Chapter11 PDF

Chapter 11
ESSENTIALS OF FINITE ELEMENT METHOD IN

ELECTROMAGNETICS
Contents
11.1. Vectorial elds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
11.1.1. Coordinate systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
11.1.2. Operations with vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
11.1.3. Line and surface (ux) integrals of a vectorial eld . . . . . . . . . 5
11.1.4. Differential operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
11.1.5. Integral identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
11.1.6. Differential identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
11.2. Electromagnetic elds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
11.2.1. Electrostatic elds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
11.2.2. The eld of current densities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
11.2.3. The magnetic eld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
11.2.4. The electromagnetic eld: Maxwell equations . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
11.3. Fields visualization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
11.4. Boundary conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
11.4.1. Dirichlets conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
11.4.2. Neumans boundary conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
11.4.3. Mixt Robin boundary conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
11.4.4. Periodic boundary conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
11.4.5. Open boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
11.5. The nite element method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
11.5.1. The residuum (Galerkin) method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
11.5.2. The variational (Rayleigh - Ritz) method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
11.5.3. Stages in nite element method application . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
11.6. 2D FEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
11.7. Analysis with FEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
11.7.1. Electromagnetic forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
11-2 Electric Machines
11.7.2. Maxwell tensor method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
11.7.3. Virtual work method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
11.7.4. Loss computation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
11.1. Vectorial elds
Though apparently a rather abstract concept eld, a form of matter, plays a key role in
explaining electric and magnetic phenomena with deep implications in the design of elec-
tric machines.
Mathematically there are scalar elds such those of temperatures, pressures, current den-
sities and vectorial elds such as electric elds, magnetic elds or the mechanical stresses
eld in a solid body.
For scalar elds a scalar is assigned to each point in space. For vectorial elds a vector is
attached to every point in space.
The relations between scalar and magnetic elds are based on fundamentals laws of elec-
tromagnetics, known also as Maxwell equations.
But rst the main properties of operations with vectors are introduced.
11.1.1. Coordinate systems
In Cartesian coordinates, g.11.1, vector

A is dened by its projections along the orthog-
onal coordinate axes:
A = A
x
u
x
+A
y
u
y
+A
z
u
z
(11.1)
where u
x
, u
y
, u
z
are unitary vectors aligned to orthogonal axes x, y, z.
For cylindrical coordinates, g.11.2, the application point of vector P(r, , z) is dened
by the cylinder radius r, its angle with axis x and the height z. The unitary vectors
along the coordinate axes are u
r
, u
, u
z
. The transformation matrix between Cartesian and
cylindrical coordinates is given by (11.2):
_
_
A
r
A
A
z
_
_
=
_
_
cos() sin() 0
sin() cos() 0
0 0 1
_
_
_
_
A
x
A
y
A
z
_
_
(11.2)
Figure 11.1. Cartesian coordinates
Essentials of nite element method in electromagnetics 11-3
Figure 11.2. Cylindrical coordinates
Figure 11.3. Spherical coordinates
The cylindrical coordinates are practical where the investigated eld shows a cylindrical
symmetry as in the case of radial electric eld produced by a straight-line conductor,
electrostatically loaded (
E
r
= 0,

E
= 0,

E
z
= 0), or the magnetic eld of the same
conductor owed by current (
B
r
= 0,

B
= 0,

B
z
= 0).
For the points on axis z of cylindrical coordinates, the unitary vectors

U
and

U
z
are not
dened.
Spherical coordinates represent a set of curve-line coordinates used to naturally describe
the position on a sphere.
The coordinates are given by: r - distance to origin, - azimutal angle (the angle between
the position vector projection in xoy plan and positive semi-axis x), - the zenital angle
(the angle of position vector with positive semi-axis z).
The unitary vectors of vector

A (g.11.3) are: u
r
, u
, u
and their orientation dependence

on the application point coordinates is portrayed in the eqn.(11.3):
_
_
u
r
u
_
_
=
_
_
cos() sin() sin() sin() cos()
sin() cos() 0
cos() cos() sin() cos() sin()
_
_
_
_
u
x
u
y
u
z
_
_
(11.3)
The unitary vectors u
r
, u
, u
are not univoquely dened in the point of origin. The

Cartesian to spherical coordinate system transform matrix is given by (11.4):
_
_
A
r
A
_
_
=
_
_
cos() sin() sin() cos() cos()
sin() sin() cos() sin() cos()
cos() 0 sin()
_
_
_
_
A
x
A
y
A
z
_
_
(11.4)
The spherical coordinates are very practical for elds with spherical symmetry, such as the
electrostatic eld produced by a point-shape charge where only the radial component of
eld is non-zero (
E
r
= 0,

E
= 0,

E
= 0).
11.1.2. Operations with vectors
Let us consider two vectors

A and

B with amplitudes |A|, |B| and their phase shift and
dene the scalar product:
A B = |A| |B| cos() (11.5)
In Cartesian coordinates the scalar product is:
A B = A
x
B
x
+A
y
B
y
+A
z
B
z
(11.6)
The vectorial product is:
A B = |A| |B| sin () n
AB
(11.7)
where n
AB
is the unitary vector which is normal to the plane of vectors

