency
Lossy dielectric:
r
is constant with frequency, but may be
sensitive to operating frequency
Reection from Dielectric
Laws of Reection in Dielectric
i
=
r
, E
r
=E
i
, E
t
=E
i
+E
r
=(1+) E
i
(18)
is either
or
.
Reection Coefcients
Reection Coefcients
=
E
r
E
i
=

2
sin
t
1
sin
i
2
sin
t
+
1
sin
i
(E-eld in POI) (19)
=
E
r
E
i
=

2
sin
i
1
sin
t
2
sin
i
+
1
sin
t
(E-eld POI) (20)
=
_
/ is the intrinsic impedance of the medium
=1/
is the velocity of an EM wave

POI: plane of incidence
Fresnel Reection Coefcient,
The ratio of the E-eld intensity of the reected to the
transmitted waves.
Depends on the material properties, wave polarization, incident
angle and frequency of the propagating wave.
Snells Law and Brewster Angle
Snells Law
1
sin(90
i
) =
2
sin(90
t
) (21)
Brewster Angle
the incident angle at which no reection occurs in the medium
Condition: the incident angle
B
is such that the reection
coefcient
is equal to zero.
sin
B
=
_

1
1
+
2
(22)
Example: if the rst medium is free space and the second medium
has a relative permittivity
r
sin
B
=
_
r
1
2
r
1
(23)
Reection from Various Materials
Reection from Perfect Conductors
i
=
r
, E
i
=E
r
=1 (E-eld in POI) (24)
i
=
r
, E
i
=E
r
=1 (E-eld POI) (25)

For a perfect conductor, || =1, regardless of incident angle.
Reection from Dielectric: 1
st
medium is free space and
1
=
2
=

r
sin
i
+
_
r
cos
2
r
sin
i
+
_
r
cos
2
i
(26)
=
sin
i
+
_
r
cos
2
i
sin
i
+
_
r
cos
2
i
(27)
Example 4
Demonstrate that if medium 1 is free space and medium 2 is a
dielectric both |
| and |
| approach 1 as
i
approach 0
regardless
of
r
.
Solution:
=

r
sin0+
_
r
cos
2
0
r
sin0+
_
r
cos
2
0
=1, (28)
=
sin0
_
r
cos
2
0
sin0+
_
r
cos
2
0
=

r
1
r
1
=1 (29)
Ground may be modeled as a perfect reector with || =1 when
an incident wave grazes the earth, regardless of polarization or
ground dielectric properties.
Ground Reection (Two-Ray) Model
Reasonably accurate for predicting
the large-scale signal strength over long distances ( km) for
mobile systems that use tall towers (heights >50 m)
line-of-sight microcell channels in urban environments
Free space propagation E-eld:
E(d, t) =
E
0
d
0
d
cos
_
c
_
t
d
c
__
d >d
0
(30)
Deriving Total Received E-eld
E-eld due to line-of-sight component
E
L
(d
L
, t) =
E
0
d
0
d
L
cos
_
c
_
t
d
L
c
__
(31)
E-eld for the ground reected wave
E
R
(d
R
, t) =
E
0
d
0
d
R
cos
_
c
_
t
d
R
c
__
(32)
Total Received E-eld
E
TOT
(d, t) =
E
0
d
0
d
L
cos
_
c
_
t
d
L
c
__
+
E
0
d
0
d
R
cos
_
c
_
t
d
R
c
__
(33)
Deriving Total Received E-eld, contd
Consider grazing incidence
Small incident angle:
i
0
Perfect horizontal E-eld polarization
Ground reection:
=1 and E
t
=0
Total E-eld envelope: |E
TOT
| =|E
L
+E
R
|
E
TOT
(d, t) =
E
0
d
0
d
L
cos
_
c
_
t
d
L
c
__
+(1)
E
0
d
0
d
R
cos
_
c
_
t
d
R
c
__
(34)
Path difference: =d
R
d
L
=
_
(h
t
+h
r
)
2
+d
2
_
(h
t
h
r
)
2
+d
2
2h
t
h
r
d
(d h
t
+h
r
)
Time Delay:
d
=

