Peace Corps

Niger

Cross-Cultural Manual

December 2002

Introduction

his booklet is designed to provide you with the tools required to cross cultures successfully, without undue anxiety and stress. Were hoping that the information and questions provided here will aid you in your crosscultural journey. The terrain you encounter may seem desolate, breathtaking, even ominous, and at times you may feel like you have suddenly stopped making progress in the middle of nowhere, like a camel caravan crossing the Sahara desert. But take comfort in your destination and purpose, and your awareness of both the consistencies and irregularities of the ground beneath you. During your cultural travels from America to Niger, you are sure to encounter sights and feelings you never could have expected. Just hold on tight to that saddle, and remember that sometimes you actually need to lean forward, even when the camel beneath you is leaning back. No matter how long a stick is in water, it never becomes a crocodile. Hausa Proverb

The advice here is by no means all you need to know about Nigerien culture. Nor is it a set of requirements for how to behave and think. Rather, these suggestions and questions introduce the cross-cultural frame of mind required to recognize and conform to some of the less readily discernible aspects of culture. To some extent, your willingness to adapt to the culture and conform to its social norms are relative to how rewarding and enjoyable this two-year experience will be. Still, no one expects you to go local entirely. Part of the Peace Corps mission is to share the diversity of the American people with people from other countries. The task before you is to find the most sensitive way of expressing and affirming your personal identity while adapting to the social and cultural norms within Niger. Within this manual you will find:

Table of Contents
Introduction....1 Culture in Niger.....4 What is Culture..5 Culture Shock.6 Nigerien Life...8 Introduction to Islam...23 Animism37 History and Government...40 Introduction to Ethnicity....46 Meaning of Niger Flag....48 Holiday Guide..50 Dog in Nigerien Culture 61 PCV Life....52 Appendices...72

A discussion of what culture means, specifically in a land of multiple ethnicities; A stage-by-stage discussion of culture shock and coping strategies; Various aspects of Nigerien life, customs, social behaviors, superstitions and history; Strategies for dealing with difficulties that arise as a result of cultural differences.

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2 Here are a few things to keep in mind while reading this booklet: Regional Variations of Culture Niger, for a country its size, is incredibly rich, with many ethnic groups and sub-groups, languages and language dialects, and varying traditions and customs. As an example, the Konni variation of Hausa has distinct differences to that of Damagaram, and the Fulanis living in Say have different lifestyles and traditions than those in the Dakoro region. Be aware that there will be recognizable differences in traditions from region to region, and that this booklet can never claim the black-and-white-absolute-definitive-response or explanation for any given situation. Instead of trying to cover every possible nuance of Nigerien culture, we will attempt to present the more common traditions and values, and strategies that Volunteers have used to deal with unknown situations. And if you are willing to pay attention to and learn from those around you, you should be able to use many of the same strategies in a variety of situations. A Time and a Place for Everything There are differing levels of formality which affect how people act. For example, lots of things that are no problem when hanging around the family concession are unacceptable once a guest arrives. Your best friend may act differently when you go to the fields together than he would before the chef de village or sous-prfet. Keep in mind that what is okay in one situation is not necessarily acceptable in another. Paying Attention to the Details Even though this booklet is an attempt to give you a buffer against some of the unknown that youll find in Niger, we cant tell you everything. Not even close. For the most part, youll be learning how to deal with the unexpected yourself. In order to do this, youll need to develop some strategies for learning how to act in different situations. One simple strategy that often works is to follow the leader. (If youve watched a number of people do something, its probably not a bad thing to do. But you might beware of actions youve never seen anyone else do.) As you spend time with your host family and other Nigeriens, try to be aware of the little things they do; learn when the time is appropriate and ask why certain actions must be made. Making Mistakes, Making Friends The most important thing to remember is that Nigeriens are tolerant people. In your first months in Niger, you will definitely make some social mistakes. But because Nigeriens are forgiving and friendly, most people wont pay attention to your faux pas. They will remember that youre a foreigner, a guest, who is new to their country and who is trying to learn their customs. And that will make all the difference. So dont worry too much about making mistakes. Rather, try to make new friends, use some of your language phrases, and enjoy your new surroundings.

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3 Surviving in Your Community Here are some skills you might find handy. Feel free to extend the list: a sense of humor open-mindedness a good attitude self-confidence maturity optimism resilience self-awareness patience

And FinallyThere is quite a bit of information in this book, and no one is expected to absorb it all during training. For the time being, take notes during sessions, highlight things you want to remember, and when you get to post, dig through all those papers again and rediscover training. Information that may not have seemed important at the time may seem more applicable when you are living in your own house in your own village. Some cross-cultural points you may want to remember when sorting out what to put on hold are: 1. Observe what goes on around you. Your experiences will be your best teacher. 2. Absorb the language and culture at your own pace. Being a PCV is not a competition, rather it is chance to become comfortable with your abilities and your limitations. 3. A little greeting goes a long way in Niger. 4. Trust your instinctsthey still work, even if that little voice inside your head doesnt speak Zarma. 5. Nigeriens are like people anywhere else in the world. There are good people and bad people, introverts and extroverts, and every other contrast you can imagine. You may be pleasantly surprised one day to find someone in your village is a lot like you. It is okay not to like everyone, too. 6. You are here for only two years, but the people around you are here for their whole lives. Although it may seem like you are the center of your village every waking thought, in reality people are just going about their business. If someone is having a good or bad day, believe it or not, you may not be the reason. 7. PATIENCE!!! It gets easier. You may be surprised how hard it is to leave one day.

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THINKING ABOUT CULTURE IN NIGER

Its one thing to be able to predict host country behavior; its quite another to like itThere are behaviors which, for all their predictability and inevitability, will still send you around the bend. A Few Minor Adjustments, p. 36 More Than Rules When working on this booklet, we began by compiling a list of dos and donts of Nigerien culture. We were writing lists of items like dont offer money with your left hand, and dont blow on or sniff the food. But the more we worked, the more we realized that this was the wrong approach. After all, youre going to learn these rules by yourself, and probably without too much trouble (assuming you actively try to observe your situation). And simply knowing these rules of behavior doesnt mean that adjusting to them will be any easier. Thats just the first step, as noted in the booklet A Few Minor Adjustments, p. 34: Adjusting to another culture requires three basic skills: The ability to predict the behavior of host country nationals. The ability not to react toto acceptthe behavior of host country nationals. The ability to change your own behavior to conform to host country expectations. A list of Nigerien habits might help you to predict Nigeriens behavior, but it wont help you accept Nigeriens behavior. In order to avoid being frustrated by the actions of our hosts, each of us needs to think about it and understand it for ourselves. So what weve realized is that you need more than just a list of rules; you need hints on how to understand and accept peoples behavior. (This is a good point to read pp. 31-41 of A Few Minor Adjustments.) Besides, adjusting to differences between American and local behavior is only half the story. After all, we arent just living in Niger, were working here too. Theres a lot more to working on a projectbe it a community garden or AIDS sensibilisation or a Girls Day eventthan knowing how to act around the communal bowl or over rounds of tea (even though rounds of tea will be an important part of your life here). Thats because the values that people hold affect everything they do, not just their private lives. So going beyond adjusting to peoples behavior, we need to understand the differences in cultural values between our new communities and ourselves. Analyzing the Everyday As Peace Corps Volunteers in Niger, we have a tall order to fill: both adjusting to the social norms of the people around us and understanding

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5 how people work hereplus getting some work done and hopefully making a lot of friends along the way. Take the time to examine the things that happen in your village and with your friends and colleagues everyday, and youll soon find yourself understanding a lot. Thats the first step in adjusting to living, working and making friends in Niger.

WHAT IS CULTURE?
general answer to this question sounds something like: Culture is the clothing style, music, religion, art, etc., that distinguishes human groups from one another. Correct, but culture is much more than these apparent characteristics. As we see in the Iceberg Model, only a small portion of culture is visible to the eye (from Culture Matters, pp. 10-11).

music rituals clothing expressions art

religious beliefs etiquette concept of self values fairness work ethic leadership ideas concept of beauty personal space

nature of friendship

notions of modesty

understanding of the natural world

The vast hidden component of culture has been the source of titanic cross-cultural disasters. Perhaps most dangerous of all, the members of a given culture are most often blind to the majority of these components. Edward T. Hall has observed the following: Culture hides more than what it reveals, and strangely enough what it hides, it hides most effectively from its own participants. Peace Corps Niger

6 We must therefore be ever aware that when we speak of culture, we refer to a system of beliefs, assumptions, behaviors and values not only hidden from members of a different culture, but also often unperceived by the members of the culture itself. What is culture in Niger? Niger is a vast country rich with ethnic groups, languages and traditions. There are over ten major ethnic groups living in Niger, with even more sub-groups within each major group. Be aware that the ethnic make-up of each PCV site will vary, and that you may find yourself in a culture unlike your training village. The good news is that the tools for adjustment outlined in this manual will be equally effective in any region of Niger during any number of transitions.

CULTURE SHOCK
Culture shock is the term used to describe the more pronounced reactions to the psychological disorientation most people experience when they move for an extended period of time into a culture markedly different from their own. It can cause intense discomfort, often accompanied by hyperirritability, bitterness, resentment, homesickness and depression. In some cases, distinct physical symptoms of psychosomatic illness occur. L. Robert Kohls Or a little more succinctly: '"Culture shock' is that negative impact the unfamiliar world makes on you." Foreign to Familiar As dynamic as the term may seem, culture shock is more of a cycle of adjustment than mental whiplash. While the pattern of this cycle varies from person to person, five stages seem common to most extended visits to a foreign culture (from Culture Matters, pp. 191-212): Initial Enthusiasm (The Honeymoon): During the first week or so in country, everything is exotic and quaint, little is expected of you, excitement abounds. Initial Culture Shock: During the next few weeks, frustrations emerge with your host family, transportation, heat, intestinal difficulties, shopping, limited communication with home, bugs and language problems. Vulnerability sets in, and homesickness often appears.

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7 Initial Adjustment: As you end the second half of training, everyday tasks are no longer as frustrating or stressful, independence increases, and you acquire a more positive attitude about your future in the host country. Further Culture Shock: As you settle into your new site, you may experience withdrawal, loneliness, and a loss of self-confidence due to new language problems. You encounter your first work-related frustrations. Further Adjustment: After your first several months at site, you begin to develop a working and living routine, make friends, and become more successful speaking and working.

Avoiding Critical Mass For the most part, people in your village wont understand culture shock, and will probably react negatively to uncontrollable emotional breakdowns. Even worse, they wont forget about it, and the whole village might hear about it eventually. If you feel a cultural sensitivity breakdown coming on, remove yourself from the situation, take a breather, and continue when youre ready. This may happen while in a caisse meeting, while at the post office, while bargaining for tomatoes at the market, while waiting for a bush taxi, etc. If it has already happened, remove it from your mind and move on. It has happened to most of us at least onceLesson No. 1 in our growth as a Volunteer.

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8 And so here are some suggestions to help you through those days when that Peace Corps go get em tiger spirit has given way to mounting frustration: Take care of your body: Think like a motherrest, eat, exercise, wash behind your ears, etc. Eliminate ambiguity: Look for routines and certainties that you can rely on. Take a break (but dont withdraw): read, listen to music, anything to give your mind a rest. Establish control: Knowing that you have some control over yourself builds confidence, even in small decisions, like which path to walk to the market. Keep track of your progress and accomplishments (and remember that buying a kilo of sugar is an amazing accomplishment).

And Dont Panic The following is a conglomeration of hundreds of facts, observations, opinions and questions to guide you during your first months in Niger. But theres no need to lose your composure! Just remember that Nigeriens are tolerant, patient people who may not understand your strange ways, but will not hold your eccentricities or social blunders against you.

Nigerien Life
GREETINGS
Greet people profusely. Run through the greetings that you know. Then run through them again. It will not be redundant in fact its extremely difficult to overgreet. PCV, Niger

ne of the first things youll learn upon coming to Niger is the importance of greetings. Proper greetings begin any conversation, and youll be considered rude if you dont greet people or if you begin business without them. Greetings depend on the time of day, the weather, the season and the individual with whom you are speaking. People always initially respond in the positive, and will only speak of illness or hard times once the greetings are over and the conversation mme has begun. Men shake hands with each other when they meet and part, and may continue to shake hands back and forth as they roll through the greetings. Some traditional Muslim men will not shake womens hands, so female PCVs are best advised to wait until a man offers his hand, so she will not get caught with her hand mid-air and

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9 have to withdraw it. If you meet someone with a dirty or wet hand or someone who is in the middle of eating, he will offer you his wrist to clasp with your hand so that your hand does not get dirty. There are a number of respectful handshakes that people use in Niger. Sometimes a person may shake your hand and then bring his right hand to his chest and point it at his heart, and then return to shaking your hand. He may continue this gesture several times. He is showing that the greetings come and go to you from his heart. He might also touch his forehead after touching his heart and then return to shaking your hand. When people shake hands with a chief or higher official, they will often clasp their right forearm with their left hand as they are shaking the persons hand to show that person higher respect. If a man walks up to a group of other men, he is expected to shake each persons hand. This may even happen in the course of a meeting. If the group is too large for you to shake each persons hand, or if you are a woman walking up to a group of people, you can raise your palms to the sides of your face and neck, and give a verbal greeting to the group. If you pass people who are working, you can greet them with Sannu da aiki (H.) or Fonda goy (Z.) to encourage them in their work. As an adult, you are not expected to shake hands with children, although you might do so with children of your friends or colleagues. There are a million different nicknames people use with each other, and it may take you a while to figure out someones real name, even someone you consider a good friend. At the naming ceremony on the seventh day of birth, babies are given a first name, and their last name will then be their fathers first name. For instance if your name is Binta and your fathers name is Daouda Oumarou, your name will be Binta Daouda (your fathers fathers first name was Oumarou). A woman will keep her same name when she marries, but people will often refer to her as, for example, Binta, the wife of Hamissou. Job title, ethnic group, or other distinguishing features also address people. The director of a school will be called Directeur, the head nurse at the clinic will be called Major, and the village chief will be addressed maigari. A taxi driver will be called mai mota (person with a car), and a Tuareg might be addressed as Bouzou. A man who has made the pilgrimage to Mecca will be called el hadji, and a woman will be addressed as hadjia. There are numerous nicknames taken from actual names (Bourema, Ibro and Hima are all nicknames for Ibrahim), or a nickname can refer to an event in thats persons life or the day on which they were born (Mehau could be someone born during the fast of Ramadan, or Talata could be someone born on a Tuesday). A tall man is frequently called Dogo.

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10 People will address each other based on their relationship to someone else. A woman might be called Yacouba nya if her sons name is Yacouba, and if you meet someone with the same name as your father; you could call that person babba. Because of shame and respect, women will generally not call their husbands by their first names, but instead will refer to him as maigida. Mothers will often not call their first-born sons by their real names, but will instead use a nickname for them, so the spirits will not be tempted to take him away.