A and

B, with the
direction given by the right hand rule.
In Cartesian coordinates the vectorial product is:
B =
u
x
u
y
u
z
A
x
A
y
A
z
B
x
B
y
B
z
= (A
y
B
z
A
z
B
y
) u
x
+(A
z
B
x
A
x
B
z
) u
y
+(A
x
B
y
A
y
B
x
) u
z
(11.8)
There are some properties of operations with vectors such as:
1. Absolute value:
A A = |A|
2
(11.9)
2. Commutation of scalar product:
A B = B A (11.10)
3. Anti-commutation of vectorial product:
A B = B A (11.11)
4. Distributivity of scalar product for addition:
A (B +C) = A B +B C (11.12)
5. Distributivity of vector product for addition:
A
_
B +C
_
= AB +AC (11.13)
6. Distributivity of double vector product:
A (B C) = (A C)B (A B)C (11.14)
11.1.3. Line and surface (ux) integrals of a vectorial eld
By the line integral of a vectorial eld we mean the integral of the scalar product between
the respective vector and the unitary vector which is tangent to that line (curve) in every
point:
L
12
=
c
A

dl (11.15)
In Cartesian coordinates the line integral is:
L
12
=
c
A

dl =
P2
P1
(A
x
dx +A
y
dy +A
z
dz) =
x2
x1
A
x
dx +
y2
y1
A
y
dy +
z2
z1
A
z
dz (11.16)
The line integral of a vectorial eld has a well dened physical meaning. For a eld of
forces it is the mechanical work, while for the magnetic eld it is the number of amperturns
(magnetomotive force) required to produce the eld between the two points. If the result
L
12
does not depend on the shape of the line, but relies on the initial and nal points, then
the eld is called conservative.
A eld is conservative when and only when its integral on any closed line (curvature) is
zero.
The ux of a vectorial eld through a surface S is given by the surface integral of the scalar
product between vector

A and its unitary vector normal (at 90
0
) to the surface S.
=
S
A

da =
S
(

A n)da (11.17)
The expression of in Cartesian coordinates is:
=

A

da =
S
A
x
dydz +
S
A
y
dxdz +
S
A
z
dxdy (11.18)
For a uid, the surface integral of its speed vector represents the volumic ow rate through
that surface.
11.1.4. Differential operations
The gradient of a scalar eld is a vectorial eld, whose vectors show in every point in
space the direction along which the variation of scalar eld is maximum, u
max
; its ampli-
tude is equal to the scalar eld derivative along that direction:
grad() = = max(
l
) umax (11.19)
In Cartesian coordinates the gradient is:
grad() = =

x
u
x
+

y
u
y
+

z
u
z
(11.20)
The surface gradient is dened for surfaces along which the scalar eld is discontinu-
ous with the normal direction n
to the surface and the amplitude equal to the difference

between scalar eld values on the two faces of the surface:
grad
() = (
2
1
) n
(11.21)
The gradient of a scalar eld is always a conservative eld.
The rotor (vortex) of a vectorial eld is dened as the limit of the ratio between a closed
surface integral of a vectorial product between the respective vector and the normal to the
surface unit vector, to the volume closed by the surface when the latter tends to zero.
rot
_

A
_
=

A = lim
V 0
1
V
_
n

A dS (11.22)
The projection of the rotor of vectorial eld on a given direction n is equal to the limit
of the eld integral along a closed line (curve) of the surface closed by the respective line
when the latter tends to zero; the closed line (curve) is situated in a plane dened by its
normal n.
n rot
_

A
_
= lim
S0
1
S
_
C
A

dl (11.23)
In Cartesian coordinates the rotor expression is:
(

A) =
A =
u
x
u
y
u
z
z
A
x
A
y
A
z
= (
A
z
y

A
y
z
) u
x
+(
A
x
z

A
z
x
) u
y
+(
A
y
x

A
x
y
) u
z
(11.24)
If the eld is not continue through a surface, then a surface rotor of it is dened as the
vectorial product between the normal to the surface n
and the difference between vector

values on the two sides of discontinuity surface:
rot
_

A
_
= n

_

A
2

A
1
_
(11.25)
Divergence of a eld is a scalar associated to every point, which shows the tendency of
the eld to spring from (div(

A) > 0) or to convergence to a respective point (div(
A) < 0).
Divergence of a eld is the limit of the ratio between the eld ux through a closed
surface and the volume closed by that surface when the latter tends to zero:
div
_

A
_
=

A = lim
V 0
1
V
_
A

dS (11.26)
In Cartesian coordinates divergence is:
div(

A) =

A =
A
x
x
+
Ay
y
+
A
z
z
(11.27)
If the eld is discontinuous on the surface a surface divergence is dened as:
div
_

A
_
=
_

A
2

A
1
_
n (11.28)
The elds whose divergence is zero in every point are called solenoidal elds; ux density
eld is a solenoidal eld.
The Laplacian is a second order derivative operator, denoted by (or
2
).
Fields whose Laplacian is zero in every point are called harmonic elds.
The Laplacian of a scalar eld is also a scalar eld equal to the divergence of its gradient:
2
= () = div(grad()) (11.29)
In Cartesian coordinates the Laplacian of a scalar eld is:
2
=

2
x
2
+

2
y
2
+

2
z
2
(11.30)
The Laplacian of a vectorial eld is:
2

A = (

A) (

A) = grad(div(

A)) rot(rot(

A)) (11.31)
The Laplacian of a vectorial eld in Cartesian coordinates writes:
2

A =
2
A
x
u
x
+
2
A
y
u
y
+
2
A
z
u
z
=
_
2
Ax
x
2
+

2
Ax
y
2
+

2
Ax
z
2
_
u
x
+
_
2
Ay
x
2
+

2
Ay
y
2
+

2
Ay
z
2
_
u
y
+
_
2
Az
x
2
+

2
Az
y
2
+

2
Az
z
2
_
u
z
(11.32)
11.1.5. Integral identities
The rst theorem of the gradient says that the line integral of a eld of gradients between
points P
1
and P
2
, equals the difference between the scalar elds values
1
,
2
in the two
points:
12
=
P2
_
P1
grad()

dl =
2
1
(11.33)
The second theorem of the gradient says that the volume integral of eld of gradients is
equal to the origin scalar eld integral over the surface that closes the respective volume:
_
V
grad () dV =
_

dS (11.34)
The theorem of gradient is applied particularly in electrostatics.
The rotor theorem (Kelvin-Stokes) states that the closed line integral of a vectorial eld
is equal to the ux produced by the rot respective vectorial eld through a surface S
bordered by the respective closed line:
_
c
dl =
_
S
rot(