c
=
2
c
=

2f
c
Phase difference:
=
c
d
=
2
=

c
c
Large distance: d h
t
+h
r
d d
L
d
R
E
0
d
0
d
E
0
d
0
d
L
E
0
d
0
d
R

The received E-eld evaluated at t =
d
R
c
E
TOT
_
d, t =
d
R
c
_
=
E
0
d
0
d
L
cos
_
c
_
d
R
d
L
c
__
E
0
d
0
d
R
cos0
=
E
0
d
0
d
L
cos
E
0
d
0
d
R
=
E
0
d
0
d
_
cos
1
_
(35)
E-eld normal to the POI, horizontal polarization,
=1
E
TOT
(d)
=1)
=
_
_
E
0
d
0
d
_
2
_
cos
1
_
2
+
_
E
0
d
0
d
_
2
sin
2
(36)
=
E
0
d
0
d
_
22cos
=2
E
0
d
0
d
sin

2
(37)
E-eld in the POI, vertical polarization,
=1
E
TOT
(d)
=1)
=
E
0
d
0
d
_
2+2cos
=2
E
0
d
0
d
cos

2
(38)
For

2
<0.3 rad sin

2
=
2h
t
h
r
d
<0.3
Approximation of the received E-eld at large distance d
d >
20h
t
h
r
3
20h
t
h
r
(39)
E
TOT
(d)
2E
0
d
0
d
2h
t
h
r
d

1
d
2
(40)
Received Power at T-R distance d
_
h
t
h
r
P
r
=P
t
G
t
G
r
h
2
t
h
2
r
d
4

1
d
4
(41)
Received power is independent of frequency!
Path Loss for Ground Reection (Two-Ray) Model
PL
dB
=40logd(10logG
t
+10logG
r
+20logh
t
+20logh
r
) (42)
Path loss is independent of frequency!
Received Signal for Two-Ray Model
Received Signal for Two-Ray Model
r
2ray
(t) = Re
_

4
_
(G
t
G
r
)
L
d
L
s(t)e
j2
d
L
(G
t
G
r
)
R
d
R
s(t
d
)e
j2
d
R
_
e
j2f
c
t
_
(43)
where (G
t
G
r
)
L
is the transmit and receive antenna gain in the LOS
direction and (G
t
G
r
)
R
is the transmit and receive antenna gain
corresponding to the reected ray.
Example 5
T-R distance: 5km, E-eld at a distance of 1km from the TX is
10
3
V/m, frequency is 900MHz. The RX uses a vertical /4 monopole
antenna with gain of 2.55dB. Find (a) the length and the effective
aperture of the RX antenna. (b) nd the received power using
two-ray model assuming h
t
is 50m and h
r
is 1.5m.
Solution:
(a) L =/4 =0.333/4 =0.0833m=8.33cm
A
e
=
G
r
2
4
=
1.8(0.333)
2
4
=0.016m
2
(b) d =50km
_
h
t
h
r
=
501.5 =8.66m
E
r
(d)
2E
0
d
0
d
2h
t
h
r
d
=
210
3
10
3
510
3
_
2501.5
0.333510
3
_
=113.110
6
V/m
P
r
(d) =
|E|
2
A
e
120
=
(113.110
6
)
2
(0.016)
377
=5.4210
13
W=92.68dBm
Diffraction
Causes: the propagation of secondary wavelets into a
shadowed (obstructed) region; explained by Huygens
Principle
1
.
Locations: curved surface of the earth, hilly or irregular terrain,
building edges or obstructions blocking the LOS path between
TX and RX.
Model: the Fresnel knife-edge diffraction model.
1
Huygens Principle: all points on a wavefront can be consider as point sources for
the production of secondary wavelets and these wavelets combine to produce a new
wavefront in the direction of propagation.
Fresnel Knife-Edge Diffraction Model
Excess path length (d longer than LOS path)
d =(d
1
+d
2
) (d
1
+d
2
)
h
2
2
d
1
+d
2
d
1
d
2
(44)
Phase difference ()
=
2d
h
2
2
d
1
+d
2
d
1
d
2
=