BODY LANGUAGE
Go around with a smile. No matter how much national language you know, a smile is still a smile. PCV Niger ody language can be a fascinating thing to observe. As with everyone else in the world, Nigeriens tend to behave differently depending on the occasion and the people around them. When women gather at the well or alone in the concession in the comfort of seclusion away from men, they tend to let loose, talking loudly, laughing, slapping hands and making high pitched hey heeeeyyyii exclamations. On the other hand, when men are present, especially their husbands and fathers, women and girls become much more quiet and reserved, usually with their heads bowed and eyes down when addressing someone. There are a number of gestures and body language signals that are important to know. The most important one to remember is that you should ALWAYS eat, offer money, and pass things with your right hand, or with both hands. The left hand is considered unclean and is reserved for personal hygiene. It is polite to accept things being given to you with both hands. The most insulting gesture you can make is directing your open palm towards someone with your fingers very slightly bent. This is a direct insult to someones mother. You should remember, however, that this gesture is very pronounced, and people will not confuse a simple wave or hand in the air with an insult in their direction. The tone of this gesture will also depend on a persons demeanor. You will frequently see women making this gesture to other womens babies or to their own children while joking around with them. To count to five, you begin with your pinky and bring all of your fingers oneby-one towards your palm. The tips of all five fingers brought together is the sign for five.

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11 To call someone towards you, wave the fingers of your right hand towards you with your palm facing down. At first it may look like someone is waving good-bye to you, but they are actually asking you to come to them. People may try to get your attention by making a hissing noise or by snapping their fingers. Students as well will snap their fingers in the classroom in order to be called on. To stop a taxi on the street, wave your hand up and down at waist-level with your palm facing the ground. If someone has his hands in front of him, palms down about waist level, and then rotates his wrists outward until his palms are facing up, he is either asking Where are you going? or What do you want? People will not often indicate the direction of something with their fingers. Instead they will pucker their lips and jerk their neck in the direction they are showing. In order to show agreement, people will make a deep clicking noise in their throat or will quickly inhale air. There will not be much physical contact between members of the opposite sex, however it is allowed between members of the same sex. Men friends will often holds hands as they are walking down the street or talking to each other, and some female PCVs have been startled to have their breasts grabbed by women friends while joking around. There are, however, no sexual undertones in either of these actions.

VISITING
Your guest is your god. Nigerien proverb Good relationships (depend on) the feet. (i.e. The maintenance of good relationships between people requires frequent visiting.) Nigerien proverb Dont be afraid to walk right in to anyone elses house. Stay there for a while even when things are uncomfortable. PCV, Niger Go out and meet people, no matter how bad you think your Hausa is, just go to their homes. PCV, Niger

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12 isiting is a social activity and is taken as a sign of respect to the person you are visiting. Because telephones are rare, people are just expected to drop in, and will travel long distances by bush taxi, foot or donkey cart in order to visit someone. People are proud of their visitors and want to show them off, and they may bring them by to see you, or ask you to come over to see them, even if youve never met them. When you get to the door of someones concession, clap your hands and call out Salamu alaikum (peace be with you). The person in the concession will answer Amin alaikum salam, (come in peace), and then you may enter. If you are walking into someones house or sitting down on a mat, you should always remove your shoes. Your host will generally offer you something to drink, either cool water or millet drink (hura (H.)/donu (Z.). Even if you are uncertain about drinking what is offered, you could make the motion of accepting it and say thank you as you return the cup or calabash. If you have been away on a trip or are planning to spend the night at someones house, its a nice gesture to bring a gift to your host. Some appropriate gifts include goro, fruit, onions, soap or manioc/yams/sweet potatoes. If you are invited to someones house for a meal, follow your hosts lead on what to do. Male PCVs will eat with the men. Female PCVs could eat with either the men or the women, depending on whom they are closer friends with. And dont be shocked if you are put in a room or a hut to eat by yourself: just you, a bowl of food and a spoon. And if you are visiting friends in a larger city, you may even have an oscillating fan turned on you and a large bowl of iced water placed in front of you. These are all signs of respect and should be accepted graciously, although if you do stay for an extended period of time, it would be entirely appropriate to ask the family if you could eat with them during future meals. It is perfectly fine if you bring your own drinking water when eating at someone elses house. People generally understand that you can get sick from drinking different water, and many will tell stories of going to another village or part of Niger and getting sick from drinking different water. If you find yourself eating frequently at one familys house in particular, it is a good idea to bring foodstuffs (vegetables, tubers, spices, etc.) to them to show your thanks for taking care of you. When you leave someones house to go home, they will walk you at least to the door of their concession, frequently up to the nearest corner, and very often all the way to your front door. If you are invited to eat at someone elses house and are eating from a communal bowl, a few other eating etiquette reminders include: Peace Corps Niger

13 1. Remember to take your shoes off before sitting on a mat. And if the mat has food on it, never step over the mat. Always go around to get to the other side. 2. Were repeating it again but its that importantONLY eat with your right hand, even if you are a leftie. 3. Most people begin the meal by saying, Bismillah, which means in the name of Allah. 4. Wait for someone else at the bowl to reach in first. Usually this will be the oldest man, but each household has its own hierarchy. Sometimes your hosts will ask you to start. Eat from the imaginary pie slice traced out between you and the center of the bowl. 5. Dont grab meat, fish, or vegetables in the first handful. You should first sample the base (rice, pte de mil, traditional couscous or whatever). 6. If you are a guest, your host may often pick off choice bits of meat or vegetables and throw them in front of you for you to eat. 7. Dont sniff the food or blow on it, even if its hot. Doing either of these two things will surely put your fellow diners immediately off their food. If its too hot, just let it cool before putting it in your mouth. 8. Never reach in front of another person. Sometimes if there is something you want on the other side of the bowl that is not specifically for someone, you can move it to the center where everyone can break off pieces. This may be a little advanced for the first meal. 9. If you are a guest, your host is not supposed to keep eating after you are done, so it is polite to keep eating at least until they are finished, and even then you will be encouraged to continue eating. If you arent hungry, or dont like the food, try eating slowly. 10. Alhamdulillahi is a magnificent phrase to learn in any language. It literally means, Thanks be to God, but it has a number of really excellent additional uses, including No, thanks, Im okay, Thats plenty, and Excuse me (after burping). 11. Try not to refuse anything you are offered. You can try just a little bit to bless the food if you really dont want to eat or if you are full. With a Hausa family, you can say, Bari in sa albarka, and with a Zarma family, you can try, Nan ay ma dan albarka, which both mean Let me bless this food. Peace Corps Niger

14 Its a nice idea to set up your own home to make it guest-friendly. This does not need to be inside your actual house or hut, but can be under a hangar or tree in your concession instead. Have several mats, wooden stools or metal chairs ready to pull out if you have visitors. Set up a canari (clay water pot) with a cup. And even if you dont use it yourself, its nice to have a sahani/buta (plastic tea pot) handy for guests to use in the bathroom or before praying while they are at your house. Female PCVs could have a bottle of inexpensive perfume on hand to offer women friends to spray themselves with when they come over to visit. Especially when you first get to site, its difficult to feel at ease when people are visiting you in your home. You might feel the need to constantly entertain people, which is a challenge when your language is so limited. Pictures from home always have high entertainment value, and card games (especially shuffling the deck) can be popular as well. And dont be afraid to tell visitors who have overstayed their welcome that you need to work or study now or that youre going to sleep. Frequently people will visit you because they feel sorry for you, being all alone in your house without your family and friends. Walk them to the door, or if possible down the road a bit as they leave, and thank them for their visit and effort. Its a very important social custom in Niger to greet people on big life occasions: births, marriages and deaths. Families will often have these occasions announced on the radio or television, and word of mouth will spread rapidly. People will travel long distances either to attend these celebrations/events, or to greet people afterwards if they havent been able to come at the actual time. Even if its weeks or months after someone has died, it is perfectly acceptable to stop by the familys house and offer your condolences. Its the act of stopping and acknowledging the event that is important. If you stop by the familys home and dont find who you are looking for, you can leave a message with whoever is there. Know that the family will hear about it and appreciate it when they come back.

LA FAMILLE
The African family is large. Cousins and second cousins all fall under the heading of brother or sister, and uncles and aunts function as parents. PCV Senegal Your relative is half of your body. (i.e. Blood is thicker than water.) Nigerien proverb he bonds in a Nigerien family are strong, tight-knit and intense. Parents enjoy a large amount of power in their homes, and fathers, especially, say who will do which task, and they expect to be obeyed. They also set strict ground rules for their childrens social lives, and as you might expect this is more true for Peace Corps Niger

15 daughters than sons. This power doesnt lessen much even when their children grow up and get married. Arranged marriages, an ultimate kind of power of parents over their children, are very common. When a son is born into a family, he is likely to live with or nearby his parents for his entire life. Probably nothing is more important to Nigeriens than family. When relating to others, people tend to identify first with their family, then with their village, followed by their ethnic group and religion before the nation. Until an individual reaches a certain age, wealth or position in the community, they will continue to be referred to as the son of or the daughter of Kinship references are much more fluid as well. It can be confusing initially when people introduce someone as mon grand frre when it is actually their older cousin, or refer to someone as ma fille, when the girl is in fact his niece. To our American backgrounds, this intense family life mightor might notseem smothering. We often leave our parents home as early as possible, and even if we return, we try to maintain our independence. Quite the opposite for Nigeriens, who remain near the home all their lives so they can care for the parents in their old age. Its important for us to show that we dont need to rely on the family (even though were glad its there for us if we ever need it). Its important for Nigeriens to have a family, sons especially, that they can rely on as they get old. We emphasize independence, self-reliance and individualism. Nigeriens emphasize interdependence, support of the family and commonality. This inter-dependence is seen in the extended Nigerien family. Even children who move away from home to be civil servants, to study, or because of business interests continue to send money and foodstuffs home, and are expected to share with the financial support of the entire family, no matter how distant the relationships. School-aged younger siblings are often sent to live with older brothers and sisters in larger cities so that they can attend school and be looked over. Children are also seen as belonging to more than just the immediate family. Neighbors and friends routinely discipline children and keep them in line, whether the childs parents are nearby or not. As Americans, we may be overly careful about making comments or correcting other peoples children for fear that the parents will question our actions and our right to interfere. Once you realize that, as an adult, you are entitled to keep children in line, its a relief to be able to be firm with them when they are getting out of hand or being disrespectful.

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16

GENDER ROLES
Being an anasara woman Im not expected to conform to the traditional Nigerien womans role. Still, Im a woman and at first, especially, people doubt your ability to do a mans work. As a woman, you are flexible enough to move easily between groups of men and women, fluidity that a man is not allowed. Use this. Being a man, remember to not go into a womans house unless another man is there, and to not invite women alone into your house. As Americans, I think villagers give us permission to be androgynous and I recommend Volunteers do activities that are opposite sex jobs, ex. male PCVs going to the well. I think this makes immersion easier. There are, unfortunately, some real double standards in Niger when it comes to men and women. Women need to keep several things in mind: 1) unmarried Nigerien men and women usually cant just be friends in the American sense, 2) unfortunately the only Nigerien women who usually frequent bars are prostitutes. A woman, particularly by herself at a bar, will be a target. Regardless of whether you are a man or a woman, I would not advise drinking publicly in the village where you work. Even though Im female, for some reason in my village its as though Im androgynousI can sit on the mats and hang out with men, eat with men, work with men and at the same time pound millet, pull water, etc., with the women. So dont let the gender stereotypes limit your activities and who you work with. PCVs in Niger Gender roles in most Nigerien families are fairly clearly defined, and men and women are largely responsible for very specific household tasks. The women care for the home: cooking the meals, cleaning the concession, collecting firewood, caring for the children, washing the clothes and pulling water from the well. The men maintain the physical structures (houses, fences and granaries), provide food for the family either through working at a job and/or by fieldwork, and buy new clothes for their families before major holidays. Both men and women work in the fields during the rainy season but have different responsibilities there. Men are chiefly responsible for the staple cropsmillet, corn, sorghum, and beans, however women (and the children), will help at planting time. Women will frequently have their own fields, which their husbands may prepare for them, but which they care for and harvest themselves. They will often grow peanuts, beans, sesame, sauce leaves and sometimes

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17 vegetables (if the area can support it). Women will use these harvests to feed their families or to earn extra money (selling peanut oil and kouli kouli for example). She may also earn extra money by selling food, by braiding other womens hair, or by making handicrafts for sale. This money is hers to keep, although she often ends up buying clothes for the children or medicine for sick family members.

DATING AND MARRIAGE

Female PCVs will often be asked to be married. Male PCVs will often be asked to take a wife. For both, you will often be treated as if you dont know anything about anything. PCV, Niger ating as we conceive of it does not occur in Niger, especially not in villages. Young people, however, will interact in the evenings at dances, parties and other celebrations, and often they make references to a girlfriend or a boyfriend. Many marriages are arranged by families, especially first marriages, and it is common for people to be married to close cousins. In some cases it is possible for a person to suggest their own mate or to decline the mate the family has chosen for them. Girls in rural areas usually marry in their teens (around 15), and boys will marry between 18 and 25. These ages will be older in the cities and when children are continuing with their studies. Wedding customs vary from ethnic group to ethnic group, but most take place over a period of several days, and include relatives coming from far away, cooking large amounts of food, dancing and drumming at a tam tam, and contain traditional bride and groom activities (being washed in henna, being taken away to another village, being covered with woven blankets, dressing in the finest clothes, being transported to the husbands house, etc.).

Polygamy
Marry such women as may seem good to you, two, three, or four. But if you fear that you will not be able to act justly, then marry one woman (only). (Koran surah 4:3) You will never be able to deal equitably with your wives, no matter how eager you may be to do so. (Koran surah 4:29) Like with much of Africa, polygamy exists in Niger and is permitted, if not promoted, by the Koran. The Koran states that man may only take as many wives as he can treat equally, and even though Mohammed had thirteen wives, the Koran also stipulates that four wives is the maximum number a man can treat equally. Peace Corps Niger

18 Equality, according to the Koran, is supposed to include equal financial support as well as an equal share in affection and intimacy. Apparently the major constraining factor for most Nigeriens is finances, and few Nigeriens actually have four wives. Oftentimes a man will marry his first wife because he wants to strengthen family ties, or because it was arranged, and the second wife he may marry out of love. When a man has more than one wife, each wife will have a hut or house within the family compound with her own belongings inside (bed, trunks of clothes for herself and her children, enamel pots, cooking utensils, etc.). The man must be careful to evenly care for and equitably demonstrate his affections amongst his wives to avoid jealousies and arguments. It is therefore common for a husband to buy identical pagnes and jewelry for his wives at holiday times, so as not to create suspicions of preferences. Following the Koranic injunction requiring that a man treat his wives equally, a husband will sleep with his wives in rotation, and the wife with whom he will be sleeping that night is responsible for cooking the familys meal that evening. Co-wives can sometimes get along like sisters, can at times be mortal enemies, or can often strike an accepted co-existence. Much depends on the personality of the wives, and on how well the husband manages his affections and attentions. Although polygamy is accepted throughout Niger, many educated Nigeriens see lots of problems with polygamy and have rejected it. Mariama B, a Senegalese novelist, describes in her novel So Long a Letter the betrayal an educated women felt when her husband took a second wife: And to think that I loved this man passionately, to think that I gave him thirty years of my life, to think that twelve times over I carried his child. The addition of a rival to my life was not enough for him. In loving someone else, he burnt his past, both morally and materially. He dared commit such an act of disavowal.... I faced up to the situation bravely. I carried out my duties; they filled the time and channeled my thoughts. But my loneliness would emerge at night, burdensome. One does not easily undo the tenuous ties that bind two people together during a journey fraught with hardships. I lived the proof of it, bringing back to life past scenes, past conversations. Our common habits sprang up at their usual times. I missed dreadfully our nightly conversation; I missed our bursts of refreshing or understanding laughter. Like opium, I missed our daily consultations. I pitted myself against shadows. The wanderings of my thoughts chased away all sleep. I sidestepped my pain in a refusal to fight it.