A)

dS (11.35)
The divergence theorem (Ostrogradski-Gauss) says that ux of a vectorial eld through
a closed surface is equal to the integral of its divergence on the volume closed by the re-
spective closed surface:
_
A

dS =
_
V
div
_

A
_
dV (11.36)
This theorem is particularly important in formulating the laws of electric and magnetic
uxes.
The rst theorem of Green is the equivalent of integral by parts for scalar and, respec-
tively, vectorial elds; the second Green theorem is a direct application of rst theorem
for symmetric expressions.
The rst theorem of Green for scalar elds writes:
_
Udiv(kgrad(V )) +kgrad(U) grad(V )d =

_
S
kU
V
n
d
S (11.37)
The second theorem of Green is:
_
Udiv(kgrad(V )) V div(kgrad(U))d =
_
S
k(U
V
n
V
U
n
)d
S (11.38)
For vectorial elds the rst theorem of Green is:
_
krot(

A) rot(

B)

A rot(krot(

B))d =
_
S
k

A rot(

B) d
S (11.39)
While the second one is:
_
Brot(krot(

A))
Arot(krot(

B))d =
_
S
k[

Arot(

B)
Brot(

A)]dbarS (11.40)
The Green theorems are used for nite element method to determine the expressions of
the coefcients of the algebraic equation system which substitute the partial derivative eld
equations with boundary conditions.
11.1.6. Differential identities
The differential operators for the product with a constant k and a scalar eld U, and,
respectively, a vectorial eld

A, produce results identical with the product between constant
k and the respective eld operator:
grad(kU) = kgrad(U) (11.41)
rot(k

A) = krot
(11.42)
div(k

A) = kdiv(

A) (11.43)
2
(k

A) = k
2
(

A) (11.44)
The differential operators for the summation of two scalar elds U and V and, respec-
tively, two vectorial elds

A and

B, is equal to the summation operators applied separately
for the two terms:
grad(U +V ) = grad(U) +grad(V ) (11.45)
rot(

A+

B) = rot(

A) +rot(

B) (11.46)
div(

A +

B) = div(

A) +div(

B) (11.47)
2
(U +V ) =
2
(U) +
2
(V ) (11.48)
For the product of two elds these are not a general rule. For the gradient, however,:
grad(UV ) = Ugrad(V ) +V grad(U) (11.49)
rot(U

A) = Urot(

A) +grad(U)

A (11.50)
div
_
U

A
_
= U div
_

A
_
+grad (U)

A (11.51)
div(

A

B) =
A rot(

B) +rot(

A)

B (11.52)
2
(UV ) = U
2
V +V
2
U + 2grad(U)grad(V ) (11.53)
The gradient of composed elds is:
grad(U(V )) =
U
V
grad(V ) (11.54)
The rotor of elds of gradients is always zero.
rot(grad(U)) = 0 (11.55)
Divergence of a eld of rotors is also always zero.
div(rot(

A)) = 0 (11.56)
The last two identities bear a special importance on electromagnetic elds, by allowing to
dene the scalar and vectorial magnetic potential concepts.
11.2. Electromagnetic elds
11.2.1. Electrostatic elds
Electrostatics investigates the electric eld produced by electric charges in absence of mag-
netic eld variations.
The electric eld

E is non rotor type and is called electrostatic:
rot(

E) = 0 (11.57)
Consequently, the electrostatic eld is a eld of gradients, derived from a scalar eld called
electrostatic potential V :
E = grad(V ) (11.58)
The displacement vector

D =

E through a closed surface, , is equal to the electric
charge within the latter surface (Gauss law):
_
EdS =
_
V
dv (11.59)
In local form of Gauss law is:
div(

E) = (11.60)
By substituting (11.58) in (11.60), the electric potential (V ) equation is obtained:
div(grad(V )) = (11.61)
Making use of differential identities in the previous paragraph yields:
2
V + V = (11.62)
In most cases the electric permitivity of a medium is constant and thus in (11.62) is
zero, and thus the Poisson equation is obtained:
2
V =
0
(11.63)
In charge-less domains ( = 0), Laplace equation reins:
2
V = 0 (11.64)
11.2.2. The eld of current densities
The motion of electric charges is described by the current density vector,

J.
J = q n

V
d
=

V
d
(11.65)
where q is particle charge, n - particle count per unit volume and

V
d
is the average (drift)
speed.
The electric current through a surface is given by the surface integral of current density over
the surface:
I =
_
S
J

dS (11.66)
The total electric current through a closed surface is equal to the time variation of electric
charge within the close surface.
The local form of electric charge conservation law is expressed by the continuity equation:
div(

J) =
t
(11.67)
It is possible to dene a total current density as the summation of conduction and displace-
ment components:
J
tot
=

J +

D
t
(11.68)
The continuity equation of total current density becomes thus:
div(

J
tot
) = 0 (11.69)
so the total current density is a solenoidal eld.
The relationship between current density

J and electric eld

E in conductors is:
J =

E (11.70)
where is electrical conductivity.
11.2.3. The magnetic eld
The magnetic eld is a component of electromagnetic eld that exerts forces on electric
charges in motion. The magnetic eld is characterized by two vectorial variables (con-
cepts):

H - the magnetic eld and

B - the magnetic ux density:
B =

H (11.71)
where is the permeability of the medium in Henry per meter (H/m).
The ux density eld is solenoidal:
div(

B) = 0 (11.72)
So the magnetic eld may be derived from a vector potential,

A:
B = rot(

A) (11.73)
The magnetic eld is produced by electric charges in motion and the relationship between
the forces of magnetic eld and the respective eld is given by Amperes law.
Amperes law states that the closed-line integral of magnetic eld is equal to the electric
current through the surface that subtends the closed-line.
_
H

dl = i (11.74)
The local form of Amperes law writes:
rot(

H) =

J
tot
(11.75)
The relationship between the magnetic potential A and the magnetic eld sources is:
rot
_
1
rot(