2
2
(45)
Fresnel-Kirchoff diffraction parameter ()
tan=+ tan() +tan() (46)
h
_
d
1
+d
2
d
1
d
2
_
(47)
=h
_
2(d
1
+d
2
)
d
1
d
2
=
_
2d
1
d
2
(d
1
+d
2
)
(48)
Fresnel Zones
The loss due to knife-edge diffraction is a function of and can
be explained by Fresnel zones.
2
n
th
Fresnel zone radius (r
n
)
r
n
=
_
nd
1
d
2
d
1
+d
2
valid for d
1
, d
2
r
n
(49)
Fresnel zones will have maximum radii if the knife-edge
obstacle is midway between TX and RX
r
n
=
nd
2
(d
1
=d
2
=
d
2
) (50)
2
Fresnel zone: successive regions where secondary waves have an excess path
length equal to
n
2
, n N.
Knife-Edge Diffraction Loss Model
The diffraction loss occurs from the blockage of secondary
waves only a portion of the energy is diffracted around an
obstacle.
Ideally, for an 80%-free Fresnel zone, no signicant signal loss
presents. Keep at least 60% of the zone free, or the link will be
unreliable, poor or may never work.
Diffraction loss is L
d
() =20log|F()|, where F() is the complex
Fresnel integral ( F()
E
d
E
0
=
1+j
2
_
e
jt
2
2
dt) (relative to LOS
path)
Lees Approximation for L
d
()
L
d
() [dB] =
_
_
0 1
20log(0.50.62) 1 <0
20log
_
0.5e
0.95
_
0 <1
20log
_
0.4
_
0.1184(0.380.1)
2
_
1 <2.4
20log
_
0.225
_
>2.4
(51)
Received Signal for Knife-Edge Diffraction Model
Received Signal for Knife-Edge Diffraction Model
r(t) =Re
_

4
L
d
()
_
(G
r
G
t
)
d
d
D
s(t )e
j2d
D
/
e
j2f
c
t
_
(52)
where (G
r
G
t
)
d
is the TX and RX antenna gain product in the
diffracted ray direction; =
d
c
is the delay associated with the
diffracted ray relative to LOS path and d
D
=d
1
+d
2
is the traveled
path of the diffracted ray .
Example 6
If an obstacle is 10km away from a TX antenna and 2km away from
RX antenna, nd (a) the 1
st
Fresnel zone boundary, and (b) the
boundary for 80% clearance for transmitting 900MHz signal.
Solution:
(a) r
1
=
_
d
1
d
2
d
1
+d
2
=
_
310
8
90010
6
(210
3
)(1010
3
)
1210
3
=23.57m (b) 0.8r
1
=18.86m
Example 7
Continue the above example. If the TX antenna height is 50m and
RX antenna height is 25m, determine the loss due to knife-edge
diffraction. Assume the obstacle height is 100m.
Solution:
=tan
1
_
10050
10000
_
=0.005, =tan
1
_
10025
2000
_
=0.0375,
=+ =0.0425 =0.0425
_
2100002000
(1/3)(10000+2000)
=4.25
G
d
(4.25) =20log(0.225/4.25) =25.52dB.
Scattering
When a radio wave impinges on a rough surface, the reected
energy is spread out in all directions.
Rayleigh criterion h
c
: determines surface roughness by dening
a critical height h
c
=

8sin
i
Smooth surface: maximum to minimum protuberance h h
c
Rough surface: h >h
c
Scatter loss factor
s
:
rough
=
s
at
Aments:
s
=exp
_
8
_
h
sin
i
_
2
_
Boithiass:
s
=exp
_
8
_
h
sin
i
_
2
_
I
0
_
8
_
h
sin
i
_
2
_
where
h
is the standard deviation of the surface height about
the mean surface height, I
0
is the Bessel function of the rst kind
and zero order.
Radar Cross Section Model
Radar cross section
RCS
: the ratio of the power density of the
signal scattered in the direction of RX to the power density of
the radio wave incident upon the scattering object, in unit of
dB m
2
.
Received power:
P
r
[dBm] = P
t
[dBm] +G
t
[dBi] +20log() +
RCS
[dBm
2
]
30log(4) 20logd20logd
(53)
where d and d
are the distance from the scattering objects to