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Divorce
Muslims do not believe that incompatible partners should be forced to stay in a marriage that is obviously not working. Divorce is a relatively easy procedure for Muslim men. If a man wishes to divorce his wife he must simply declare three times, during a three-month period, his intention of divorcing her. At the end of the three months they are divorced. For women the procedure is slightly more difficult. A woman must go to court before she can get permission to divorce, and then she has to have specific reasons for wanting the divorce. Islamic divorce laws may seem unfair to women, but actually a number of rules are included to protect the woman. For example, a man getting a divorce has to return the dowry to his wife and any property she might have brought with her to the marriage. The man is also expected to let her keep any gifts that he gave her earlier. If the woman is pregnant or has a small child, the man is supposed to provide her with food and housing so that she can take care of the baby. The children will often stay with the mother until a certain age (usually between weaning and 5 years), and then they will go to live with the father.

RECREATION
ree time in the village is usually spent socializing and visiting. Women socialize while pounding millet, braiding each others hair, and while getting water at the well or pump. Men generally gather at the mosque, at the market, or in front of each others homes. Men and women rarely socialize together, and even at special occasions (marriages, naming ceremonies and funeral fatias, for example), the two groups will be separated, with the men at the door of the concession and the women gathered inside the compound. In the evenings, there will occasionally be tam tams where people gather to dance. Depending on the village, it may be the young men or the young women who dance at the tam tam. In many villages there will be a central television, either car batteryor solar panel-powered, where men and children will gather to watch programs or videos, often karate and Indian musical films. There will generally be more nighttime activity in the village when the moon is out in the evenings. Drinking tea is an important social activity in Niger. While tea may be traditional to the Tuareg and Fulani groups, it is routinely enjoyed by everyone (mostly men). There are typically three rounds to tea making, and sugar and mint are progressively added to sweeten the strong-ness of the tea. The three rounds are often compared to the following phrase: Strong like life (1), subtle like friendship (2) and sweet like love (3).

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CONCEPT OF TIME
Tomorrow is not in 24 hours. The word yanzu or sohon does not really mean now. Getting two things accomplished in one day is quite a task in Niger PCVs comments about time How can she understand our culture? She has only seen the rains fall once. HCN, Guinea-Bissau etting used to the concept of time in Niger can require quite an attitude adjustment. People tell times of day by the prayers, times of the month by the moon, and usually refer to one of three seasons: the rainy season, the dry or cold season, and the hot season. Yearly milestones are typically the month of Ramadan, the holidays (especially the feasts of Ramadan and Tabaski), and different growth periods of millet during the rainy season. Most people from small villages do not know how old they are or when they were born, and if they have identification cards, they will often read n(e) vers 1958 (born around 1958). Younger people, especially those born in larger towns and villages, will have birth certificates and i.d. cards with their birthdays on them. Time is flexible. For PCVs, this means having great patience with meeting times, and knowing how to ask the right questions to avoid potential workload conflicts. It also means not arbitrarily scheduling a meeting with women at 4:00 p.m., having them agree to it, and then being surprised when no one shows up. Asking a few key questions ahead of time may reveal that this is a busy time during the day for women, as they are going to the well and preparing the evening meal. And even if you have asked the right questions and scheduled a meeting for a time that everyone is in agreement with, continue to have great patience when 45 minutes later you are still sitting there and waiting for people to show up.

PERSONAL APPEARANCE
It is important to respect how women dress and behave in Niger. Whereas I am exempt from much of the gender laws, I would never wear shorts, show up at the mosque, or invite men over at night. PCV, Niger

oull soon find that appearance is very important to Nigeriens, although at first glance it may not be immediately apparent. It may seem as if every kind of work involves getting dirty and that its hard to keep things clean, but if you look closely, youll notice that people will wear one set of clothes inside the

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21 concession or out to the field, and then change if they go out to the market or to visit friends. It can also be confusing because it can seem that after many children start walking (or after a younger sibling is born), they stop being bathed and remain pretty dusty until they reach a certain age and take the responsibility themselves (or until its fte day and an adult forces them into the shower area with a bucket of water). If you watch adults, however, you will notice that they bathe at least once a day, and sometimes more when the weather is hot or when theyve been working in the fields. These are important observations for you to make. At times it might seem easier to stay in a dirty t-shirt and ripped jeans, because even if you do put nice clothes on, theyre just going to get dirty. People, however, will expect you to dress nicer and take better care of your appearance because they know you can afford to. At the very least, its important to remember the importance of a clean and modest appearance when meeting with important people in your village and with government officials. You will quickly begin to recognize the way different ethnic groups and people from different economic situations dress. Men will wear boubous and func suits (shirts and pants of matching material popular with fonctionnaires/civil servants), and often a bonnet, a cap with embroidery. Women will wear a pagne with a matching tailored blouse and headscarf, and if she is married, she will wear a third pagne either around her waist or around her shoulders. This can be used to carry or to cover a baby on her back. Tuareg and Fulani men often wear long robes and turbans, although they tie their turbans in different styles. Women braid their hair and frequently have hennaed hands and feet, especially following special occasions and holidays.

GETTING AROUND
Have patienceit always takes you longer than you expect. The cabine is generally worth paying extra for. If the ride looks sketchy, it probably isgo with your instinct. Make friends with the taxi driver/gendarmes. Anyone who is an ally makes a smoother trip. Have patience. Never trust anything you hear in the autogare. Refuse the hood of the car as a seat. Somehow you always get there.

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22 Never never believe someone when they say the car is leaving right now! Instead ask how many people theyre waiting for and how long it took them to find the people they havethen make your own decision. Take a narrow-mouthed Nalgene with you while traveling so water doesnt slosh all over you in the bush taxi. No matter what, it will take forever to get to your destination. PCVs in Niger ublic transport in Niger is a unique experience. It is almost guaranteed that some of your best stories and worst experiences as a Peace Corps Volunteer will come from taking public transportation. Remember to take plenty of drinking water, a good book, toilet paper in your pocket, and enormous reserves of patience. Although getting around may seem daunting at first, it is actually not that hard to figure out. Taxis around Niamey generally cost 200 cfa, unless the distance is further than normal, when you would be expected to pay two fares (deux courses). As a general rule, it is best to confirm the price with the driver before getting in the taxi. The SNTV bus is big, fairly comfortable, runs back and forth from Niamey to Zinder about three times a week (as well as up to Agadez), allows you your own seat, and has a fixed price. You will need to buy your ticket and drop your luggage off the day ahead of time, and get to the bus station early on the morning of your departure. If you decide to take a bush taxi, there can be several different taxi stands (autogares) and each has cars to particular areas. Bush taxis wait to fill up, so there are no particular schedules. The prices at the autogares are semi-fixed. Ask someone else ahead of time what you are supposed to pay, and then you can probably convince whoever is in charge to give you the correct fare. Expect an argument and hope for the best. And be aware that if you have baggage, you will probably have to pay extra for it. When bush taxis and buses stop, vendors will come and sell things through the windows. Beggars also gather around where transportation stops. Be prepared for bush taxis to stop for prayer times, and for the passengers to break their fast at dusk during the month of Ramadan.

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Introduction to Islam

slam is undoubtedly the primary ideological force in Niger today. In a country fragmented by different ethnic groups, political parties and environmental and economic differences, Islam, the religion of 90% of all Nigeriens, is a powerful unifying force. Mosques can be found throughout Niger, ranging from the impressive Grand Mosque in Niamey to simple huts in villages. Whether you are in a Zarma village or a Hausa marketplace, Allahu akbar, the call to prayer, can be heard. Although Nigers form of Islam is not nearly as radical as the Islam found in other countries, there is not a facet of life in Niger untouched by Islam, a fact made obvious by the way Nigeriens pepper their everyday conversations with references to God. Islam was first introduced into the Niger region during the 10th and 11th centuries by Arab traders. Up to the 19th century though, Islam remained primarily a religion for the educated rulers. The rural population continued to follow traditional beliefs, and when Islam began to make headway with these people in the 19th and 20th century, it did not undermine traditional beliefs. Pagan rituals are not only practiced alongside Islam but are accepted without question. (Crowther, Geoff: Africa on a Shoestring, 1986, p. 419) During the 15th and 16th centuries, the Fulanis were particularly active in spreading Islam throughout the region. Two of their major leaders were Ousman Dan Fodio and El Hadj Omar. Understanding Islamic history and what the Koran actually says is important for understanding Islam in Niger, but it is equally important to realize that the form of Islam practiced by many Nigeriens has been influenced by animism, tradition and superstition. The majority of Nigeriens is illiterate, and thus most people are not able to read the Koran for themselves, and only a few Nigeriens actually know the meaning of the Arabic words that they chant every day during prayers. Because Nigeriens frequently are not well-versed in their religion, they often confuse traditional practices with Koranic injunctions.

THE LIFE OF MOHAMMED

n the month of Ramadan, 610 A.D., a solitary man climbed to his spiritual retreat, an isolated cave in Mt. Hira, where he often went for prayer and solitude. It was a journey that the spiritually-inclined Meccan had frequently made as he grappled with the moral and spiritual problems that he saw in his city. The 40-year old man could not have known that this night would be different from all the other nights he had spent alone in the cave. Tonight would be the Night of

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24 Qadr (night of glory), when the angel Gabriel would appear to tell the Meccan that he had been chosen to be Allahs prophet. It was a radical message; a message that would make Mohammed the founder of the youngest and fastest growing world religion; a message that would transform world politics and history. At the time of the vision, Mohammed was around forty years old. He had been born in 570 A.D. in the city of Mecca to the clan of the Hashem. Abdullah, his father, died before he was born, and his mother died when he was seven, leaving him to be raised first by his grandfather, and then two years later, when his grandfather died, by his uncle Abu Talib. These early experiences as an orphan and dependent may have influenced Mohammeds later emphasis on giving charity to orphans, widows and the needy. Mecca, the city that Mohammed grew up in, was a thriving trade center and an important pilgrimage spot for the polytheistic Arabs. The largest shrine, the Kaaba, was filled with hundreds of idols, and it was Mohammeds grandfather, Abdel Muttalib, who served as the custodian of the Kaaba. The people of Mecca at the time were, if the Koran is to be believed, immoral and quarrelsome. In pre-Islamic Arabia, clan and warfare, banditry and female infanticides were frequent occurrences. The message Mohammed would eventually bring directly confronted and contradicted that way of life. Mohammed would teach that there was only one God, the brotherhood of all believers, regardless of what clan they belonged to, and that female infanticide was an abomination to God. We know very little about the first forty years of Mohammeds life except that he got married, was a trader, and apparently was illiterate. Mohammeds illiteracy would later play a role in substantiating his claim to have received a message from God. As the Koran says, Never have you read a book before this, nor have you ever transcribed one with your right hand. Had you done either of these the unbelievers might justly have doubted. (29:48) At the age of 25, Mohammed married his first wife, Khadija, a wealthy 40-year old who had employed him as a trader. Khadija apparently had a great deal of trust in her husband because, when she heard of Mohammeds angelic visitation, she immediately accepted it as authentic. She convinced the severely shaken Mohammed that his calling was truly from God, and not just madness or the work of the devil, as he had feared. Mohammeds visitation during the Night of Qadr was extremely traumatizing. The Koran records that the angel Gabriel appeared, cut open his chest, and stirred his organs. Whatever the case may be, the visitation, and each subsequent visitation, brought on convulsions and groaning, a fact that has caused some Western scholars to speculate that Mohammed may have been an epileptic. Even many of Peace Corps Niger

25 Mohammeds contemporaries believed that Mohammed was either crazy or an extremely creative fraud. Although most Muslims deny any outside influences on the Koran, insisting that Mohammeds unique message came straight from God, it is possible that the Christians and Jews who had contact with Mohammed influenced the highly moralistic monotheism that he preached. Whatever the case may be, we do know that Mohammed himself did not feel that the message he was presenting was a new one. In his mind, he was not founding a new religion, but rather restoring an old one, which had become corrupted over the centuries. Allah was not simply the God of Islam; He was also the God of the Jews and Christians, and Mohammed had a great deal of respect for the people of the book as he called them. According to the Koran, Jesus and all of the Jewish patriarchs were prophets, and Mohammed was the final prophet in a long succession of messengers. The Koran states that there were even more messengers and more holy books, like the Koran and the Bible, but that the messengers had been forgotten, and the books long lost. The message Mohammed brought received a poor reception from his fellow citizens. They realized that his monotheistic message threatened the lucrative business that was dependent on the pilgrimages made to the Kaaba. Mohammeds own tribe, the Quraish, were particularly hostile to the message, because they were the keepers of the Kaaba. Moreover, because Islam promoted the brotherhood of all believers, it undermined the traditional clan and tribe structures. The leading men of Mecca were apparently also angered by the fact that Mohammed, a man of relatively little influence or power, was claiming a role of leadership. The Koran describes them as saying, Why was this Koran not revealed to some mighty man from the two [chief] towns? (43:30). Very few of the Meccans converted during those first years, and those who did convert were subject to persecution. In 615 A.D., many of Mohammeds converts fled to Ethiopia. In 619 Mohammeds wife, Khadijia, died, and around the same time the prophet got stoned while visiting Taif, a city near Mecca. It must have been a bleak time in the prophets life, but in 620 an event happened that would strengthen his faith. During the night Mohammed was miraculously transported from Mecca to Jerusalem, and from there he ascended into heaven. The actual nature of Mohammeds midnight journey is heavily disputed by Islamic scholars, some of whom claim that his journey was mystical and in a vision, and other who state categorically that he made the physical voyage. Regardless of how he made the journey, the mosque called the Dome of the Rock, in Jerusalem, marks the spot where Mohammed is said to have ascended into heaven, and is the third most holy site in Islamic lore, surpassed in importance only by Mecca and Medina.

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26 Two years later, in 622, Mohammeds fortune changed when he was invited to the city of Medina, then called Yathrib. Apparently Yathrib, a city made up of two Jewish tribes and three Arab tribes, had suffered from internal disputes, and the citizens of Yathrib wanted Mohammed to resolve the disputes and rule them. Mohammed agreed, and he and his converts slipped away from Mecca. In Medina, Mohammed tried unsuccessfully to win the support of the Jewish population. He even instructed that the primary prayer day be on Saturday and that Muslims should face Jerusalem when praying. His attempts to win the Jewish population to his form of monotheism failed, however, so eventually God gave him a new order instructing all Muslims to pray on Fridays and to face Mecca. Two years after arriving in Medina, three hundred of Mohammeds followers attacked and routed over a thousand Meccan soldiers. The battle, called the Battle of Badr, was thought to be a sign that God was with Mohammed, and ever since it has been a rallying cry for Muslims. In 1973, Egypt and Syrias unsuccessful attack on Israel was called Operation Badr, a name that all Muslims would associate with that famous battle against the unbelievers. The year after the Battle of Badr, however, Mohammeds forces suffered a major defeat, and the prophet himself was badly wounded by an arrow. According to the Koran, the Muslims almost won the battle, but some of the soldiers became overly greedy. Fortunately, the Meccan forces did not pursue their victory, or else they might have crushed Mohammeds followers then. Instead they returned to Mecca. Two years later, Mohammed defended Medina from an attack by Mecca. This battle crippled Mecca, and Mecca had to agree to sign a peace treaty, which permitted the Muslims to make pilgrimages to Mecca. In 630, however, for reasons that are not entirely clear, Mohammed broke the peace and marched on Mecca. The city gave in with little resistance, and Mohammed destroyed the idols in the Kaaba, and had the Kaaba recleaned. Mohammed was apparently very generous to his old rivals, and very few of the people who opposed him were punished for it. In 632, Mohammed preached a last sermon and returned to Medina, where he died. His death may have been somewhat unexpected by the prophet, because he had not prepared for the continuation of his work. The Koran only existed on fragments of paper, bones and in the memory of people, and had not yet been compiled. Moreover, the prophet had left no clear successor to assume his position as leader of the Islamic community.