A)
_
=

J
tot
(11.76)
11.2.4. The electromagnetic eld: Maxwell equations
The electromagnetic eld is a physical eld produced by electric charges in motion, which
inuences the behavior of electric charges. It may be seen as a combination of the electric
and magnetic eld.
Maxwell has put together in a set of equations the electric charges, eld production and
interaction:
div
_
E
_
=

0
div(

B) = 0
rot(

E) =

B
t
(11.77)
rot
_
B
_
=
0

J +
0

E
t
where
0
is the vacuum permitivity,
0
is the vacuum permeability. The equations are valid
also for other medium with constant and . For the domains free of free electric charges
( = 0) and without electric current (J = 0) the electromagnetic waves equations are
obtained:
2

E =
1
c
2

2

E
t
2
(11.78)
2

B =
1
c
2

2

B
t
2
(11.79)
c =
1
0
(11.80)
where c is the speed of light in vacuum.
The waves equations (11.78) are useful in designing antennas, wave guide in telecommuni-
cations and to investigate electromagnetic compatibility of electric devices.
11.3. Fields visualization
A few methods to represent and visualize eld have been introduced in order to facilitate
the mastering of the rather intricate physical phenomena related to elds.
For scalar elds, the equipotential surface (equipotential eld lines in 2D space) direct
methods are used, in general.
As an example, g.11.4 represents the electric (scalar) potential produced by two innite
length straight conductors charged electrostatically with opposite polarities.
A similar method uses colored maps to represent scalar 2D elds or sections of the 3D
space.
To every point in plane, a distinct color is assigned.
To visualize vectorial elds, the vectors of the eld are shown in a few points.
The arrows orientation coincides with the orientation of the vectors of the eld and their
Figure 11.4. Electric potential of two electrostatically charged conductors
Figure 11.5. Speeds eld of chaotic particles
length is proportional with their amplitude (see, for example, the speeds eld of some
particles in chaotic motion - g.11.5).
A widespread method for vector elds visualization consists of showing the eld lines
(paths).
The concept of eld line (path) has been introduced by Faraday. The eld path (line) is an
imaginary line which is tangent in every point to the eld vector in that point.
Figure 11.6. Magnetic eld lines of two parallel conductors with currents of opposite po-
larity
Fig.11.6 illustrates the magnetic eld paths produced by two (opposite polarity) parallel
electric currents of innite length conductors.
The geometric description of eld lines means describing that eld.
For a magnetic (solenoidal) eld, the eld lines are dense in the zones with intense (strong)
eld; valuable information on eld amplitude distribution is obtained this way.
For non solenoidal elds there are points where eld lines appear or disappear.
For a 2D domain magnetic eld, lines representation is performed by the drawing of the
magnetic potential contour lines (the component perpendicular to the symmetry plane).
When the scalar potential concept is used to solve the eld problem, in order to represent
the magnetic eld lines, a scalar variable equivalent to the normal component of magnetic
potential is dened.
For most commercial nite element method (FEM) software such a thing is hard to do.
We may, however, represent the eld by arrows associated to eld vectors, together with
the equipotential lines of the applied eld potential.
Fig.11.7 illustrates comparatively the eld vectors and the equipotential lines for an elec-
trostatic and, respectively, a magnetostatic eld.