TX and RX
Useful for predicting receiver power which scatters off large
objects such as buildings.
Received Signal Due to a Scattered Ray
Bistatic Radar Equation
r(t) =Re
_
(G
t
G
r
)
s
RCS
(4)
3/2
dd
s(t )e
j2(d+d
)/
e
j2f
c
t
_
(54)
where =(d+d
d
L
)/c is the delay associated with the scattered
ray;
RCS
is the radar cross-section of the scattering objects,
depending the roughness, size and shape of the scattering objects.
Ray Tracing Model
Totoal received signal for a LOS path, N
r
reected, N
d
diffracted and
N
s
scattered rays:
Ray Tracing Model
r(t) = Re
_

4
_
G
t
G
r
d
L
s(t)e
j2d
L
/
+
N
r
i=1
i
_
(G
t
G
r
)
R,i
d
R,i
s(t
i
)e
j2d
R,i
/
+
N
d
j=1
L
d
()
_
(G
t
G
r
)
D,j
d
D,j
s(t
j
)e
j2d
D,j
/
+
N
s
k=1
_
(G
t
G
r
)
S,k
RCS,k
4d
k
d
k
s(t
k
)e
j2(d
k
+d
k
)/
_
e
j2f
c
t
_
(55)
Empirical Path Loss Models Large-Scale Propagation Effects
Outline
1
2
3
4
Reection
Diffraction
Scattering
5
6
Why: Practical mobile wireless environments cannot be
accurately modeled by free-space path loss or ray tracing.
What: Empirical models are based on measurements over a
given distance in a given frequency range for a particular
geographical area or building. path loss dened.
How: Empirical measurements of P
r
/P
t
as a function of distance
include the effects of path loss, shadowing, and multipath
effects.
In order to remove multipath effects average the received
power measurements and corresponding path loss at a given
distance over several wavelengths.
Local Mean Attenuation (LMA): average path loss at distance d
(n)
Summary: empirical path loss P
L
(d) for a given environments:
the average of LMA measurements at distance d over all
available measurements in the given environment.
r
/P
t
effects.
(n)
L
r
/P
t
effects.
(n)
L
r
/P
t
effects.
(n)
L
r
/P
t
effects.
(n)
L
r
/P
t
effects.
(n)
L
Okumura Model
Area: large urban macrocells
Distance: 1-100 km
Frequency: 150-1500 MHz
PL(d) [dB] =L(f
c
, d) +A
(f
c
, d) G(h
t
) G(h
r
) G
AREA
(56)
L(f
c
, d): free-space path loss at distance d at carrier frequency f
c
A
(f
c
, d): the median attenuation in addition to free-space path loss
G
AREA
: gain due to the type of environment.
G(h
t
): the base station antenna height gain factor
G(h
t
) =20log(h
t
/200) 30m<h
t
<100m (57)
G(h
r
): the mobile antenna height gain factor
G(h
r
) =
_
10log(h
r
/3) h
r
100m
20log(h
r
/3) 3m<h
r
<10m
(58)
Okumura Model, contd
Hata Model
Area: large urban macrocells
Distance: 1-100 km
Frequency: 150-1500 MHz
PL
urban
(d) [dB] = 69.55+26.16log(f
c
) 13.82log(h
t
) a(h
r
)
+
_
44.96.55log(h
t
)
_
log(d) (59)
a(h
r
): correction factor based on the coverage area
small to medium-sized cities:
a(h
r
) =
_
1.1log(f
c
) 0.7
_
h
r
_
1.56log(f
c
) 0.8
_
(60)
large cities:
a(h
r
) =8.29
_
log(1.54h
r
)
_
2
1.1 f
c
300 MHz
a(h
r
) =3.2
_
log(11.75h
r
)
_
2
4.97 f
c
>300 MHz (61)
Hata Model, contd
PL
suburban
(d) [dB] = PL
urban
(d) 2
_
log(f
c
/28)
_
2
5.4 (62)
PL
rural
(d) [dB] = PL
urban
(d) 4.78
_
logf
c
_
2
+18.33logf
c
K
K ranges from 35.94 (countryside) to 40.94 (desert)
Hata model approximates Okumura model for distance d >1 km.
well suited for large cells on the order of 1 km radius.
COST-231 Extension to Hata Model
Extension to Hata model by European Cooperative for Scientic
and Technical Research
Frequency: 1.5 GHz to 2 GHz
PL
urban
[dB] = 46.3+33.9log(f
c
) 13.82log(h
t
) a(h
r
)
+
_
44.96.55log(h
t
)
_
log(d) +C
M
(63)
C
M
=0 dB for medium sized city and suburband areas
C
M
=3 dB for metropolitan centers
Range of parameters:
30mh
t
200m
1mh
r
10m
1kmd 10km
Walsch and Bertoni Model
Consider the impact of rooftops and building height by using
diffraction to predict average signal strength at street level
Path loss S:
S =P
0
Q
2
P
1
(64)
P
0
free space path loss between isotropic antennae, P
0
=
_