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THE REALITY OF ISLAM IN NIGER

slam in Niger has a lot of parallels to Christianity in medieval Europe. Just as mass use to be held in Latin, a language few people understood, so too today in Niger prayers and recitations are done in Arabic, a language that only a very small minority understands. Most Nigeriens can quote a bit of the Koran in Arabic, but very few actually know the meaning of the words that theyre reciting. Moreover, translations of the Koran in Zarma and Hausa simply arent available.

The majority of rural Nigeriens do not really understand the message of the Koran. Because they have such a poor grasp of the Islamic faith, many older traditions and superstitions have crept into Islam. Like their medieval counterparts, many Nigeriens have mixed their religion with older superstitions, and most of them cannot tell the difference between the two. The tradition, for example, of making gris-gris, magic bracelets with portions of the Koran rolled up inside, contradicts the teaching of the Koran. The tradition of writing words from the Koran on a chalkboard using chalk or charcoal, and then washing the chalk into a bowl and drinking the liquid as medicine is also contrary to what the Koran teaches. Even extremely active animists now consider themselves Muslims, and it is not unheard of for the iman of a village mosque to also be the head magician in the region. With all of the confusion, its not surprising that even though most Nigeriens consider themselves Muslim, many of them do not actually practice the religion. Ninety per cent of the population is allegedly Muslim, but many of these Muslims are simply Muslim because their families are Muslim, or because they live in a Muslim village. Many Nigerien Muslims ignore the prayers, ignore the fast of Ramadan, sleep with prostitutes, and drink alcohol. To a certain extent the amount a Nigerien Muslim practices and knows about Islam is dependent on what area he or she grew up in, and what ethnic group he or she belongs to. Hausas, for example are traditionally more conservative than the Zarma, who are in turn more conservative than the Songhai.

THE KORAN

he Koran, the Muslim holy book, was brought to Mohammed by the angel Gabriel. Muslims believe that the Koran is perfect, both as a spiritual guide and as a literary work. This is because they believe that the Koran was written

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28 by Allah and existed in heaven in its original Arabic. Because the Koran was given to Mohammed in Arabic, Muslims believe that it is impossible to accurately translate the Koran. Loose translations have been made to facilitate understanding for readers who do not understand Arabic, but all Muslims recite the Koran in its original Arabic, even if they do not understand Arabic. Here in Niger, most Muslims cannot read Arabic, and even those who can read Arabic usually are only able to sound out the words and do not understand their actual meanings. The word Koran literally means to recite, which is probably a reference to the fact that initially the Koran was not written down but recited. In fact, Mohammed himself claimed to be illiterate. The Koran was not even written down until well after his death. The Koran is organized into chapters or suras, which are arranged from longest to shortest rather than in the order that they were composed or their subject matter. Muslims believe that between Adam and Mohammed, there have been 124,000 holy books. Only four of them, they believe, have survived: the Torah, the Psalms of David, the gospel of Christ and the Koran. The other three books are believed to have been corrupted over time. In addition to the Koran, Muslims also acknowledge the authority of the hadith, or the sayings and teachings of Mohammed.

THE FIVE PILLARS OF ISLAM

1. Shahadathe confession of the creed: There is one God and Mohammed is his prophet. 2. Salatprayer five times a day facing Mecca: early morning, afternoon, late afternoon, evening and night 3. Zakatcharitable almsgiving 4. Ramadanfasting during the daylight hours on the ninth month in Islams lunar calendar 5. Hadj or Hajjthe pilgrimage to Mecca (in Saudia Arabia) for all who can afford it

PRAYERS

ouve undoubtedly already begun hearing the call to prayer. Muslims pray five times a day: in the morning at dawn, in the early afternoon around 2:00 p.m., in the later afternoon at around 4:00 p.m., in the early evening around

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29 7:00 p.m., and at night. If possible, Muslims prefer to pray together as a community at the mosque. Muslims will, however, stop and pray wherever they are. Muslim prayers do not resemble Christian prayers. To begin with, Muslim prayers are always in Arabic, and tend to be formulaic. Unlike Christians, Muslims generally do not believe that God interacts on a personal level with each human, which means that Muslims do not address God in the same way that Christians do. Prayers in Islam are led usually by an imam, or marabout, and a prayer caller. These are important religious men who have studied the Koran in depth, but unlike priests, they are not ordained or consecrated with specific or divine powers. Islam teaches that all men are equal under God, and as such rejects the idea that people need to have an intermediary between them and God. Each Muslim is expected to face God on his or her own, and priests, saints, and even the prophet Mohammed cannot take on this responsibility. Before praying Muslims are expected to ritually cleanse themselves through ablutions. They do this by washing their head, face, nose, eyes, ears, mouth, arms, hands and feet repeatedly before going to the mosque. If something occurs on the way to the mosque that makes the prayer unclean (i.e. contact with a dog, contact with a women who is having her period, etc.), the believer must then repeat the ablutions before beginning the prayers. If water is not available to perform the ablutions, the person may use sand or other clean surfaces of the earth instead. Before entering the sacred ground of the mosque for prayers, the worshippers remove their shoes. This practice supposedly dates back to Moses, who was told that he should take off his sandals when he was in the presence of the burning bush. Prayer mats are provided for worshippers so that they may keep clean while doing the repeated bows and obeisance. Many Muslims also use prayer beads, similar to rosaries, when they pray, but this is left to the discretion of the worshipper. The main prayer day for all Muslims is Friday, but again, this does not correspond directly with the Jewish Saturday or the Christian Sunday. Muslims, for example, are not expected to stop working on Fridays. The only main difference between Fridays and other days is that Muslims are expected to go to the mosque on Friday for the early afternoon prayer, and pray together as a brotherhood. In bigger mosques there may also be a sermon taken from the Koran. All prayers are performed facing the holy city of Mecca. Interestingly enough, during the early years of Islam, the Muslim day of prayer was Saturday, and everyone prayed facing Jerusalem. When the Jews of Medina completely rejected Mohammed as a prophet, and Islam as a religion, the day of worship and the direction were changed. There are three traditional reasons why Muslims pray on Friday. First, they say that the world was created on Friday. They also say that the world will eventually end Peace Corps Niger

30 on a Friday. Finally, they believe that the heavenly records are opened on Fridays and that the angels are sent out to record the deeds of men. Here are a few things to keep in mind about Muslims and praying: Praying is very important. Muslims will stop whatever they are doing to pray. This means that bush taxis will frequently stop so that the passengers and driver can pray, and that some businesses will be temporarily closed during prayers. Like most people, Muslims do not like to be disturbed while praying. In other words, dont try taking pictures of them praying, and dont walk directly in front of them while they are praying, unless it cannot be helped. Occasionally those praying will set up a chair or some other barrier before they begin to pray. This barrier is purely symbolic, but by keeping the barrier between yourself and the person praying, you avoid disturbing the prayer. Some prayer areas are simply rectangular-shaped areas of rocks, with a front area jutting out for the prayer leader. Avoid walking through these areas or sitting on the rocks. Take off your shoes before going into a mosque, or before stepping on a prayer mat. Modesty is a very important issue for Muslims, and both men and women need to dress modestly and neatly when they are coming to pray. If you are visiting a mosque, dont wear shorts, tank tops, short skirts, or any tight or revealing clothing. Women should wear a headscarf when entering a mosque. If you are a woman having your period, dont visit the mosque or touch men who are going to prayers. Women who are menstruating are considered unclean.

MOSQUES
The whole world has been made a place of prayer, pure and clean. Hadith Muslim Wherever the hour of prayer overtakes you, you shall perform it. That place is a mosque. Hadith Bukhari

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osques are the Muslim houses of prayer. The kinds of mosques you will see in Niger will vary between the Grand Mosque in Niamey to simple village mosques that are no more than a configuration of stones marking the spot and indicating the direction of Mecca. Although mosques can and do take a variety of forms, there are certain architectural features that are traditional parts of many mosques. Two of the most obvious features are the domes and the minarets. Traditionally a muezzin (prayer caller) would climb to the top of the minaret and call the faithful to prayer five times a day. Nowadays many mosques rely on a recorded call to prayer, which is broadcast from loudspeakers located in the minarets. Frequently mosques are decorated with a star cradled in a crescent moon. The fivepointed star reminds the Muslims of the five pillars or obligatory duties of their faith; and the moon reminds them of their God the Creator, and the lunar calendar which governs Islamic festivals and special days. (Maqsood, Ruqaiyyah Islam, p. 106) Inside the mosque there is really no furniture, and certainly no paintings or statues, because those might encourage idolatry. On the wall facing the city of Mecca there will be a decorated alcove called the mihrab. The mihrab simply indicates which direction Muslims need to face for prayer. The prayer leader stands in front of the mihrab.

To the right side of the mihrab is a small platform called the minbar. This is where the imam delivers the sermon. Warning: the Mihrab is not a Seat! Near the training site in Hamdallaye, there is a mosque with a simple mihrab. The mihrab in this case is just three stairs leading up to a small platform. One female trainee, not realizing what the mihrab was, sat on it one evening while drinking a Coke. No one in the village mentioned it to her, so it took a while for her to figure out that her perch was a sacred spot and what she had been doing was considered offensive. You will probably have lots of opportunities to visit the mosques and watch the praying. Some Volunteers have even made the habit of going with their villagers to the mosque for prayer. Obviously, when youre in a mosque, you need to be quiet and respectful. There are a few more specific guidelines that you should know. You should wear clean, modest clothes when you go to the mosque. The clothes your villagers are wearing may seem tattered, but its probably all theyve got. Theyll expect you to be well-dressed. That simply means that your clothes should be clean and shouldnt have any holes in them. Dressing modestly is extremely important. Shorts, short skirts, transparent clothing, or very tight clothing for example, are all inappropriate. Women should make sure that their Peace Corps Niger

32 arms and legs are covered and they should wear a headscarf or veil to cover their head. Take your shoes off before entering the mosque. Men and women pray separately, so follow someone of your gender and you should be fine. A woman who is menstruating should not go to the mosque at all. According to Islam, she is unclean.

CHARITY AND ALMSGIVING

Alms are for the poor and needy, and to pay those employed to administer the funds; for those whose hearts have been recently reconciled (to Truth); for those in bondage, and in debt; in the cause of God; and for the wayfarer; (Thus it is) ordained by God, full of knowledge and wisdom. Koran Surah 9:60

ne of the most difficult things for Volunteers living in Niger is just the sheer number of poor people and beggars. Its easy at times to get the impression that everyone is asking for something. Asking for and giving charity are a major part of Nigerien and Islamic culture. As a child, Mohammed was often dependent on the charity of others, and the Koran specifically states that Muslims should give zakat, or charity, to the needy. The amount recommended for the zakat is 2.5% of a persons income. Muslims may also give more during Muslim festivals. It is important to understand that the Koran does not encourage giving alms to everyone who begs. What the Koran does encourage is smart charity. There will be times when you may wish to give something. It can be difficult to differentiate between the professional panhandlers who dont really need charity and the truly needy. Here are a few tips about giving: You never have to give anything. If someone starts asking you for something, you may say Irkoy ma dogonandi (Zarma) and Allah shi koro, (Hausa). This means, May God give it to you. Technically the person doing the asking should respond with Amin, and continue on, although some people are more persistent than others. Its fine to give only a little. If you give 5, 10 or 25 cfa, thats usually enough. Or if you prefer, you can give food, including food that youve been eating but

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33 havent finished. Kids are more than happy to finish off a half-eaten sandwich or bowl of rice and sauce. Giving small amounts is actually probably better than giving large amounts. Foreigners are already viewed as gift-givers, so if you start handing out large amounts of money, you are helping perpetuate the myth that foreigners are simply here to give stuff away. Many of the children carrying bowls tied around their necks or wooden boards with writing on them are Koranic students. Koranic students are children who have been sent away from home by their families to study the Koran. While they are in Koranic school, they are expected to beg to help teach them humility. A lot of Nigeriens give them either food or money. If you give them money, they will take it back to their teacher, but if you give them food, they will probably eat it, so its generally best to give food. Sometimes an older person or someone with a disability will come up and begin either singing or chanting. They are singing or chanting a blessing for you, and it is considered good to give them something.

RAMADAN
amadan is the ninth Muslim month, and fasting during Ramadan is one of the five pillars of Islam. Muslims use a lunar calendar, versus the solar calendar used by Christians. This means that the month of Ramadan moves forward about ten days each year. The fast begins as soon as the new moon is sighted and ends as soon as the next new moon is seen (the tenth month of Shawwali). Radios in Muslim countries usually announce when the new moon has been sighted for the beginning of the fast. The Muslim month of Ramadan is one of the major events on the Islamic calendar. During the month of Ramadan, everyone who can is supposed to fast during the daylight hours. The fast of Ramadan prohibits eating, drinking, smoking and sexual contact, and according to the principles, nothing is supposed to enter the body during the daylight hours. Some Muslims are so strict about following the requirements that they continually spit during the day to avoid swallowing their saliva. The fast lasts from dawn to dusk, a period of thirteen to fourteen hours. According to tradition, it is okay to break the fast when you can hold up a white thread and a black thread and not tell the difference between them. Because of the daytime fast, most Nigeriens eat heavily at night and get up early to eat before light. In many

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34 places, there is special food that isnt often served at other times, like fruits, sweets, roast dishes, and special hot and cold drinks. Although outsiders may assume that the period of Ramadan is one of considerable savings in food and money because of the long hours of total abstinence, it is actually more like a celebration. After the tenth day of the month, boys and girls go from house to house soliciting gifts through singing and dancing, usually of a humorous nature. This is called tashe. In large towns, the children are usually given money, but in the villages they may be given sorghum, millet or small candies. To a certain extent, you will be able to tell how orthodox your village is by how seriously people in your village take the fast. Hausa villages tend to be more strictly Muslim and therefore take the fast very seriously. The Zarma tend to be less strict, and many Zarmas completely ignore the fast. Children who are born during Ramadan are often called Dan Azumi, Ramalan or Mehau if they are boys, and Azumi or Mehau if they are girls. Certain people are exempt from fasting during Ramadan. Those exempted are: The insane or mentally handicapped. Children under the age of puberty. Elderly and the chronically ill, for whom fasting is unreasonably strenuous. They must feed one needy person for the fast they missed. Sick people with recoverable illnesses. * Travelers who cannot fast. * Women during pregnancy and lactation. * Women during menstruation and during post-natal discharge. * Those engaged in hard work such as soldiers in the battlefield. *

* People in these categories are required to make up the fast when they are able to. Other than the thirty-day obligatory fast, people may also fast at any time. This selfimposed fast is known as tadauwui, and can be done at any time to seek Gods blessing and recompense, except on those days when fasting is expressly prohibited. Voluntary fasting is more usual amongst malams, chiefs and elderly persons. The seventh month of the lunar calendar is accordingly called the month of the elderly peoples fast.