Figure 11.7. Comparative representation of electrostatic (eld of gradients) and magneto-
static (eld of rotors) elds
The vectorial elds may be represented by equipotential lines or the color map, for the
vectors amplitudes and for the vectors projection along a given direction.
The distribution of magnetic ux density amplitude produced by two currents (g.11.8)
implies the need to add a legend for the color/amplitude correspondance.
Figure 11.8. Visualisation of vectorial elds by the color map method
11.4. Boundary conditions
Differential and partial-derivative equations admit a unique solution only if initial and cor-
rect boundary conditions are given.
11.4.1. Dirichlets conditions
The Dirichlets boundary conditions imply that magnetic potential of the investigated eld
is specied along the boundary.
=
f
(11.81)
where is the generic vector potential.
If
f
= 0 on the boundary, homogenous Dirichlet conditions are obtained. For a unique
(single) eld solution,
f
has to be specied at least in one point on the boundary. For such
a magnetic eld, the eld lines are tangent to the surface while for an electrostatic eld
they are normal to that surface (boundary) - g.11.9.
11.4.2. Neumans boundary conditions
Neumans boundary conditions specify the eld potential derivative along the normal to the
surface of the boundary.
If this derivative is equal to zero, the Neumans conditions are called homogenous:
n
= 0 (11.82)
For such a magnetic eld, the eld lines are normal to the surface while the electrostatic
eld lines are tangent to the surface (boundary) - g.11.9.
Figure 11.9. Dirichlet and Neuman boundary conditions
11.4.3. Mixt Robin boundary conditions
n
+k =
g
(11.83)
If the composite magnetic potential
g
is zero we have again homogenous conditions.
Robin boundary conditions allow for dening boundary impedances through which the
effect of elds outside the boundary is considered.
11.4.4. Periodic boundary conditions
Periodic boundary conditions allow to reduce the computation effort (zone) by the use of
symmetry.
The eld potential on the two boundaries
1
and
2
is the same for homologous points
(g.11.10a - positive symmetry) or has equal and opposite values as in g.11.10b - negative
symmetry:
1
=
2
(11.84)
Figure 11.10. Symmetric boundary conditions
The symmetry conditions may be imposed only for identical boundaries (those which may
be overlapped by translation or rotation).
The shape of the boundaries may be quite intricate (g.11.11), which allows for the utilisa-
tion of symmetric boundary conditions even if a part of geometry moves.
11.4.5. Open boundaries
Open boundaries are used in absence of natural boundary, such as in the case of core-loss
solenoidal coil, when the magnetic potential decreases to zero at innite. Three main solu-
tions for such problems are recommended in the literature:
Figure 11.11. Symmetrical boundary conditions and rotor displacement
a). Problem truncation
The method implies the selection of an arbitrary boundary sufciently away from the zone
of interest. The distance to the arbitrary boundary has to be at least ve times longer than
the radius of the zone of interest [6], to secure good precision results [6]. The main desad-
vantage of this method consists in the large number of discretization elements outside the
zone of interest, which leads to a larger computation effort (time).
b). Asymptotical boundary conditions
Outside the external boundaries there is no eld source and thus the eld potential con-
verges to zero when the radius goes to innite. For 2D magnetic eld problems, admitting
the potential A on the circular boundary of being dependent on angle, an analytical solution
exists:
A(r, ) =
k=1
a
k
r
k
cos (k +
k
) (11.85)
where a
k
,
k
are coefcients calculated such that the analytical solution (valid outside the
boundary), on the boundary, to coincide (t) with the nite element solution inside the
boundary.
As high harmonics attenuate rapidly only one term, n, may be retained:
A(r, )
a
n
r
n
cos (n +
n
) (11.86)
The derivative of (11.86) along the radius r (normal to the boundary) yields:
A
r
+
n
r
A = 0 (11.87)
it should be noticed that (11.87) is equivalent to Robin condition (11.83) where:
k =
n
r
;
g
= 0 (11.88)
By imposing mixt boundary conditions the precision of eld solution increases, without
additional computation effort [6].
c). Kelvin transform
For remote eld regions, the eld is rather homogenous, because in general there are no
eld sources there and the medium is air or vacuum. In such cases, the magnetic potential
observes Laplaces equation. The Kelvin transform (11.89) maps the points r outside the
circle of radius r
o
into points inside the circle, R (g 11.12a), while Laplace equation
(11.90) takes a similar form with respect to r or R.
R =
r
2
0
r
(11.89)
1
r
r
_
r
A
r
_
+
1
r
2
2
A
2
= 0 (11.90)
By the r to R variable change, the boundary at innite is mapped to center of the circle r
o
and thus:
A
R
(R = 0) = 0 (11.91)
Symetrical conditions are imposed on the boundaries of the investigated and created do-
mains:
A
r
=
A
R
(11.92)
Fig.11.12 illustrates the magnetic eld produced single turn coil current. Cylindrical sym-
metry of the problem leads to cylindrical coordinates utilisation in solving the magnetic
eld problem.
As the FEM can investigate nite domanins the investigated innite domain is mapped into
a shere of radius R
b
, which is four times larger than the coil radius.
Neumans boundary conditions apply (g.11.12c) for innite permeability outside the
sphere. Dirichlets boundary conditions hold (g.11.12c) for zero permeability (supercon-
ducting material) outside the shere R
b
.
By using Kelvin transform the exterior of sphere R
b
is reduced to a sphere with same radius
as the investigated domain, but without eld sources.
By imposing symmetrical conditions on the two spheres, the correct solution of the eld
problem is obtained.
The eld lines are quite different near the boundary for the three situations. However, as
will be shown in paragraph 11.6, the self and mutual inductuances of coils 1 and 2 are about
the same, mainly because the domain radius ratio R
b
/r
0
= 4.
11.5. The nite element method
To simplify the mathematics, the system of differential equations, which describe a phe-
nomenon is written in operational form:
L(P, t) = f (P, t) (11.93)
Figure 11.12. Boundary conditions when the eld extends to innity
where L is a generic operator that symbolizes the system of equations with partial-
derivatives, is a space, P function and time t represents the solution.
The nit element method solves approximatively partial-derivative and integral equations.
With this method the eld domain is divided into a nite number of simple elements (tri-
angles, plane-rectangles, tetraedros, prismas, parallelipipeds) and the solution of the eld
problem is approximated by simple functions.
(P, t) =
N
j
(P, t) (11.94)
where v
j
are interpolation or expansion of basic functions and
j
are coefcients still
to be determined. Phisically
j
represents the magnetic potential in the nodes of the
discretisation mesh.
The equivalent system of equations should be stable, in the sense that the errors from the
input data and the ones from intermediate calculations should not accumulate and produce
gross (useless) results.
11.5.1. The residuum (Galerkin) method
Galerkin method operates directly with differential equations.
The exact solution which satises (11.93) is approximated by a simple function
which
satises the relationship:
L
f = r (11.95)
The smaller r, the better the approximation.
A globally good approximation over the entire domain is targeted.
The residuum r is integrated over the entire domain, after multiplication by a weighting
function w
i
, and this integral is forced to zero.
R
i
=
_
D
w
i
(L
f) d = 0 (11.96)
The most used residuum method is Galerkin method where the weighting functions are
chosen equal to the expansion functions v
j
(11.94):
R
i
=
_
D
v
i
_
_
N
j=1
j
v
j
_
_
v
j
fd (11.97)
By forcing all terms in (11.97) to zero, a system of matrix equations is obtained:
S = T (11.98)
where S is the system (or stiffness) matrix, because FEM was rst used in mechanical
engineering; is the column matrix of vector potential in the mesh nodes; T is a column
matrix, whose terms depend in function f.
t
i
=
_
D
v
i
fd (11.99)
The elements of stiffness matrix S depend on the interpolation functions v
i
, v
j
:
S
ij
=
1
2
_
D
(v
i
Lv
j
+v
j
Lv
i
)d (11.100)
Matrix S is a sparse matrix. Additionally, if (11.97) holds, the matrix S is symmetric:
L, = , L (11.101)
S
ij
= S
ji
=
_
D
v
i
Lv
j
d
In such a case the algebraic systems of equations by Galerkin and variational methods are
identical.
11.5.2. The variational (Rayleigh - Ritz) method
Starting again from the system of differential equations, a functional F() is dened such
that its minimum with respect to to be the solution of the system [1];
F () =
1
2
L,
1
2
, f
1
2
f, (11.102)
To dene the functional, the inner product of two functions is expressed as the integral of
one function multiplied by the complex conjugate of the second function:
, =
_
D
d (11.103)
Function is substituted with
in (11.94).
j
coefcients are calculated by zeroing on
the derivative of F, with respect to the latter:
F
j
= 0; i = 1, 2, 3, ..., N (11.104)
For the variational method condition (11.101) has to hold.
In such conditions the function which minimizes F is a system (11.93) solution [1]. The
stiffness matrix is always symmetric and the algebraic equations system is identical to that
of Galerkin method.
When boundary conditions are nonhomogenous, (11.101) is not satised. In such a case
the functional denition has to consider the boundary nonhomogenities:
F () =
1
2
L,
1
2
L, +
1
2
, L
1
2
, f
1
2
f, (11.105)
where is any particular function that satises the nonhomogenous boundary contitions.
11.5.3. Stages in nite element method application
a). Domain discretisation
The investigated eld domain is divided into N elements. If the domain is 1D, the
respective curve is divided into linear segments. For 2D problems, the domain is a surface
and every subdomain is a polygon, in general triangles and rectangles. Finally, for 3D
problems the volumic domain is divided into tetraedros and prisms with triangular as
parallelipiphedic bases.
The precision of the method strongly depends of the number of elements N and on how
the mesh was built.
b). Choosing the interpolation functions
The interpolation functions approximate the unknown function in every subdomain (nite
element).
The general form of the interpolation is given by (11.94), where P represents the coordi-
nates of a point of subdomain. First and second order polynomials are, in general, used as
interpolation functions.
c). Formulation of system algebraic equations
Reziduum or variational methods yield the algebraic system equations of (11.98)), where
the unknown vector refers to scalar or vector potential in the nodes of the mesh.
d). Solving the algebraic equations
When the materials are linear, the algebraic equations coeffcients are constant and Gauss-
Sidel method is used often to solve the algebraic equations.
If the material (iron core) is nonlinear the coeffcients in the stiffness matrix are not constant
anymore and Newton and Raphson method [2] is often used to solve the algebraic ecuations.
11.6. 2D FEM
Many eld problems in electrical engineering may be 2D solved by observing the plane
parallel symmetry in rotary electrical machines or of electrostatic elds around the power
transmission lines or the axial symmetry in solenoidal coils and other tubular linear electric
actuators.
For electric machines with plane symmetry, the magnetic uxes are calculated for unit depth
(stack length) and then multiplied by the stack length to nd the actual magnetic ux in the
machine.
It is also necessary to calculate separately the coils end-connection inductances by analyti-
cal or equivalent 2D FEM methods. The axial variation of magnetic eld is neglected and
so is the effect of various frame parts.
With the exception of small stack length electric machines, the 2D FEM gives satisfactory
results in presence of plane symmetry.
For 2D (x, y; r, ) magnetic elds, the magnetic potential