4R
_
2
Q
2
the reduction in the rooftop signal due to the row of buildings
which immediately shadow the receiver at the street level
P
1
the signal loss from rooftop to the street
S [dB] =L
0
+L
rts
+L
ms
(65)
Wideband PCS Microcell Model
extensive measurements in line-of-sight (LOS) and obstructed
(OBS) environments at 1900 MHz
a two-ray ground reection model is a good estimated for
path loss in LOS microcells
a simple log-distance path loss model holds well for OBS
microcells
average path loss for LOS cases
PL(d) [dB] =
_
10n
1
log(d) +p
1
for 1 <d <d
f
10n
2
log(d/d
f
) +10n
1
logd
f
+p
1
for d >d
f
where P
1
=PL(d
0
), d
0
=1m, n
1
and n
2
are path loss exponents,
d
f
the distance at which the rst Fresnel zone obstructed by
ground
3
average path loss for OBS cases
PL(d) [dB] =10nlog(d) +p
1
(66)
3
d
f
=
1
_
16h
2
t
h
2
r

2
_
h
2
t
+h
2
r
_
+

4
16
Indoor radio channel differs from mobile radio channel in two
aspects
distance covered are much smaller than outdoor environment
variability of the environment is much greater for a much
smaller range of T-R separation distances
Indoor propagation are strongly inuenced by
layout of building
construction material
building type
Measurements across a wide range of building indicate
the attenuation per oor is greatest for the rst oor that is
passed through
the attenuation per oor decreases with each subsequent oor
penetrated
eg. at 900 MHz 10-20 dB when TX and RX are separated by a
single oor, while subsequent attenuation is 6-10 dB per oor
for the next three oors
Radio Path Loss Obstructed by Common Building
Material
Radio Path Loss Obstructed by Common Building
Material, contd
Indoor Attenuation Factor Model
Seidel:
PL(d) [dB] =PL(d
0
) +10n
sf
log
_
d
d
0
_
+FAF +
N
p
i
PAF
i
(67)
n
sf
: the exponent value for the same oor measurement.
FAF: oor attenuation factor for a specied number of building
oors.
PAF: partition attenuation factor .
PL(d) [dB] =PL(d
0
) +10n
mf
log
_
d
d
0
_
+
N
p
i
PAF
i
(68)
Devasirvatham et al.: in-building path loss obeys free space loss
plus an additional loss factor.
PL(d) [dB] =PL(d
0
) +20log
_
d
d
0
_
+d+FAF +
N
p
i
PAF
i
(69)
is the attenuation constant for the channel (dB/m)
Floor Attenuation Factors (FAF)
Floor Attenuation Factors (FAF), contd
Indoor Path Loss Exponents and Standard Deviation
Indoor Path Loss Exponents and Standard Deviation
Scatter Plot for Path Loss in Ofce Building 1
Scatter Plot for Path Loss in Ofce Building 2
Free Space Plus Linear Path Attenuation Model
Practical Link Budget Design Using Path Loss Model Large-Scale Propagation Effects
Outline
1
2
3
4
Reection
Diffraction
Scattering
5
6
Noise Limited System