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35 Things to keep in mind for Ramadan: Avoid eating, drinking or smoking in public. People know that as an American, you probably wont be keeping the fast, but youll still draw a lot less comment (and envy) if you eat and drink in the privacy of your home. Dont smoke around Nigeriens who are keeping Ramadan. Technically if they inhale your second-hand smoke, they have ruined their fast. Dont plan big projects during Ramadan. Folks in your village wont have strength for them. Keep in mind that at nighttime everyone is going to stop whatever they are doing to eat and break their fast. This definitely includes bush taxis. If you are a health Volunteer, one of the major challenges you may face is convincing pregnant women that they dont need to do the fast. The Koran clearly states, though, that pregnant women should not endanger their health or the health of the unborn baby by fasting. If women in your area remain unconvinced, you may want to enlist the support of an imam or marabout.

THE HADJ: A TRIP TO MECCA

ll Muslims who can afford it are expected to make the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in their lives. The significance of this trip for Muslims cannot be overemphasized.

In his most well-known novel Midaq Alley, Egypts Nobel Laureate Naquib Mahfourz depicts a pious Muslim character who speaks frequently of his desire to make a pilgrimage to Mecca. Rizwan says, I long for Mecca and its bright heavens I can see myself and my brothers walking through the lanes of Mecca reciting verses from the Koran just as when they were first revealed. What joy. Rizwan captures the hopes and vision of many Muslims who make the pilgrimage to Mecca after years of saving and anticipation. Their pilgrimage fulfills one of Gods instructions to all Muslims. It redeems their sins and wins them favor on the Day of Judgment. Some hope to die on the Hadj and be buried in the Islamic Holy Land. Others return home with the respected title of Hadj. For most Muslims, it is the zenith of their spiritual lives. The spirit of the Hadj is one of self-denial and submission to God, as well as solidarity and equality among Muslims. Upon entering the environs of Mecca, all pilgrims take off their ordinary clothes and put on ihram, two plain white sheets

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36 which symbolize the abandonment of worldly life. While wearing ihram, the pilgrim must abstain from bathing, cutting his hair, hunting, quarreling, and sexual relations. The Hadj commemorates events in the lives of Abraham, his wife Hagar, and his son Ishmael. It is based on passages from the Koran and the practices of the Prophet Mohammed. The pilgrim begins by walking seven times around the Kaaba in the center of Meccas Great Mosque. This is known as the Tawaf. He then walks seven yards apart and connected by a covered passage, which is part of the Great Mosque. This is known as SaY. Safa and Marwa are believed to be the site of Hagars suffering when, on Gods instruction, Abraham abandoned her and her infant son in the desert. The distraught Hagar ran between the two rocks seeking water and praying to God. Her faith was rewarded when she discovered a spring at Ishmaels foot. This spring still flows and is known as the Well of Zamzam. Many pilgrims carry holy water from Zamzam home with them. Just after sunrise on the 9th day of the last month of the Islamic year, the pilgrims will set out for the Plain of Arafat. Here some two million Muslims from all corners of the world stand before God between noon and sunset. The standing at Arafat is the emotional climax of the Hadj. It is meant to symbolize the Day of Judgment when everyone, regardless of race, wealth, or social position will stand equally before God. The standing at Arafat is observed as a holy day throughout the Islamic world and dramatically emphasizes the communal nature of Islam. Nothing does more to foster Muslim solidarity and annually recharge Islams spiritual energy than this gathering on the barren plain outside of Mecca. Immediately after sunset, the multitude of pilgrims moves back towards Mecca and spends the night at Muzdalifah. Here the pilgrims gather stones. On the following day, they move to Mina to thrown their stones at three pillars representing Satan. This symbolizes the way Abraham, Hagar and Ishmael rejected temptation by the devil. Logistically, this is the most congested part of the Hadj, as the throng of pilgrims all try to stone the limited number of pillars. At Mina the pilgrim also makes an animal sacrifice or purchases a coupon from the Islamic Development Bank to have a sacrifice performed for him at one of several large slaughterhouses near Mecca, which are used only during the Hadj. The meat, which in the past had often gone to waste, is now frozen and distributed to poor Muslim countries. After his sacrifice is complete, the pilgrim may cut his hair and take off his ihram. Peace Corps Niger

37 That evening the pilgrim travels to Mecca to perform a further Tawaf before returning to Mina for the night. On the next three days the pilgrim again stones the pillars at Mina. The Hadj ends on the 13th of DbuL-Hijja. Those leaving Saudi Arabia make one more farewell Tawaf before leaving Mecca. distributed by the American Consul, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. Men who make the Hadj are called elhadji. The term for female pilgrims in hadjia. Occasionally you will meet a Nigerien who is name Elhadji, but who hasnt made the trip. The explanation for this is that the person was born during the fte of Tabaski, when the Hadj is made. Another possible reason for a child having the name of Elhadji is if the mother made the Hadj while she was pregnant with the child.

ANIMISM
animism (n.) 1. the belief that natural objects, natural phenomena, and the universe itself possess souls. 2. the belief that natural objects have souls which may exist apart from their material bodies. 3. the doctrine that the soul is the principle of life and health. 4. the belief in spiritual beings or agencies. Websters Encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary

efore the arrival of Islam in Niger, all of the ethnic groups were animistic, and although various devout Muslim leaders have tried to stomp out animism, animistic rituals and magic have survived and are still an important part of daily Nigerien life. Over the years animistic rituals have been given an Islamic veneer to make them acceptable, with the result that many Nigeriens, particulary uneducated Nigeriens, follow animistic rituals. One PCV observed that in her Songhai village, it seemed to be the women and children who were primarily involved in the animistic rituals. This could be due to the fact that women typically are less involved in Muslim practices (i.e. women dont usually go to the mosque). Generally speaking, although mullahs and imams dont approve of the animistic rituals, they tolerate them and peacefully coexist with their animistic neighbors. Animism is a religion that teaches that although a high god may have created the world, the world is inhabited and controlled by spirits. Animists also believe in the power of magic and its effects on the physical world. For example, if a practitioner wishes to make an enemy lame, the practitioner will take a thorn, find the footprints of his enemy, and drive the thorn into them in the belief that the intended victim will feel the pain. Practitioners also try to manipulate the physical world by contacting the spiritual world in wild dance ceremonies. During the dance, the dancers are possessed by spirits that can provide information. If, for example, a child is ill and witchcraft is suspected, a spirit can confirm that. Peace Corps Niger

38 Animistic rituals are frequently performed in the evenings and at night after the work is done, but most rural Nigeriens are not ashamed of the rituals and are willing to have guests attend. These possession dances (foori in Zarma/wasa in Hausa) are not, for the most part, considered dangerous, although one PCV was advised to leave the ritual partway through for fear that the man becoming possessed would be possessed by the spirit of someone who had been killed by white people. Strange things do, of course, happen during the possession dances. Volunteers have reported seeing women eating thorns and inflicting harm to themselves without apparently feeling it. Most animism, however, is helpful rather than harmful. Spells are cast to protect against the spirits, and a lot of the potions that are created are actually traditional medicines. Many animistic practitioners specialize in making certain protective medicines. Villages will also hold animistic ceremonies to welcome strangers. Among the ethnic groups, the Songhai are particulary noted for their animistic rituals and their sorcery. One American anthropologist studying the Songhai, Paul Stoller, got swept into the world of Songhai sorcery. He reported that, I could no longer be a dispassionate observer of Songhai societyI was inexorably drawn to the power, the people, and the mystery of the world of Songhai sorcery. (extracted from Travelers Literary Companion: Africa, Strathern, Oona (p. 98). In his quest to research Songhai sorcery, Stoller learned the names of over 150 spirits and had to learn and memorize appropriate poems and songs for each one. The task was extremely dangerous, as Stoller discovered. He suffered from spirit attacks and from temporary paralysis in the process. Paul Stoller wrote down the story of his adventures in his book In Sorcerys Shadow. The following extract from Travelers Literary Companion: Africa describes one of his experiences. In the Songhai village of Mehanna, anthropologist Paul Stoller is under the apprenticeship of Djibo, the sorko. As part of the initiation process, he has eaten specially prepared food, and now he tests his powers. Djibo tapped my arm. He pointed to a woman who was walking toward us. Balanced on her head was a mountain of brightly decorated enameled metal pots. Paul, you have the sorko food in your belly, do you not? Yes, I do, I responded, though for the life of me I could not understand how something that I had eaten three days before could remain in my belly for the rest of my life.

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39 And, he continued, as he watched the woman with the pots, you are now wearing on the third finger of your left hand a ring which has drunk, are you not? Yes, I am. Well? Does it mean that I have strength? Yes, of course it does. But how am I to know it? I do not feel any different, just a bit more constipated. I am sorry about your dried-out intestines, but this usually happens when one has eaten the food of strength. He waved his hand in the direction of the woman with the pots on her head. She had stopped to talk to another woman going toward the river. Go up to that woman with the pots on her head. Look at her eyes even if she attempts to avoid your gaze. When your eyes meet, a tear will roll out of her left eye. Sure it will, I said sarcastically. Hoping to prove Djibo wrong, I approached the woman with the pots on her head; she was slowly walking away from the market. When she realized that I intended to intercept her, she quickened her pace. She lost her balance and some of her pots thumped into the sand. Like a conqueror, I stood over the woman as she picked up two of her pots. For a second our eyes locked. A large tear dropped from the corner of her left eye and ran down her cheek. She stood up stiffly and ran away, somehow holding on to her pots. I return to Djibo, stupefied. I dont believe it, Djibo. The woman would not look at me, and when she did, a tear dropped into her check from her left eye. Did you smell her? No, I didnt. Djibo shook his head. One day you will be able to smell them, but that lies ahead of you on your path. Smell what? I asked. Witches, you fool.

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40

History and Government

It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the springs of hope, it was the winter of despair.... Charles Dickens, A Tale of Two Cities igers history can only be followed with any great accuracy after colonization for two specific reasons. First, Niger as a political entity did not exist until the French came. Instead, the land that is now the Republic of Niger was inhabited by a wide variety of unrelated ethnic groups, and was from time to time a part of larger empires, which frequently extended well beyond the borders of present Niger. The second reason why Nigers pre-colonial history is at best only vaguely known is that with the exception of the Tuaregs, none of the ethnic groups of Niger developed their own writing. Even with the Tuaregs, writing was used primarily for business transactions, and historical items were not recorded. The Arabs, of course had their own written language, which they brought with them, but again, Arabic was primarily used either for religious, or occasionally business, matters. Thus a great deal of pre-colonial history is lost, or comes down to us mixed with the legends and myths of its people. There may indeed, for example, have been a Zarma leader named Mali Bero, but it seems extremely unlikely that he was, as legend and the size of his grave indicate, seven meters tall.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

here is considerable evidence to indicate that humans inhabited the Sahara of northern Niger some 600,000 years ago, until four centuries ago when desert appeared and developed in the area. Long before the arrival of French influence and control in the area, Niger was an important economic crossroads, and control of portions of Niger were contested by the empires of Songhai, Mali, Gao, Kanem and Bornu, as well as by a number of Hausa states. During recent centuries, the nomadic Tuareg formed large confederations, pushed southward and, siding with various Hausa states, clashed with the Fulani Empire of Sokoto, which had gained control of the Hausa territory in the late 18th century. Historically there have been four groups of settled people in Niger: the Songhai and the Zarma, the Hausa, the Kanuri and the Gourmantch. The three groups of nomad populations include: the Peuhl (Fulani), the Tuareg and the Toubou.

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41 These populations represent only parts of the tribes whose members live in different countries. For example, the Hausa, one of the oldest populations of Africa, number over 55 million people scattered throughout the whole continent. The majority of them live in Nigeria.

PRE-COLONIALISM PERIOD
Very little is known about the origins of all these tribes, because events were mainly orally reported; the only written works were legends. The reports of the military conquests show the migrations of the populations and the spreading of the Islamic faith. They also give some information about the tribes themselves. A few examples: The Songhai, during the 16th century, and the Peuhl (Fulani), at the beginning of the 19th century, played a major part in the spreading of the Islamic faith in West Africa while they extended their empires. The Hausa instituted a democratic system very early, and the King, elected by all the dignitaries, could also be dethroned by them. The King was not sacred, and the government was so organized that the galadima (a kind of palace manager) was a very important person, along with other dignitaries such as the army chief, the cavalry chief, the prison chief, etc. The Garamantes (a subgroup of the Toubou tribe) were the first people to cross the Sahara and to control its caravan tracks. The Tuaregs society is still based on matriarchy; the head of the family is not the father but the mothers brother.

EXPLORATION OF WEST AFRICA

The 19th century saw the beginning of contacts with the West, as the first European explorers went through the area searching for the mouth of the Niger River. Principal explorers include: Mungo Park Heinrich Barth Natchtigal Lt. Col. Monteil British German German French Time of exploration: Time of exploration: Time of exploration: Time of exploration: 1805-1819 1850-1855 1870 1891-1892

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FRENCH CONQUEST OF NIGER

Although French efforts at pacification began before 1900, dissident ethnic groups, especially the desert Tuaregs, were not subdued until 1922, when Niger became a French colony. The French empire covered 12.5 million square kilometers and affected more than 70 million people in West and Central Africa. The conquest of Niger was done by soldiers rather than by civilians, which resulted in the French presence in large tracts of commercially useless land, whereas Britain, whose military expeditions in West Africa were largely dictated by trade considerations, obtained much smaller but commercially more valuable areas. As with most African states, Niger never existed as such during the pre-colonial period, as no state structure or pre-state covered the bulk of what is now the current Republic of Niger. The first states to be formed in this space, during the 8th century, were those of the Songhai along the Niger River, and the Kanem on the banks of Lake Chad. Various Hausa, Tuareg and Fulani states then emerged and were constantly fighting each other for territorial positions. Until the settlement of the French, even the name Niger was only used to designate the river and was never the name of any state. There was resistance from ethnic groups to this conquest, especially in the North, where the revolt of the Tuaregs took place in the Ar from 1916 until 1919. All the resistance movements were defeated by the arms superiority of the invaders. In 1900, Niger was turned into a military territory and then became a French colony in 1922. Its first capital was Zinder (capital of the Damagaroun region), but in 1927, the Colonial Administration decided to transfer its headquarters to Niamey.

THE ECONOMY UNDER THE FRENCH ADMINISTRATION

One of the preoccupations of the Administration during the colonial period was to exploit the resources of the colony. While the import and the export trade was in the hands of a few large French companies, the administration stimulated economic activity in several ways, the principal one being taxation. This encouraged the production of the so-called cash crop for export (such as groundnuts), and it forced the labor in the areas which grew no cash crop to migrate into areas which did. Niger colonial history and development paralleled that of other French West African territories. French West Africa was administered from Paris through a Governor General in Dakar, Senegal, and governors in the individual territories, including Niger. The French Constitution of 1946, in addition to conferring French citizenship

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43 on the inhabitants of the territories, provided for a certain decentralization of power and limited participation in political life to local advisory assemblies. A further revision in the organization of overseas territories began with the passage of the Overseas Reform Act (Loi Cadre) of July 23, 1956, which was followed by reorganizational measures voted by the French Parliament early in 1957. In addition to removing remaining voting inequalities, these laws provided for the creation of governmental organs assuring a large measure of self-government to individual territories. On December 4, 1958, after the establishment of the Fifth French Republic, Niger became an autonomous state within the French Community (similar to the British Commonwealth). Niger became an independent Republic on August 3, 1960. According to a Constitution adopted on November 8, 1960, the Republic had a President and National Assembly elected for five years.