A has only one nonzero compo-
nent (along axis z) with benecial effects on the reduction of computation effort by one
order of magnitudes.
In what follows the derivation of the algebraic equations for the magnetostatic 2D elds is
pursued.
Egn. (11.96), for

A A
z
, writes:
1
2
A
z
x
2
+
1
2
A
z
y
2
= J
z
(11.106)
The rst order interpolation function for steady state is:
A(x, y) = a +bx +cy (11.107)
where a, b, c are constants whose values may be determined by imposing the value of A
z
in
the nodes of the discretisation mesh:
_
_
1 x
1
y
1
1 x
2
y
2
1 x
3
y
3
_
_
_
_
a
b
c
_
_
=
_
_
A
1
A
2
A
3
_
_
(11.108)
The rotor of A
z
inside nite element does not depend on the chosen point.
rot
_

A
_
= rot (0, 0, A
z
) = (c, b, 0) (11.109)
The expression of functional whose steady state solution is the eld solution from the m
mesh elements becomes:
F
m
=
_
Qm
_
1
2
B

H

J

A
_
dS =
1
2
_
Qm
_
rot
_

A
_
rot
_

A
__
dS J
z
_
Qm
A
z
dS =
=
1
2
Q
m
_
b
2
+c
2
_
J
z
Q
m
(a +bx
m
+cy
m
)
(11.110)
where x
m
,y
m
are centroid coordinates of triangle m and Q
m
is the area of subdomain m.
Coefcients a, b, c depend of the coordinates of the nodes of domain mand on the magnetic
potential in these nodes; consequently, in matrix form, (11.105)) becomes:
F
m
=
1
2
A
t
123
S
m
A
t
123
A
t
123
T
m
(11.111)
Where A
123
is the column vector of A
z
in the nodes of element m, S
m
is the stiffness matrix
and T
m
is the column vector electric currents imposed as the eld source. The elements of
these matrices s
i
, t
i
are:
s
ij
=
q
i
q
j
+r
i
r
j
4Q
m
(11.112)
t
i
=
Q
m
3
J
z
(11.113)
where q
1
, q
2
, q
3
and r
1
, r
2
, r
3
[1] are obtained by solving (11.108)):
_
_
q
1
q
2
q
3
_
_
=
_
_
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
_
_
_
_
y
1
y
2
y
3
_
_
(11.114)
_
_
r
1
r
2
r
3
_
_
=
_
_
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
_
_
_
_
x
1
x
2
x
3
_
_
(11.115)
The functional over the entire eld domain is:
F =
M
m=1
F
m
=
1
2
A
T
SA AT (11.116)
with the condition:
F
A
i
= 0 for i = 1, 2, 3, ..., N (11.117)
The algebraic equations system is thus obtained,ready to be solved:
S A T = 0 (11.118)
11.7. Analysis with FEM
After the eld solution is obtained, the latter has to be veried. This is done rst by the
visualization of eld lines. This way all analytical symmetries are veried. The magnetic
eld lines never meet or intersect each other. If such a thing happens it may be that the
graphic resolution is too small or the eld solution is totally wrong. The magnetic ux lines
are always closed. Sometimes they close through the boundary and then part of them is not
visible. The total electric current through the area closed by a ux line should be nonzero
with the exception of the case that the ux lines cross regions with permanent magneti-
zation. For plane parallel symmetric geometry the magnetic ux through any surface that
intersects two ux lines is the same irrespective of the surface shape of points of intersec-
tion, and is equal to the difference between the magnetic potential attributed to the two eld
lines.
Visualization of magnetic ux density map produces valuable information also in the sense
that the designer may reduce or enlarge some portions of the magnetic circuit. Also, the
consolidation elements ventilation channels, machining will be decided in regions with very
low ux density.
For rotary and linear electric machines the distribution of radial component of airgap ux
density along the periphery is very important in predicting torque pulsations, vibration and
noise.
The total magnetic ux in a coil with a magnetic core is made of main and leakage compo-
nents. By FEM the total ux in the coil may be calculated by applying identity (11.35). For
an innitely thin sides coil with plane symmetry the total ux is:
b
= (A
2
A
1
) l
z
(11.119)
where A
1
, A
2
are the magnetic potentials in the points in plane intersected by the coil sides
and l
z
is the coil length.
For an innitely thin sides coil, if the magnetic vector potential is not constant along the
transverse cross-section (because of leakage ux of coils placed in electric machine slots),
an average ux per coil
b
is calculated:
b
=
_
_
1
S
2
_
S
2
AdS
1
S
1
_
S
1
AdS
_
_
l
z
(11.120)
By using (11.120), the distribution factor of coils in slots may be considered, coil by coil.
The current density in the coil wires is considered constant along the wire cross-section, so
no skin or proximity effect is considered.
The self-inductance of a coil may be calculated either from the magnetic eld energy E
m
or from the coil ux with the current coil as I
b
:
L
b
=
2E
m
I
2
b
(11.121)
L
b
=