Thermal Noise
The power spectral density of thermal noise depends on the
environment temperature T
e
that antenna sees". The
temperature of the Earth T
e
is typically 300K
Noise power N
0
N
0
=k
B
T
e
=174[dBm/Hz] (70)
where k
B
is Boltzmanns constant, k
B
=1.3810
23
Joules/Kelvin
Noise power P
n
P
n
=N
0
B =k
B
T
e
B =174+10log(B) [dBm] (71)
where B is the RX bandwidth in Hz.
Noise Limited System, contd
Man-made Noise
Spurious emissions
Other intentional emission sources
Receiver Noise
F
SNR
in
SNR
out
=F
1
+
F
2
1
G
1
+
F
3
1
G
1
G
2
+. . . (72)
Link Budget
Example 8
Consider the downlink of a GSM system. f
c
is 950 MHz and the RX
sensitivity is 102 dBm. The output power of the TX amplier is
30 W. The TX antenna gain is 10 dB, the losses in connectors,
combiners, etc. are 5 dB. The fading margin is 12 dB. Assume for
d <d
break
, P
r
d
2
and for d >d
break
, P
r
(d) =P
r
(d
break
)
_
d
d
break
_
n
where
n =3.5 and d
break
=100m. What is the distance can be covered?
Solution:
TX side
P
t
: 30 W 45 dBm
G
t
: 10 10 dB
Loss: -5 dB
EIRP 50 dBm
RX side
P
min
-102 dBm
Fading margin 12 dB
Median RX power -90 dBm
Ovreall path loss 140 dB
Path loss at d
break
=100 m: 72 dB; Path loss d >d
break
, d
3.5
: 68 dB
d =100 10
68/(10n)
=8.8km
Log-Distance Path Loss Model
PL(d) [dB] =PL(d
0
)
_
d
d
0
_
n
(73)
PL [dB] =PL(d
0
) +10nlog
_
d
d
0
_
(74)
Typical path loss exponents
Environment Path Loss Exponent, n
Free space 2
Urban cellular 2.7-3.5
Shadowed urban cellular 3-5
In building LOS 1.6-1.8
Ofce buildings (same oor) 1.6-3.5
Ofce buildings (multiple oors) 2-6
Obstructed in factory 1.6-3.3
Obstructed in building 4-6
Example 9
Four RX power measurements were taken at distances of 100m, 200m, 1km and 3km
from a TX and the measured RX power levels are 0dBm, -20dBm, -35dBm and
-70dBm, respectively. Assume the path loss obeys the log-distance model. Find the
path loss exponent n that minimizes mean square error (MSE) between measured
and modeled values.
Solution:
J(n) =
k
i=1
(p
i
p
i
)
2
p
i
=p
i
(d
0
) 10nlog
_
d
i
/d
0
_
The value of n which minimize J(n) can be obtained by letting
dJ(n)
dn
=0 and solving for
n.
J(n) =(00)
2
+(20(3n))
2
+(35(10n))
2
+(70(14.77n))
2
J(n) =65252887.8n+327.153n
2
dJ(n)
dn
=654.306n2887.8
dJ(n)
dn
=0 n =4.4
Consider the random variation of surrounding environment due
to blockage from objects
Measurements have shown at any value of d, the path loss P
L
(d)
at a particular location is random and distributed log-normally
(normal in dB) about the distance-dependent mean.
PL(d) [dB] =PL(d) +X
=PL(d
0
) +10nlog
_
d
d
0
_
+X
(75)
X
is a zero-mean Gaussian distributed random variable (in dB)