INDEPENDENT REPUBLIC OF NIGER

For its first 14 years as an independent state, Niger was run by a single-party civilian regime under the presidency of Hamani Diori. In 1974, a combination of devastating drought and accusations of rampant corruption resulted in a military coup, which overthrew the Diori regime and suspended the Constitution of 1960. Colonel Seyni Kountche and a small group of military ruled the country until Kountches death in 1987. His regime was known for its stability and lack of corruption. He was succeeded by his Chief of Staff, Colonel Ali Sabou, who released political prisoners, liberalized some of Nigers laws and policies, and promulgated a new constitution. However, President Sabous efforts to control political reforms failed in the face of union and student demands to institute a multi-party democratic system. The Sabou regime acquiesced to these demands by the end of 1990. New political parties and civic associations sprang up and a National Conference was convened in July 1991 to prepare the way for the adoption of a new constitution and the holding of free and fair elections. A transition government was installed in November 1991 to manage the affairs of the state until the institutions of the Third Republic were put in place in April 1993. On April 16, 1993, President Mahamane Ousmane took office as the first democratically and freely elected President of the Republic. President Ousmane faced a deteriorating economy, ethnic rebellions and political rivalries, and in 1995, elections forced him to appoint his rival, Hama Amadou, as prime minister. Their rivalry paralyzed the government and lead to strikes and unrest. On January 27, 1996, a military coup dtat deposed both men and sponsored elections, which were rigged by coup leader General Ibrahim Barr Manassara, who was elected president. His regime was known for corruption, repression and incompetence, and was plagued by protests, strikes and even mutinies by unpaid soldiers. When he

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44 was assassinated by his own presidential guard at the Niamey airport in April 1999, no one protested. Major Daouda Malam Wank, head of the presidential guard, became president after Barrs assassination. He lifted a ban on political activity, dismissed the National Assembly, and replaced the government with the Council for National Reconciliation. Elections were announced for November 1999, and on December 21, 1999, Tandja Mamadou was inaugurated as the most recent freely-elected president of Niger. Tandja appointed Hama Amadou as prime minister after his National Movement for Society in Development (MNSD) party won a majority of seats in the National Assembly. Former President Mahamane Ousmane was elected Speaker of the Assembly.

GOVERNMENT AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS

Nigers new constitution was approved in December 1992. It provides for a semipresidential system of government in which executive power is shared by the president of the republic, elected by universal suffrage for a five-year term, and a prime minister, named by the president. The unicameral legislature is comprised of 83 deputies elected for a five-year term under a proportional system of representation. Nigers independent judicial system is composed of four higher courtsthe Court of Appeals, the Supreme Court, the High Court of Justice and the Court of State Security. The country is divided into 8 departments, which are subdivided into 36 districts (arrondissements). The chief administrator (prfet) in each territorial unit is appointed by the government and functions primarily as the local agent of the central authorities. (These divisions and appointments are changing, and may be updated at this time). The 1992 constitution provides for the popular election of municipal and local officials. Nigers 1991 National Conference allowed political voices that had been silenced for years to express themselves freely and publicly. The debate was often contentious and accusatory, but under the leadership of Professor Andr Salifou, the conference developed consensus on the modalities of a transition government. It established three governmental organs to run the country during a 15-month period. The governments primary tasks were to stabilize the economy, deal with a growing rebellion by Tuareg rebels, and pave the way for multi-party elections. While the economy deteriorated over the course of the transition, certain accomplishments stand out, including the successful conduct of a constitutional referendum, the

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45 adoption of key legislation, such as the electoral and rural codes, and the holding of three nationwide elections, all of which were free, fair and non-violent. Freedom of the press flourished with the appearance of several new independent newspapers.

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INTRODUCTION TO ETHNICITY
Toto, I dont think were in Kansas anymore. The Wizard of Oz

or an American, Niger must seem to have a confusing array of ethnic groups. In reality Niger has far fewer ethnicities than some of its neighbors, such as Nigeria and Burkina Faso. Niger has also been spared most of the brutal ethnic clashes that have rocked other African countries. Clashes between ethnic groups do occur, of course, but these struggles are generally viewed as struggles between agrarian peoples who live by farming, and the nomadic and semi-nomadic peoples who live by herding, and are not viewed as ethnic clashes per se. Furthermore, many people attribute the Nigerien tradition of joking (plaisanterie) between ethnic groups to the relative lack of clashes and fighting between the groups. Certain groups share jokes and are allowed to insult and mock each other, even if they are strangers. The groups that joke together call each other cousins. This type of humor may seem harsh to the non-Nigerien, but it is all taken in good fun, and most individuals are able to give as well as they receive. There are six major ethnic groups that make up the population of Niger. Each ethnic group has subdivisions that vary in customs and practices from other sub-groups, even though they are from the same general ethnic group. Following is a short summary of where each group is located, their population, their main livelihood, and any distinctive features, such as dress or facial markings. While many ethnic groups can be easily identified by their facial scarrings, this practice is becoming less prevalent with each new generation. As Niger continues to change, so does the ethnographic make-up of the country. As people continue to move to the cities, urban areas are taking on a more diverse look. Hausa (approximately 56% of the population or about 5.1 million people) The Hausa are comprised of the Maouri, Gobirawa, Katsinawa, Daourawa, Aderawa, Azana, Konnawa, Damagarawa, Kourfayawa and Sosebaki groups. They live mainly in the departments of Tahoua, Maradi, Zinder, Agadez, and east of Filingu. Specifically in the areas of Dogondoutchi, Birni nKonni, Madaoua, Tibiri, Guidan Roundji, Tessoua, Madarounfa, Matameye, Magaria, Keta, Bouza, Illela, and Guidan Ider. The Gobirawa are recognized either by six scars on the right cheek and five scars on the left cheek running from the mouth to the ears, or by two scars on each cheek, or by one scar on the left cheek. The Katsinawa are recognized by a multitude of scars on the two cheeks from the mouth to the ears. The Arawa are recognized by two scars on each cheek from the mouth to the ears, or by two scars on each cheek, but which only go a little past the mouth, without reaching the ears.

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47 Hausa is one of the most important languages in West Africa, largely because of the renowned Hausa traders and their far-reaching commercial network. Their principal occupations are as commerants, farmers, and herders. Songhai / Zarma (approximately 22% of the population or about 2 million people) The Zarma are an ethnic subgroup of the Songhai people, whose powerful kingdom in the 14th and 15th centuries covered what is now Mali and western Niger. The Songhai/Zarma are further divided into the following sub-groups: Kourte, Wogo, Songniake, Zarma-Maouri, Dendi and Soudje. In general these groups live in the areas of Tera, Tillaberi, Ayerou, the Islands of Tillaberi, Karma, Filingu, Ouallam, Kollo (Fakara), Say and Loga (Boboye). Their main occupations are farming, fishing and herding. Songhai are recognized by a large scar on the left or right cheek. The Zarmas are recognized by three small scars at the edges of the mouth, or by three small scars just below the ears. The Kourte are recognized by a cross (+) high on each cheek. Fulani (approximately 8.5% of the population or about 782,000 people) Fulanis, or Peuhl, live throughout Niger with large concentrations in the areas of Maine Soroa, Nguigmi, Filingu, and Say. They make their living as herders, although there are many sedentary agricultural groups of Fulanis. The Bororo (Wodaabe), a smaller group of the Fulani, are easily recognized by their braids, their make-up and their purely traditional dress. The Wodaabe are nomadic cattle herders who live in the pastoral zone and make their living solely from livestock raising. Fulfulde is the language of the Fulanis. Tuareg (Kel Tamajek) (approximately 8% of the population or about 736,000 people) The Tuaregs generally live in the areas of Agadez and Tahoua, with concentrations in Tera, Filingue, Tillabery and Madoua. The language they speak is Tamaschek. Unlike the other ethnic groups of Niger, the Tuaregs have their own alphabet, Tifinar, composed of circles, dashes, dots, squares and triangles. The slaves of the Tuaregs, the Bouzou or Bella, also speak Tamaschek, and are sedentary farmers. The Tuaregs can be recognized by their clothing, their style of turban wrapping, their lighter skin and straight hair. They are primarily herders, silversmiths and leather craftsmen. Kanouri (approximately 4.3% of the population or 395,000 people) The Kanouris, or Beri Beri, are generally located in the areas of Tanout, Zinder, Nguigmi, Bilma, Diffa, Gour and the area around Lake Chad. They can be recognized by a multitude of scars everywhere on the face. The Kanouris make their living as fishermen, commerants and herders. The language they speak is Beri-Beri, or Manga.

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48 Toubou (approximately 1.2% of the population) The Toubous live in region of Diffa near Lake Chad, north of Gour, and in the region of Bilma. Gourmantche (approximately 1.2% of the population) The Gourmantche people live in the areas of Say and Torodi. They make their living as farmers and herders. Arabs (approximately 1.2% of the population) Arabs live scattered throughout Niger and make their living as commerants. Other Naturalized Citizens Population approx. 9,100 Naturalized citizens from other places make up a small number of Nigers population. They most often live in cities and tend to make their living as merchants or entrepreneurs. French is the official language of Niger, but only about 10 percent of Nigeriens speak it. Many can speak Hausa, which is used for communication and trade between ethnic groups. Ten languages have official recognition in Niger: Arabic, Boudouma, Zarma, Fulfulde, Goumantchema, Hausa, Kanuri, Tamaschek, Tasawak and Toubou. Many people are multilingual.

MEANING OF THE NIGER FLAG

he Niger flag is brightly colored. It is made up of three horizontal bands of equal size, placed from top to bottom in the following order: orange, white and green. There is a small orange globe representing the sun in the middle of the white band, and its diameter is about half of the width of the band. Each color has its meaning: The orange represents our dry Sahara and invites mankind to strive in order to conquer its sands. The white is the color of purity and innocence; it stands for the conscience of the citizen who does his duty perfectly. The orange globe in the middle of the white band symbolizes the sacrifice made by the people of Niger in their struggle for rights and justice.

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49 The green color of expectation represents the productive and fertile zone of the Republic of Niger; this land, if cultivated and made prosperous, will help in the establishment of peace and stability among its citizens. The Republic of Niger has the following motto: Fraternit, Travail, Progrs.

ARMORIAL BEARINGS
The center of the coat of arms contains a blazon with a glittering sun in the middle. On the left side of the sun is a spear, crossed by two Tuareg swords. On its right side are three heads of millet, and below the sun is a buffalos head. The entire blazon is of gold. It is set on a trophy of four flags of the Republic of Niger. The inscription Rpublique du Niger is placed beneath.

EDUCATION

he education system in Niger is based on the French system, and it resembles a triangle, with significantly more students at the wide base than at the pointed top. Enrollment is mandatory in primary school, but because of family obligations and differing attitudes regarding the importance of education, only about one-fourth of students actually go. In rural areas, more boys attend primary school than girls, who are more likely to stay home and help their mothers and care for younger siblings. Many families prefer to send their children to Koranic schools in the village than to send them to primary school. In most medium-sized villages in Niger, there will be a primary school, even if it is just a millet-stalk hangar with children sitting on mats on the ground. There are six forms (grades) in primary school. In order to advance from primary school to junior high school, students must pass a difficult exam. Because middle schools are located in larger villages and towns, students must either travel to get to school, or stay with family members or hosts who agree to put them up. Another difficult exam is required to pass to high school. These are located in cities, which again require living with family members or lodgers in order to continue studies. There is one government university located in Niamey. School instruction is in French, for the most part, although there are some experimental schools which teach wholly or partly in local language or Arabic.

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HOLIDAY GUIDE TO NIGER

RamadanThe month of Ramadan begins when the new moon is sighted. The Moslem year is based on the cycles of the moon, so each year it is approximately 1015 days earlier. This is true of all Muslim holidays. Most countries follow the radio announcement of the sighting of the moon. People generally know that Ramadan is a fasting month, however, it can be a pleasant social time. Those who are fasting do not drink or eat anything (including water) during daylight hours. At nightfall they will have drinks like bissap or tamarind juice and a light snack to break their fast. A little later they have a big meal. In many places there is special food that you dont get at other times, and it is almost like a celebration. Work doesnt cease during Ramadan, but in the afternoon you may find many people sleeping. It is important to plan your work activities accordinglythis is not a good time for a big project. Id El FitrThis is celebrated the day after the Ramadan fast has ended. Early in the morning of the feast day, the householder gives out alms zakat-el-fitri on behalf of his household. The householder will generally give out one measure of grain (millet, sorghum, rice, wheat, etc.) for each member of his family. After the alms have been given out, the men will dress up in their best clothes and go to the edge of the village for a special prayer. For the feasts of both Ramadan and Tabaski, each householder tries as best he can to buy himself and his family new clothes. For the feast of Ramadan, if the householder is able to afford it, he will slaughter several chickens and buy enough meat for a massive meal to be prepared for the family and for distribution to the neighbors; in fact there is generally enough to feed anyone who happens to come by. Young boys and girls spend the next two to three days visiting the houses of relations and acquaintances. Everywhere they go, their new clothes are loudly admired, and gifts of money, sugar or small candies are given to them. Oftentimes entertainers come to larger towns on the feast day, including minstrels and snake, hyena, monkey and scorpion charmers. Religious elders will also gather to recite Muslim religious songs or to recite the Koran from memory. Id El Kabir (Tabaski)This holiday takes place 70 days after the feast of Ramadan, and is the celebration of Abrahams willingness to sacrifice his son, Ishmael. This differs from the Christian belief that Abraham was willing to sacrifice his son, Isaac. A sheep or goat is slaughtered and shared with friends. The feast of Tabaski is in some ways similar the feast of Ramadan. In the morning all of the men will go to the praying ground at the edge of the village for the large communal prayer. Unlike Ramadan, however, a sheep will be slaughtered. The feast of Tabaski will generally last for two days.

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51 Id El Mouloud NebewiThe birthday of Mohammed. People will usually gather in the mosque and sing praises of the Prophet (peace and blessing of God be upon him) or read and translate the Koran. The marabouts will offer short prayers to which those who are present suitably respond. When people return to their homes, those who can afford it will distribute alms to the poor, and there will be a continuation of prayers for the prophet as part of the thanksgiving for the anniversary of this holy day. There is usually a feast in the evening. During the day there is a celebration in which stories of Mohammeds life are told or sung. January 1: Jour de lAnOn New Years Eve some people will have party-type activities in larger cities. Government offices and some larger businesses will be closed on New Years Day. May 1Fte du TravailThis is a business holiday, marking international Labor Day but not much else goes on. August 3, 1960Independence DayThere are often parades and political meetings. People also plant trees on Independence Day to combat desertification. December 18, 1958Proclamation of the Republic of NigerPolitical meetings are generally held.

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PCV Life
THE TOUGHEST JOB YOULL EVER LOVE
o what is it about this slogan that rings so true for Volunteers? Contrary to popular belief, in most cases it is not the physical hardships that can make the job so tough. It is generally not the fact that most PCVs (in Niger at least) live without running water or electricity. It is not even the harshness of the seasons or the bugs or those pesky intestinal difficulties. In most situations, the toughness has to do with getting used to the different-ness, and trying to adjust to (and frequently clashing with) another culture. Examine a few of the frustrating situations that PCVs experience, and in the vast majority of cases, culture is at the core of the difficulty. Whether or not some other external factor seems to be causing the problem, chances are closer examination will reveal culture to be the true culprit. Do you continually ask yourself whyit seems so difficult for people to form a simple line at the post office? It might be cultural. Are you frustrated becausethe chef dagriculture says he will not sign off on your project because he did not know about it ahead of time? Protocolthats cultural too. Do you wonder whythe kids staring through your concession wall find you so endlessly fascinating? And all youre doing is washing your socks? Their behavior and your reaction are, for the most part, cultural.