b
I
b
(11.122)
The two formulae have to produce about the same result.
With ux density

B and magnetic eld

H expressed as functions of magnetic potential

A,
and applying the theorem of Green (11.39), the magnetic energy E
m
formula becomes:
2E
m
=
_
V
B

Hdv =
_
V
1
rot
_

A
_
rot
_

A
_
dv =
_
V
A rot
_
1
rot
_

A
_
_
dv +
_
S
1
Arot (A)
ds
(11.123)
With (11.73) and (11.76) in (11.123) E
m
becomes:
2E
m
=
_
V
A

Jdv +
_
S
A

H

ds (11.124)
If the all boundary conditions are homogenous, then the second term in (11.124) is zero
and:
2E
m
=
_
V
A

J dv (11.125)
By E
m
of (11.125) and
b
from (11.120) in (11.121) - (11.122), for a geometry with plane
parallel symmetry and no skin effect, the two formulae of L
b
become equivalent.
For the coils made of massive conductors (with skin effect) the coil ux
b
becomes:
b
=
1
I
b
_
_
_
S
2
AJdS
_
S
1
AJdS
_
_
l
z
(11.126)
For the mutual L
12
inductance between coils 1 and 2, the denition in relation to mutual
ux
12
and current solely in the rst coil I
1
is used:
L
12
=

12
I
1
(11.127)
Let us nowillustrate the computation of magnetic energy E
m
and ux
i
of coil in g.11.12.
E
m
computation from the volume integral is reduced for a plane surface by revolution
motion around the rotation axis:
E
m
(B, H) =
_
S
r BH ds (11.128)
E
m
(A, J) =
_
S
r AJ ds (11.129)
The computation of magnetic ux linkage in turns 1 and, respectively, 2 is performed by
integrating the magnetic potential over their surface:
i
=
1
S
i
_
S
i
2 r Ads (11.130)
The results of these calculations are shown in table 11.1.
Observations. Due to discretisation errors, the values in table 11.1 are not identical; the
same is true for the self-inductance of turn 1 calculated from E and ; but the errors are
acceptable due to the large distances to the boundary. The energy and inductances are a
bit larger for Neuman conditions (innite permeability beyond the border) and smallest for
Dirichlet conditions.
Reducing the domain (boundary) radius R
b
leads to larger errors.
Table 11.1
Boundary
Type
E
m
(BH)
[J]
E
m
(AJ)
[J]
1

[nWb]
2

[nWb]
L
11
(E
m
)
(nH)
L
11
()
(nH)
L
12

(nH)
Neuman 1.49 1.5086 192.07 78.7989 12.329 12.278 5.037
Dirichlet 1.4613 1.4796 188.395 76.4771 12.093 12.043 4.889
Kelvin
Transform
1.4804 1.4963 190.517 77.8844 12.229 12.179 4.979
11.7.1. Electromagnetic forces
An important objective of FEM analysis is the electromagnetic forces computation. There
are three main methods to calculate the latter:
a). integration of Lorenz force
By this method the force exerted on conductors with electric currents are calculated:
F =
_
V
J

Bdv (11.131)
For the problems with plane or axial symmetry, the volume integral turns into a surface
integral with the force vector situated in the symmetry plane:
F = l
z
_
S
J

Bds (11.132)
F =
_
S
2r

J

Bds (11.133)
For cylindric symmetry, the resultant force has only one nonzero component, along the
axis of symmetry. Some commercial FEM softwares (such as Vector Field) calculate two
force components even for cylindrical symmetry.
The knowledge of radial force is required to verify the mechanical stress of the electrical
conductors of the coil.
Lorenz force procedure is rather precise, but may be applied in general only for electric
conductors in air.
In most electrical machines, however, the coils are placed in slots where the actual force is
exerted on the slot walls and not on the electric conductors and thus Lorenz Force procedure
is inoperable.
11.7.2. Maxwell tensor method
The resultant eld force upon the objects found within a closed surface is calculated by
integrating the Maxwell stress tensor along the closed surface:
F =
_
F =
0
_
_
(

H n)

