1 Introduction.......................................................

14
Space............................................................ 15
Solar Wind and the Van Allen Radiation Belts..................... 15
Gravity.......................................................... 18
Propulsion....................................................... 20
Orbits........................................................... 25
Inclination..................................................
Eccentricity.................................................
Space Debris..................................................... 27
Magnitude........................................................ 28
Space Law........................................................ 29
General Information.............................................. 30
2 Rockets and Spacecraft............................................. 31
Pre-spacefl ight................................................. 31
Rocket Basics.................................................... 38
Multistaging.................................................
Launch Pad to Orbit..........................................
Launch Vehicles.................................................. 42
Sounding Rockets................................................. 45
Attitude Control and Movement.................................... 46
Gravity Gradients and Tidal Forces...........................
Spin Stabilization...........................................
Three Axis Stabilization.....................................
Magnetic Torquers............................................
Spacecraft....................................................... 52
Communication and Navigation Spacecraft......................
Fly-by Spacecraft............................................
Orbiter Spacecraft...........................................
Atmospheric Spacecraft.......................................
Lander and Rover Spacecraft..................................
Observatory Spacecraft.......................................
Penetrator Spacecraft and Impactors..........................
Manned Spacefl ight..........................................
Power Systems.................................................... 56
Primary Energy Source........................................
Secondary Power Source.......................................
Power Control and Distribution System........................
Thermal Control Systems.......................................... 62
Thermal Protection for Re-entry Vehicles.....................
3 Space Missions..................................................... 66
Launch System.................................................... 68
Launch Sites.................................................
Launch Windows...............................................
Landing Sites.................................................... 73
Earth Landing Sites..........................................
Landing on Other Bodies in the Solar System..................
Emergency Systems................................................ 85
Launch Escape System.........................................
Shuttle Emergency Egress System..............................
Shuttle Launch Abort.........................................
In-fl ight Crew Escape System................................
Mission Operations............................................... 89
Testing and Pre-launch.......................................
Launch.......................................................
End of Life..................................................
Reliability..................................................
4 Movement in Three Dimensions....................................... 93
Orbits........................................................... 94
Orbit Shape..................................................
Types of Orbit...............................................

25
26

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41

46
49
49
51
52
52
53
53
54
54
55
55
56
60
62
63
68
71
73
78
85
86
86
88
89
89
90
91
95
98

Lagrangian Points................................................103
Lagrangian Point 1 (L1)......................................103
Lagrangian Point 2 (L2)......................................104
Lagrangian Point 3 (L3)......................................105
Lagrangian Points 4 and 5 (L4 and L5)........................105
Getting into Orbit...............................................106
Changing Orbits..................................................106
Perturbations................................................107
Station-keeping..............................................107
Changing the Altitude or Shape of an Orbit...................108
Low Thrust Trajectory........................................111
Orbit Inclination Changes or Out-of-Plane Orbit Changes......112
Rendezvous and Intercept.....................................113
Interplanetary and Interstellar Trajectories.................114
Gravity Assist, Fly-by or Sling Shot.........................115
Ground Tracks....................................................118
Propulsion Systems.................................................124
Chemical Rocket Propulsion.......................................125
Solid Propellants or Rocket Motors...........................125
Liquid Propellants or Rocket Engines.........................129
Gelled Propellants...........................................135
Hybrid Propellants...........................................135
Cold Gas Propellants.........................................136
Electric Propulsion..............................................136
Electrothermal Systems.......................................137
Electrostatic Engines or Ion Drives..........................137
Electromagnetic or Magnetoplasma Engines.....................139
Nuclear Propulsion...............................................140
Nuclear Electric Rocket......................................140
Solar Thermal Propulsion (STP)...................................140
Other Forms of Propulsion........................................141
Navigation in Three Dimensions.....................................142
Coordinate Systems...............................................143
Locating Spacecraft..............................................148
Inertial Navigation..........................................149
Magnetometers................................................151
External References..........................................152
Earth-based Navigation and Tracking Systems..................157
Lunar and Interplanetary Systems.............................157
Time Dilation and Relativistic Effects...........................158
Communication......................................................160
Tracking, Telemetry and Command..................................160
Radiowave Communication......................................161
Ground Stations..............................................161
Spacecraft Systems...........................................163
Antennas, Transmitters and Receivers.........................163
Radio Blackout...............................................167
Radar........................................................171
Parcels to Space.................................................172
Parcels from Space...............................................173
Human Communications.............................................174
Radio and Video Links........................................176
Humans in Space....................................................178
Launch and Re-entry..............................................178
Acceleration.................................................178
Vibration and Sound..........................................182
Environmental Control and Life Support...........................183
Air Quality..................................................183
Pressure.....................................................184
Temperature..................................................186

Fire Suppression.............................................188
Water........................................................189
Radiation....................................................190
Meteoroid Strike and Space Debris............................193
Living in Space..................................................194
Freefall Effects.............................................194
Space Sickness...............................................197
Toilet.......................................................198
Ablutions....................................................203
Clothing.....................................................204
Sleep........................................................208
Psychological Effects........................................209
Food.........................................................210
Return to Earth..................................................216
9 Observing Satellites...............................................218
Catalogues of Objects in Space...................................221
International Identifi cation Number.........................222
Space Catalogue..............................................222
Natural Bodies...............................................223
Tracking Spacefaring Objects.....................................225
Optical......................................................226
Infrared Tracking............................................230
Radio........................................................230
Radar........................................................231
Deep Space...................................................232
Tracking from Space..........................................234
Amateur Tracking.................................................235
Optical......................................................235
Radio........................................................241
Radar........................................................244
10 Where to Go.......................................................245
The Sun..........................................................245
Planets and Their Satellites.....................................248
Mercury......................................................248
Venus........................................................253
Earth........................................................255
Mars.........................................................259
Jupiter......................................................263
Saturn.......................................................266
Uranus.......................................................269
Neptune......................................................271
Dwarf Planets....................................................272
Pluto........................................................273
Ceres........................................................274
Eris (2003 UB313)............................................274
Small Solar System Bodies........................................275
Asteroids....................................................275
Comets.......................................................277
11 The Future........................................................280
Commercial Space Flight..........................................281
Space Tourism................................................283
Future Propulsion Systems........................................286
Solar Sailing................................................286
Beam Sailing.................................................291
Tethers......................................................299
Space Elevators..............................................303
Space Fountain...............................................304
Sky Hooks....................................................305
Nuclear......................................................305
Magnetic Satellite Launch System or Magnetic Mass Drivers....307

The Distant Future...............................................308

Appendix A: Orbital Elements.........................................310
Inclination (i)..................................................310
Longitude of the Ascending Node (W)..............................311
Argument of Periapsis or Perigee (w).............................312
Eccentricity (e).................................................312
Semi-major Axis (a)..............................................313
Anomaly at Epoch (v).............................................313
Time of Periapsis or Perigee Passage (T).........................313
Appendix B: Coordinate Systems.......................................314
Geocentric Coordinate Systems....................................314
Heliocentric Coordinate Systems..................................314
Perifocal Coordinate System......................................314
Appendix C: Web Site Addresses.......................................316
Appendix D: Practical Information for Observing Satellites...........318
Two-Line Element (TLE) Sets......................................319
Positional Observations..........................................321
Flash Period Observations........................................323
Types of Refl ection.........................................323
Synodic Effect...............................................323
Measurement of Flash Period..................................324
Brightness Measurement...........................................325
Glossary.............................................................326
Bibliography.........................................................334
Index................................................................336