If you find yourself emotionally pleading Whyyyy?, or frequently repeating the phrase I dont understand, there a strong possibility the issue youre confronting is a cultural one. The following section is a compilation of tips, hints and suggestions offered by Volunteers and Peace Corps staff on a variety of topics. While you may find enormous value in some of the ideas, others may not ring true for your situation. These are by no means meant to be a list of Dos and Donts for you to follow to the letter. Rather they are experience sharing by those who have been in similar, although definitely not identical, situations as your own. Read through them and take whats useful for you. Some of the suggestions may have been repeated previously. Chances are if youre reading something more than one time, then it really is that important. And may the youll ever love part of the slogan be true for you in more cases than not.

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GETTING STARTED
Be social, be social, be social. All of my friends responded well and welcomed me because I went around and talked to them, no matter how exhausting. Learn jobs. Pound with women, go to the well, plant millet/peanuts/rice/a garden. People will respect you for taking time to learn what they know and being willing to sweat right along with them. These things are easy to do early on with little language. Have patience. Friendships here are different but still powerful. Be outgoing and hang out with people that make you feel good. Work with people, have a garden, field, or ask to work in someones field or garden, or learn to cook something, make something. Visit people. Hang out even if you dont know whats going on. Host people, make them tea or whatever youve got. It all fits in the category of just spending time with people. PCVs in Niger etting to know your community and becoming established there can be one of the most difficult things youll do in your time in Niger. It takes enormous discipline and initiative to get out and get to know people. Oftentimes its much more tempting just to hole up in your house. The following are some ideas for how to get to know people and to help them get to know you. This attempt to see and be seen will help tremendously in demystifying yourself for those around you, and will help you start to recognize your future friends and neighbors. Go out in the village and simply greet people. They know you do not hear Zarma or Hausa yet. But walk around just meeting people. Know that you are a novelty. It may be exhausting just to smile by the end of the day, and everyone will be talking about you, but it is worth the effort. Go out to the fields with a neighbor or friends. The hard work does not require too many language skills and your efforts will be noticed. Realize that people will be watching you learn how to work your field, so be patient. And be prepared to be told that you are doing something wrong. You will be laughed at, because after all, it is kind of funny. Eat meals with a friend or neighbor.

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54 If its feasible and when you can, pull your own water. If someone brings you water, still go to the well. Its a great place to sit and watch, listen, and just be seen by your neighbors. Try carrying water on your head. Once again, you will be laughed at. But the effort to work will be appreciated and noticed. Male volunteers especially may take advantage of going to the well. Its a great public place to interact with women. Try fasting for a day or a week or even for the month of Ramadan. Maybe even learn some prayers and to write in Arabic. Dont be offended if people tell you or ask you to pray. Feel free to explain your beliefs (if you can). Along with religion, be open and honest about American culture. You may be surprised how many questions they have about Americans and also about all the misconceptions they might hold. Be careful about the friends you choose. The first people you meet and the first ones who approach you are not necessarily the ones you want to associate with. Remember that if someone has enough time to be constantly hanging around you, he may be a loafer, which can indicate laziness. The ones you will eventually get to know and like will probably be the ones out working in their fields when you first get there. Also remember that if you primarily associate with younger Nigeriens, the older Nigeriens may not take you seriously. Ask a local artisan to teach you his/her craft. Learn a few drum rhythms, or maybe a few chords on the two-string. Whatever you choose, people will be impressed, or at least entertained, by your efforts. If being an apprentice doesnt interest you, just hanging out and watching the various activities shows that you take an interest in peoples personal lives. Take a walk with the men or women in your village to the neighboring market. Spend the day (or even just the afternoon) with them while they sell their goods, and return home together in the evening. Walking with people from your village on their journeys can really make you feel like you belong. Ask questions. And then ask some more questions. And then ask different people the very same questions, even if you dont fully understand the answers. Peace Corps Niger

55 Ask about last years crop, the types of trees near the village, what people do on exode, what they think of Americans or know about America, etc. Find out where people are hanging out every day and then make a point of going there. It might be the village square, by the big gao tree, at the coffee table or by the millet grinding machine. Make a schedule for being out in the village and establish that time as part of your daily routine. Remember that Peace Corps is a cultural and friendship organization. Two of the three goals have to do with culture and not technical assistance, so the time you take to get to know people and allow them to get to know you is 2/3 of Peace Corps mission. This is what laying the foundation in the beginning and maintaining positive relations throughout your service is all about. Show people around you pictures of your family and friends from the States. Chances are you will have had practice doing this in national language during training, so it is a good demonstration that you do indeed speak the language. (If you do offer to take pictures of people you know, be prepared to explain that you cant take pictures of everybody). People may ask if you want to have your feet hennaed or your hair braided, or they may even tell you to wear traditional clothes. They just want you to be a Hausa or a Zarma. When you do join them in getting dressed up for ftes, they will love it and will see that you are willing to do a lot to learn about them. However be careful with displaying wealth. Many PCVs have one (or two) fte outfits which they wear on special occasions in their village. Ask a friend or one of the midwives if you can go with him/her to a baptism or a wedding in the village. You dont have to stay long. Just go, and show the family that you wanted to greet them or congratulate them. Bring a small gift: maybe 100 cfa or a couple of bars of soap. Especially in the beginning, you will notice that people will sometimes talk about you in the third person, as if youre not even standing there. Remind them that you do speak some Hausa/Zarma, and to have patience with you while you are learning their language. Remember the third goal. Write home about Niger. Keep in touch with your Worldwise school. Take pictures to send to friends in the States. And gather materials for presentations youll make once you go home. Just as you are trying to present the best face of America for those you know in Niger, remember to present the best face of Niger for those at home. Chances are you are their only

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56 window into Nigerien culture, so take that responsibility seriously. Respect Niger and her people in everything you do and say. Go visit another PCV at post. This is one of the best ways to learn language and glean pieces of information about culture. Its a great way to process life at post, and chances are when you get back to your village, you will be happy to be home. Go and visit, but try not to compare yourself to others. Every village is different; every PCV is different. Make each day your own. Try to be yourself. You are in a foreign country, with a different name, speaking a different language, and doing everything for the first time. Communication may seem impossible and many demands are placed on you. Really think about what your strengths are. Call upon them. More than anything, use humor. When you understand the jokes, tease back. Situations that may seem so trying (daily requesting of various personal items or money) can be alleviated with MUCH PATIENCE and wit. Nearly every day, you may be asked for something. You are a foreigner; you are and always will be seen as different and wealthy. There is some truth to that. But Nigeriens ask each other for gifts ALL THE TIME. It is a tremendously generous culture and sharing everything is part of life. It does feel good to bring home, on occasion, things from the market. Try it. Surprise someone with a kola nut. They will not forget. Be careful again about displays of wealth. It may seem like there is nothing to do, yet it can still be very fatiguing. All the effort you put forth initially helps down the road. Enjoy your time. Enjoy your neighbors. There are intricacies and aspects to life here that are found nowhere else, and they are wonderful.

SUGGESTIONS FOR CREATING PRIVACY AND PERSONAL SPACE IN A VILLAGE SETTING

he amount of privacy an individual needs is a personal choice. While some people need several hours of solitude each day, others are content to have only a few minutes to themselves. Many Volunteers find their requirements for privacy change while they are here. Wherever you fall on this spectrum, it is important to know how to create your boundaries for personal space in a village

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57 setting. This is not always easy with limited language skills. Perhaps an even bigger obstacle is that privacy and personal space are very foreign ideas to Nigeriens. If someone comes and sits with you at your house all day (including sieste), they are not intentionally invading your right to time alone; they simply arent aware you have such requirements. Or perhaps they may even feel sorry for you that you are alone, so far away from your family and friends, and so by sitting with you they are keeping you company so you dont have to be alone. How, then, is it possible to let people know that you need space without being rude, or the ever-dreaded culturally insensitive? Following is a list of suggestions from different Volunteers. As with all ideas in this manual, try a few methods that may suit your personal situation. Try to remember people are just curious about you and your belongings, but you do have the right to draw the line. These ideas are not intended to cut you off from people; rather they are to help you manage potentially overwhelming situations. Spend as much time as possible out and about in the village. This will demystify you a bit, and people will understand if you want to rest a while if they have seen you around the village all day. Have the Peace Corps staff member or PCV Coordinator who installs you explain on the first day your personal guidelines and why you have those guidelines. People will come to understand if you tell them that when the door to your concession is closed, you are resting or working. Dont expect they will just guess this or other signals. Be firm about who is allowed in your house, and make your boundaries clear from the start. You can always ease up over time. If your house is a three-ring circus from the start, it will be difficult to establish peace and quiet when you need it. Have chairs or a mat outside in a shady area. When visitors come over, escort them to this area. This often averts the question of people you dont know barging into your house. If you decide you want to have people in your house, put private/personal items you dont want touched in a back room or in a trunk. This goes for expensive items as well. People are curious and many things in your house are unfamiliar. It is only normal that people will want to explore. Arrange to have an experienced Volunteer visit your post soon after you are installed. This is a good chance to have any problems straightened out that you may not have enough language skills to solve yourself. It is also a good Peace Corps Niger

58 opportunity to ask questions such as was this a normal situation or were people trying to take advantage? Make sure a neighbor or guardian is familiar with the rules of your house. They can help you make your desires for time alone understood by others in the village. BE FIRM! You have the right to control your life. If you dont want your concession run over with children or if you dont want people in your house, that is your choice. If things dont bother you, that is fine. Over time you may or may not change your guidelines. Your desire for personal space may be greater in the beginning when you have less control over what goes on around you. Try not to worry about offending people. It is all right to assert yourself and say no! If someone does take offense to something you do, do not worry about it too much. Fortunately for us, Nigeriens are very forgiving. People dont hold grudges, and chances are the next day youll be laughing together.

SECURITY IN A FOREIGN CULTURE

ersonal safety is a concern in Niger, as it is anywhere in the world. While you are here, however, there are many things you must consider in trying to keep yourself safe, in addition to the considerations at home. As an American, you will stand out here regardless of race, religion, dress-style or language ability. This is an important reason why it is vital to try to understand the culture in which you are living. While a certain action may signal self-assurance in the States, it may have a completely different meaning to a Nigerien. Unfortunately, paying attention to your signals and actions will not completely prevent anything from happening to you. It cant hurt, however. Throughout training and even your two years of service, there will be extensive talk about cultural sensitivity. This is the idea of adapting ones behavior to show respect for or fit in with a particular culture. In the beginning, however, it is often unclear when actions are or are not culturally sensitive. Because of the desire to fit in, we are often wiling to try out experiences we are not comfortable with. When faced with these new situations, how is it possible to tell which situations are uncomfortable because of cultural differences, and which situations are truly threatening? The best answer is to TRUST YOUR INSTINCTS! Cultural sensitivity is important, but not at the expense of your safety or well-being. Do not pass up a chance to get out of an ambiguous situation because of fear of being rude. Any simple misunderstanding can be fixed later. Assault, harassment, rape or robbery cannot.

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59 Following are a list of suggestions to help keep yourself safe. Please note those suggestions that apply specifically to differences in culture. While you are at your site: Trust your instincts; cultural sensitivity is extremely important, but not at the expense of your safety or sense of well-being. Villagers would not jeopardize themselves either, so they will understand this approach. Especially as new people are getting to know you, understand how messages that you send through your behavior (drinking, dancing, smoking, entertaining after dark, how you sit, etc.) and your dress may be interpreted in this culture. With the help of your APCD or PCV Coordinator, establish a contact person in the village as soon as you can make determination about who to trust. Have that person help you make your rules and values clear to others. Know who safe friends will be. Dont be alone with people you dont know. Invite a trusted friend to join you or talk with the person outside of your concession, perhaps at a neighbors house. You dont have to see visitors you dont want, and you can ask them to leave. Give clear messages about which behaviors are acceptable and unacceptable to you. When you arrive at post, be direct and blunt in confronting behaviors which are unacceptable to you. Talk to your neighbors about it to make others aware of the behavior. They can help to exert pressure on others. Ask for help and support from the people around you. Your community will want to support you. They want you to feel comfortable in your home. People in the village often help each other out. For women: some things are easier for men to do in this culture. If you ask them for help, it does not mean that you are no longer self-sufficient or independent. Be aware that the actions of other Volunteers (your predecessor at post, the PCV in a neighboring village) will affect peoples impressions and expectations of you. There is a tendency to think PCVs are all the same. Remember that this is a different culture, and the psychology of a situation may not be the same as similar situations in your own culture. For instance, a polygamist may view relationships in a very different way than you might. Take time to observe and learn before you decide what risks to take.

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60 Have a guardian, a dog, a family close by or children that spend time at your house, especially at night. You do not have to have the same guardian or companions as the last PCV. Choose people with whom you feel comfortable. Say that you have a fiance or even a spouse somewhere. Listen to the advice of your villagers; the ones you trust are probably pretty good judges of character. When in doubt, be on the safe side; ask another PCV or a villager for impressions. Both groups may offer insights in handling a difficult situation. When you are away from your site: Travel at night only when absolutely necessary. Most accidents and most crimes occur after dark. Travel with others whenever possible; children are usually willing companions. Let someone in your village know where you are whenever you leave. This is for your safety and to help others find you should there be an emergency. Be firm and forceful in your dealings with strangers. Learn basic physical self-defense and break-away techniques. Always be aware of your surroundings. Establish a peer network of PCVs and use it when you travel. Go to a Volunteers house after a long day of travel. Use the same common sense in cities that you would in the U.S. You can always say no if someone offers you a ride. Many people offer PCVs rides with only good intentions, but definitely feel out the situation before you accept.

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Nigeriens to Ol Yellar: Go Away, Dog

As many of you have learned or will soon learn, there are many differing viewpoints between Westerners and Nigerien people. One of these varying viewpoints is on dogs. Dogs do not play the same role for a Nigerien family as they do in Western families, and consequently opinions of dogs and how they should This does not mean be treated vary. Dogs here are not you should beat or considered part of the family. They starve your dog; are not regularly simply be more fed of given water because they are scavengers and considerate with them. not domestic pets. Their role is purely functional. They are used for hunting, guarding a concession or herding animals not for companionship. Nigeriens consider dogs one of the lowest and dirtiest animals here. People often see them eating dead and rotted animals, and dogs will even eat feces if they are hungry enough. Dogs often carry disease and are bug infested, which makes them a treat in many different ways. Most Nigeriens wont spend money to treat their dogs, so most dogs are not vaccinated against rabies. The Quran and Islamic beliefs strongly influence opinions on dogs. Dogs are considered to be impure animals. If a Muslim touches a dog, he or she must wash entirely and repeat ablutions (religious sacrament). If a dog eats or licks from a dish, it must be washed seven times before it is clean. Often a person would simply throw the dish away because it would be foul and filthy to eat from anything a dog has eaten from. Dogs are also believed to scare away angels, angels who protect people, and are consequently considered threatening in more ways than just health and sanitation. It is an insult to bring a dog into a automobile; Nigeriens are utterly incensed by its presence and will often get out of a car if a dog is present. The car and everyone in it becomes soiled. If the passengers do not complain, they keep quiet merely out of respect for you as a foreigner and a Volunteer. Many Westerners are accustomed to viewing dogs as friends and companions, but here foreigners must be sensitive to the extreme nature of Nigeriens perspectives on dogs. This does not mean you should beat or starve your dogs; it simply means you should be more considerate when deciding how to treat them and where to take them because bringing dogs in cars or to another persons house is incredibly offensive.