H
1
2
H
2
n
_
ds (11.134)
Figure 11.13. Integration of Maxwell tensor
The normal and tangential forces to the surface dF
n
, dF
t
per unit area are:
dF
t
=
0
H
t
H
n
ds (11.135)
dF
n
=
1
2
0
_
H
2
n
H
2
t
_
ds (11.136)
To reduce the computation errors high precision by rened discretisation of the domain
with 60
0
(equilateral) triangles with their nodes in linear medium, is required.
11.7.3. Virtual work method
The eld force computation is based this time on the total energy conservation principle:
dw
mec
+dw
m
= dw
el
(11.137)
where: dw
mec
is the mechanical work, dw
m
is the magnetic energy increment and dw
el
is
the received electric energy from outside (a source).
A coenergy of the system w
m
is dened as the difference between the received electric
energy w
el
and the energy stored in the magnetic eld w
m
:
w
m
= w
el
w
m
(11.138)
The projection of this force along the direction of motion is calculated as magnetic coenergy
derivative with aspect to motion variable:
F 1
l
=
w
m
l
(11.139)
This method implies the computation of magnetic eld and magnetic coenergy in two ad-
jacent positions. As the eld problem solution is also numerical, the numerical derivative
will amplify the computation errors.
Figure 11.14. Virtual displacements
11.7.4. Loss computation
Losses in conductive medium with electric currents are Joule losses P
co
:
P
co
=
_
V
J
2
dv (11.140)
For a magnetostatic regime, the current density is constant and the Joule losses imply only
current and resistance calculations.
For alternative or transient current operation modes in massive conductive medium, the
current density distribution depends on the eld problem solution, and thus the volume
integral in (11.140) is required.
Iron losses
The iron loss computation is based on the volume integral of iron loss volumic density
(W/m
3
) over the magnetic core volume; alternatively, Steinmetz approximation formulae
are used. Finally, the utilization of complex permeability concept in the eld solution is
performed.
P
iron
=
_
V
p
Bs,fs
_
B
m
B
s
_
B
_
f
f
s
_
Fe
dv (11.141)
where:
p
Bs,fs
- specic (volumic) losses at given ux density B
s
and frequency f
s
;
B
M
- maximum a.c. PM ux density in volume element dV ;
f - working frequency;
B
= 1.6 2.2 - exponent for iron loss dependence on B
M
;
f
- exponent for iron loss dependence on frequency;
Fe
- mass density.
For iron core coils or single phase electric transformers, the maximum ux density in every
point is related to maximum magnetisation current. For polyphase rotary machines (even
single phase) the maximum of ux density may not be determined by solving the eld
problem at a single moment in time, but for more than one moment within a period.
Even in this case, the loss calculated value is not rather exact because there are higher time
harmonics in magnetic ux due to space and time ux density harmonics.
If the ux density pulsates, is traveling (circular) or elliptical type in various points in the
magnetic core, the computation of iron loss becomes more complex.
Finally, the mechanical machining of magnetic silicon-iron sheets (laminations) in electrical
machines adds additional core loss; experimental work is necessary to validate almost any
iron loss computation method.
References
[1] N. Bianchi, Electrical machine analysis using nite elements, book, CRC Press,
Taylor and Francis Group, Boca Raton, 2005.
[2] S.J. Salon, Finite Element Analysis of Elrctrical Machines, book, Kluwer Aca-
demic Publishers, Third Priting, 2000.
[3] D.A. Lowther, P.P. Silvester, Computer - Aided Design in Magnetics, book,
Springer-Verlag, Berlin, New York, Heidelberg, Tokyo, 1986.
[4] C.W. Steele, Numerical Computation of Electric and Magnetic Fields, book, Van
Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, 1987.
[5] P.P Silvester, R.L. Ferrari, Finite Elements for Electrical Engineers, Cambridge
University Press, London, New York, New Rochelle, Melbourne, Sydney, 1983.
[6] D. Meeker, Finite Element Method in Magnetics, Users Manual, Version 4.0, Jan-
uary 8, 2006.
[7] G. Arfken, Circular Cylindrical Coordinates, pp. 95-101, Academic Press, 3rd edi-
tion, Orlando, 1985.
[8] W.H. Beyer, CRC Standard Mathematical Tables, CRC Press, 28th edition, Boca
Raton, 1987.
[9] G.A. Korn and T.M. Korn, Mathematical Handbook for Scientists and Engineers,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1968.
[10] C.W. Misner, K.S. Thorne and J.A. Wheeler, Gravitation, W.H. Freeman, San
Francisco, 1973.
[11] P. Moon and D.E. Spencer, Circular-Cylinder Coordinates. Table 1.02 in Field The-
ory Handbook, Including Coordinate Systems, Differential Equations, and Their So-
lutions, 2nd edition, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1988.
[12] P.M. Morse and H. Feshbach, Methods of Theoretical Physics, Part I, McGraw-
Hill, pp. 657, New York, 1953.
[13] J.J. Walton, Tensor Calculations on Computer: Appendix. Comm. ACM 10, pp.
183-186, 1967.
[14] J.S. Beeteson, Visualising magnetic Fields, Academic Press, SanDiego, San Fran-
cisco, Boston, London, Sydney, Tokio, 1990.
[15] H.E. Knoepfel, Magnetic Fields - Comprehensive theoretical treatise for practical
use, Wiley - Interscience, John Wiley and Sons, New-York, 15 may, 2000.
[16] F.E. Low, Classical Field Theory - Electromagnetism and gravitation, Wiley - In-
terscience, John Wiley and Sons, 7 February, 1997.
[17] O.C. Zienkiewicz, R.L. Taylor, J.Z. Zhu, The Finite Element Method: Its Basis and
Fundamentals, Sixth Edition, Elsevier, 2005.

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Chapter 11

ESSENTIALS OF FINITE ELEMENT METHOD IN

and their orientation dependence

are not univoquely dened in the point of origin. The

to the surface and the amplitude equal to the difference

and the difference between vector

Udiv(kgrad(V )) +kgrad(U) grad(V )d =

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