with standard deviation (in dB).
Received Power P
r
(d)
P
r
(d) [dBm] =P
t
[dBm] PL(d) [dBm] (76)
Log-normal shadowing implies measured signal levels at a
specic T-R separation distance have a Gaussian (normal)
distribution.
Example 10
Find the standard deviation and variance
2
of Example 9. Estimate
the received power at distance 2km.
Solution:
2
=
1
4
4
i=1
(p
i
p
i
)
2
=
1
4
J(n)
J(n) =(0+0) +(20+13.2)
2
+(35+44)
2
+(70+64.988)
2
=152.36
2
=152.36/4 =38.09 dB
2
=
38.09 =6.17 dB
p(d =2 km) =010(4.4) log(2000/100) =57.24 dBm (77)
Outage Probability under Path Loss and Shadowing
A target minimum received power level P
min
is required for
wireless systems performance.
For received signal power below P
min
performance becomes
unacceptable
Denition
Outage probability P
out
(P
min
, d) under path loss and shadowing: the
probability that the received power at a given distance d, P
r
(d) falls
below P
min
P
out
(P
min
, d) p(P
r
(d) <P
min
) (78)
p(P
r
(d) P
min
) =1Q
_
P
min
P
r
(d)
_
=Q
_
P
r
(d) P
min
_
(79)
Review: Gaussian Distribution
Gaussian distribution for a random variable X is dened in
terms of its mean
X
and variance
2
X
as
p
X
(x) =
1
2
X
e
(x
X
)
2
2
2
X
(80)
also called the normal distribution, denoted as N(
X
,
2
X
).
Probability of X x for Gaussian distribution can be expressed
in terms of Gaussian Q-function
p(X x) =1Q
_
x
X
X
_
(81)
Gaussian Q-function is the probability that a Gaussian random
variable X with mean 0 and variance 1 is larger than x:
Q(x) =p(X x)
_
x
1
2
e
y
2
2
dy (82)
where Q(x) =1Q(x)
Review: Error Function
Error function erf (x) can be related to the Q-function by
erf (x)
2
_
x
0
e
y
2
dy =12Q(
2x) (83)
Q(x) =
1
2
_
1erf
_
x
2
__
(84)
Complementary error function erfc(x)
erfc(x) =1erf (x) =1(12Q(
2x)) =2Q(
2x) (85)
Q(x) =
1
2
erfc
_
x
2
_
(86)
Example 11
Predict the probability that the received signal level at 2 km will be
greater than -60 dBm.
Solution:
p(P
r
(d) >60 dBm) = Q
_
P
min
P
r
(d)
_
= Q
_
60+57.24
6.17
_
= Q(0.447)
= 1Q(0.447) =67.4% (87)
Percentage of useful service area, U(P
min
): percentage of area with
a received signal level P
r
(r) P
min
U(P
min
) =
1
R
2
_
cell area
p(P
r
(r) >P
min
) dA (88)
=
1
R
2
_
2
0
_
R
0
p(P
r
(r) >P
min
) rdrd (89)
Percentage of Cell Coverage Area, contd
p(P
r
(r) >P
min
) = Q
_
P
min
P
r
(r)
_
=
1
2
1
2
erf
_
P
min
P
r
(r)
2
_
(90)
=
1
2
1
2
erf
_
_
P
min
_
P
t
PL(d
0
) +10nlog
_
r
d
0
__
2
_
_
referenced to the cell boundary (r =R):
p(P
r
(r) >P
min
) =
1
2
1
2
erf
_
_
P
min
_
P
t
PL(d
0
) +10nlog
_
R
d
0
_
+10nlog
_
r
R
_
_
2
_
_
(91)
p(P
r
(r) >P
min
) =
1
2
1
2
erf
_
a+bln
r
R
_
(92)
where a =
P
min
_
P
t
PL(d
0
)+10nlog
_
R
d
0
__
2
=
P
min
P
r
(R)
2
, b =
10nloge
2
Percentage of Cell Coverage Area, contd
U(P
min
) =
1
R
2
_
2
0
_
R
0
_
1
2
1
2
erf
_
a+bln
r
R
_
_
rdrd (93)
=
1
2
1
R
2
_
R
0
erf
_
a+bln
r
R
_
rdr (94)
=
1
2
_
1erf (a) +exp
_
12ab
b
2
__
1erf
_
1ab
b
___
(95)
=
1
2
_
2Q(
2a) +exp
_
12ab
b
2
_
2Q
_
2
_
1ab
b
___
(96)
If P
min
=P
r
(R) a =0
U(P
min
) =
1
2
_
1+exp
_
1
b
2
__
1erf
_
1
b
___
=
1
2
_
1+exp
_
1
b
2
_
2Q
_
2
b
__
(97)
Fractional Coverage of Total Cell Area
Example 12
Predict the percentage of area within a 2 km radius cell that
receives signals greater than -60 dBm given in Example 9-10.
Solution:
a =
P
min
P
r
(R)
2
=
60(57.24)
6.17
2
=0.3163
b =
10nloge
2
=
10 4.4loge
6.17
2
=2.18966
U(P
min
) =0.5
_
2Q
_
0.3163
2
_
+e
0.4974
_
2Q
_
0.7729
2
___
88%

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