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62 As with some other behaviors, you should modify your behavior with dogs and avoid imposing their presence on Nigeriens, who truly consider them vile animals. In the end, what is most important is to respect the beliefs and traditions of the country you are living in. It is important to respect Nigeriens views, even if you dont always agree with them, respect is one of your responsibilities as a cultural ambassador. A few wealthy Nigeriens own dogs and threat them almost like Westerners do, yet not everyone in these families shares the same opinions of dogs. Most Nigeriens, especially in rural areas, overwhelmingly regard dogs as unclean and offensive.

Abdourahamane

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WHO AM I?

he following triangle is Maslows hierarchy of needs. It is a model of the needs of an individual. The higher levels cannot be achieved until the lower levels are filled. While living in America, most Peace Corps Volunteers were highly motivated, independent, and creative individuals, operating at the highest level of this pyramid. What happens upon our arrival in a foreign culture? Suddenly we find ourselves with little language ability, little knowledge of the culture, and unfamiliar with the surrounding people and environment. We also find ourselves barely able to provide ourselves with the lower levels of needs on the pyramid. This plunge can be quite a blow to ones self-image and confidence level.

One of the greatest challenges during Peace Individuality, creativity Self assertiveness Corps service Expression can be climbing back up this Achievement, productivity, Competency ladder. It is not recognitions by peers, an easy process meaningful work and takes time. Affiliation, social, sexual, Unfortunately, Belonging professional, etc. as Americans, we tend to be achievementSafety and efficiencyPsychological and Physical Order and Structure oriented. There is often a Survival strong desire to Food and Shelter do something to adjust more quickly. Time seems to be the best medicine, but that is a difficult answer to accept when you are frustrated TODAY. It may help to try and jump to the top of the pyramid and call upon some of the self-expression techniques you used at home: art, exercise, dance and music are just a few ideas. If these are not feasible in your new environment, start looking for local alternatives. For example, if running in the village isnt an acceptable activity, working in the fields is a definite alternative workout.

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64 Finally remember patience. That word may drive you crazy at times, but it is also the key to your sanity.

WHAT ELSE CAN BE DIFFICULT?

Being dependent on others Especially in the first several months, it may be difficult for PCVs to feel so dependent on others. Although when you left home, you FELT like a capable adult, all of a sudden you become someone with no language, no defined work, and it sometimes seems like you have to rely on someone to do EVERYTHING for youget your water, fix your latrine wall, build a hangar, order a Hausa bed, etc. And more than that, people will sometimes demand to do things for you, and it may feel like they wont even allow you to do things for yourself. For some of us independent types, this can be a hard pill to swallow. At times, though, its best just to lay back and watch how others do things. Sometimes we find out, especially at the beginning, that we dont really know how things should be done, regardless of how confident we felt we could do them, or how much we itched to accomplish something ourselves. This is not a recommendation to let everyone do everything for you all time. Rather, allow people to show you how things are done here, and then pitch in and gradually learn to take care of them yourself. Gimme gimme gimme Chances are you will be asked frequently for thingsyour shoes, your shirt, 100 cfa, a mango, a notebook, your watch, a ballpoint pen, a trip to America, and on and on and on. And on and on and on. There are a couple of different strategies for this. One is to pop your cork and have a meltdownnever a recommended course of action. Another is to depersonalize the situation. Step back for a couple of minutes and look around you. Remove yourself from the actual situation. Realize that Nigeriens ask each other for things all the time, its part of the culture, its part of the humor, and its everyday life. Its not personal. Certainly it may have to do with the fact that you are a foreigner, but its not solely based on that. Probably some of the most humbling experiences you have in Niger will be when you visit a neighboring village, and in the course of leave-taking, you will be laden down with chickens, millet, ears of corn, kola nuts, sweet potatoes, and coins to buy yourself soap and cold water on the road. Nigerien culture is extremely generous, and at some point in your service you may begin to feel like you could never give back nearly as much as youve been given. One of the important things to remember is that you only need to give when you feel like giving. If youd rather not give something just because someone is asking you for it, make a joke out of it, or tell that person tomorrow, tomorrow. Chances are they are just kidding around with you, although the humor can be not-so-funny to our American sensibility. If you do want to give someone something, be aware that they will tell other people about it. They will be proud to show it off, and it will

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65 be noticed. Be aware that other people may ask you where theirs is, and when youre going to give them theirs. This is not a reason NOT to give something to the person you gave it to; just keep in mind that more forward types may press you for their own version of the gift. Heavyweight No-Nos While we reassure often that people will get used to you, and that they will come to accept your odd behaviors and eccentricities, there are a number of behaviors that you should be aware of that can affect people on a deeper level, more so than forgetting to take off your Tevas before stepping on a mat. These behaviors may cause you to be viewed as uncultured or mal-lv, and could eventually lose respect for you in the eyes of those with whom you live and work. Do not eat with your left hand. Do not offer money with your left hand. Try not to express strong emotions in public. Dont cry in front of people. Dont have an emotional breakdown in the market. Dont yell or argue in public. Avoid overly public displays of affection or overly physical contact with other Americans. While people will be used to French air kisses and will get used to hugs between Americans, other displays will be seen as bizarre and may make people uncomfortable in your presence. Greeting is important. This cannot be stressed enough. Even if you saw someone that morning and greeted them, greet them again in the afternoon. Greet the women at the post office. Ask them how their children are doing. Greet the men working in the fields as you are walking by and ask them how the rainy season is going. Greet the women at the well outside your house and ask them how the cold weather is. It takes so little effort, and yet puts you so far ahead, regardless of your potentially limited language abilities. Dont drink (alcohol) where you live. Or as the dog saying goes, Dont _ _ _ _ where you eat. Dont let people in your village see you drunk. Its just not worth the negative consequences and repercussions. And womenavoid smoking in your village, or only do it when youre alone in your concession. It may seem like a double standard, but its there nevertheless, and it all boils down to respect. Remember that as Americans, we tend to be abrupt. Jump right into business, cut to the chase, get down to the facts, wham, bam, thats it. Dealings, relations, and life in general in Niger are a lot slower. Consciously slow yourself down to the pace here. Take time. Greet people. Get to know them and allow them to get to know you. You will find that, in the end, your efforts will be much more productive if you calibrate your actions to the Nigerien pace of things. Peace Corps Niger

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IN SEARCH OFCULTURAL VALUES

Remember that just as you judge from your cultural standpoint, you are being judged from theirs. PCV Fiji

iguring out what values people in Niger hold isnt always easy, but it can be doneespecially if youre willing to pay attention to the interactions we have. One simple strategy is to step back from our situation and to analyze what our friends and colleagues say. The following dialogues are real situations that Volunteers have faced. They dont always present the best face of the speakers, but remember to withhold judgment at least until you understand why people behaved in this way. Look at each dialogue and see if you can figure out what cultural values each of the people hold. Then continue to the next section to see if you analyzed the situation the same way we did. (Note: preliminary greetings have been eliminated to save space).

Have Patience Volunteer: Childs mother: Volunteer: Childs mother: Volunteer: Childs mother: Volunteer: Childs mother: Volunteer: Childs mother: Open Face PCVL: Group of women: PCVL: Group of women: PCVL: Group of women:

How are the children? How is Salissou doing? There is no he (literal translation). Where did he go? No, he died. When? I just saw him when I visited last week. Night before last. Im sorry! Did you take him to the clinic? What did Major say? We had no money for the medicine. But couldnt you borrow the money? Couldnt you get the money? Its your child! Its the power of God. Its Gods will. Have patience.

Wed like to put another Volunteer in this village in two months. Oh, thanks be to God. Were grateful. May God give you blessings. He or she will be working with womens and childrens health like the last Volunteer. Oh, thats wonderful. We are thankful. May God carry us to that day. Would you prefer a man or a woman to come here? Whatever God brings. Whatever is brought by God, were

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67 grateful. Someone with an open face. What do you mean someone with an open face? Someone who likes people. The last Volunteer didnt like people. But I thought you worked well together. I thought she did good work here. Oh, she did work. She built a well, and she put in a fence for a garden. But she just didnt like people. She was locked up in her house all the time and she greeted people with difficulty. She did not have an open face. Just bring us someone with an open face who likes people. Youre back! Welcome back from your trip! Thank you. How is everyone here? Did I find everyone in health? Were all in health. Wheres my gift from the trip? Oh, you know I only went to Maradi. Well, when can I come over and get my gift from the trip? You know I really wasnt gone that long. Well, let me have your hat then. But I only have one hat. If I give it to you, then I wont have one. You can buy another one next time you go to Maradi. Ill come over later and you can give it to me. Should we meet with the other farmers tomorrow? Yes, if God agrees. What time should we meet then? In the afternoon, if God carries us to then. So well tell them about this project and what well do and what theyll do. Right, youll bring the fencing and the seeds and the gardening tools. Well, we could probably get those things through a grant, I think. What will the farmers do? Will they clear the garden space? Well, if you give them some money. The last project they worked with gave them money. But I dont have money like that. Theyll have to do something to contribute to it. Will they agree to prepare the plot themselves? Oh, I dont know. The last foreigners who were here gave them Peace Corps Niger

PCVL: Group of women: PCVL: Group of women:

Gimme Neighbor: PCV: Neighbor: PCV: Neighbor: PCV: Neighbor: PCV: Neighbor: Project Blues Volunteer: Group president: Volunteer: Group president: Volunteer: Group president: Volunteer:

Group president: Volunteer:

Group president:

68 money to clear the land. I dont know if theyll agree. Well have to see tomorrow when they come, if God gives us life. Analysis Have you been able to find at least a couple of Nigerien cultural values that are different from our own? It shouldnt have been too difficult. Read on to see if your conclusions about the dialogues match ours. In Have Patience, the mother is undoubtedly sad that her child has died, but feels that it was out of her hands. She knew her son was sick and that it would have been best to take him to the clinic, but the family would have had no money to pay for the medicine, even if they had taken him there in time. The Volunteer cant believe the family wouldnt have asked friends or other family members to lend them the money, or found it somewhere themselves. Its such a natural course of action for the Volunteer to get medicine for herself or someone in her family and have them get well, whereas the childs family may think that taking him to the clinic means hes going to die anyway. The mother feels as if its out of her hands (its the power of God), while the Volunteer feels as if theres always something that can be done. The mothers attitude represents Nigeriens patient acceptance of life as it comes. Inshallah and Sai hankuri/Kala sourou are perfect examples of this stoicism and fatalism, and the understanding that things are out of ones control. Still people laugh and joke around frequently, and rarely show anger or frustration in public. Have patience is commonly used to console or calm people in their times of woe or distress. In Open Face the Peace Corps Volunteer Leader was surprised that the women in the village so readily wanted another PCV to be placed there, even though they indicated that they hadnt liked the last PCV very much. The PCVL knew about the work that the other PCV had done, which the women acknowledged, but did not realize that people viewed that PCV as being closed and unfriendly. It almost seems as if the women in the village dont care how much work the PCV does or what he/she accomplishes, as long as that person greets others, is open to people, likes people, and seems to be a part of the village, instead of barricading themselves off from everyone in their home. In Gimme, the PCV is surprised by how blatant and persistent the neighbor is in asking for gifts. To her American sensibility, you dont just come right out and ask for something like a gift; you wait for the other person to offer it to you. Furthermore, you dont feel obligated to give something to somebody just because they ask for it or expect it. To the neighbor, he figures it never hurts to ask. The most the PCV can say is no. In addition, several other elements come into play here. For one, it is common for people in Niger to bring small gifts or food when they come back from a trip, so it is not unusual that he would expect something. Number two, Peace Corps Niger

69 if you step back and listen to conversations going on around you, you will hear that Nigeriens ask each other for things all the time. Its just part of everyday life, and is not necessarily directed at you or intended to pick on you. And thirdly, hes probably just kidding, or trying to have fun with the PCV, although the humor is sometimes not always obvious, and does not coincide with American humor at any real level. The best defense for the PCV would probably be to just joke along with him, or to put him off with Later, later, or If God agrees, and not to implode or explode and stomp away amid a running stream of English expletives. Project Blues illustrates a situation some PCVs face, although perhaps to the extreme degree. Because many PCVs work in villages or areas where larger projects have historically focused, it can be challenging coming in behind big-money development programs and confronting residual mentalities. Its difficult for people to differentiate between large-scale development workers and Peace Corps Volunteers, until the PCV has put time in the village, gotten to know people, earned the trust and the respect and the confidence of people, and then shown what they are there to do and what they cannot do. Initially though it can be frustrating to be viewed as money symbols, and people may (understandably) be unwilling to work themselves if the last project paid them to do certain things or gave out materials for free.

MORE THINGS TO BE AWARE OF

People tell you what they think you want to hear, which may not be what you need to know. PCV Fiji

n response to trainees and PCVs frequent requests for Dos and Donts, the following is a list of common faux pas put together by the PST staff. Some of these have been mentioned previously in this manual.

Social Relations Do wash your face in the morning before you greet people. Do greet people when you see them. And greet vendors before buying something. Womendo wait for a man to extend his hand to shake before putting yours out. Do taste food that you are given, even if youre full. Do offer visitors water and a mat to sit on, but dont feel obligated to do this if the visitor comes at night. Do take off your shoes when entering a room or before stepping on a mat. Do respect sacred places.

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70 Do dress decently and neatly. Do respect elders and village notables. Greet them and be polite. Do be careful about having pets, especially dogs. Pets arent understood by most Nigeriens, and frequently come to a tragic end. Dogs can be particularly troublesome if they start biting people or chasing livestock. Be sensitive about what you feed your pet (or talk about feeding your pet) in front of other people. Do attend ceremonies, even if you are not invited. You dont have to stay long. Ask one specific friend to tell you every time something happens (births, marriages, sicknesses, deaths) so that you dont unintentionally slight someone. Do dress appropriately for attending ceremonies. Female PCVs should cover their heads with a scarf if they are going to funeral ceremonies. Do give food for funeral ceremonies or give money for alms. Do give gifts for baptisms or marriages (soap, lotion, pagnes, perfume, money, or offer to take pictures of the baby or couple). Do greet people on accidents or other misfortunes (fires, floods, illnesses). Do bring small gifts for friends/adoptive family whenever you travel. Do be firm with kids who hang around you and do feel comfortable asking them to do things like run errands for you. Do keep your sense of humor. Do not shake hands, eat, or pass/accept money with the left hand. Do not wear tight-fitting, form-revealing clothes. Menbe aware that Nigerien women do not frequently shake hands. Do not eat as youre walking along the street. Do not sniff the food or blow on it if its hot. Dont hesitate to burp. It means you have had enough food. But whenever you do burp, say alhamdulillahi afterwards. Dont pass gas in public. Dont take cultural issues personally or get defensive. Dont get mad in public. Dont be afraid to try. Dont hang out with the women if you are a man and the head of the house is not present. Dont be afraid to dance at ceremonies. Dont give a gift to a pregnant woman before she delivers. Dont go to a burial if you are a woman (only the men attend burials). Dont compliment babies. Example: Dont say to a baby that he/she is beautiful, heavy, or fat, unless you add tubarikallah to the sentence. Dont be surprised by the fact that very young girls are getting married (its part of the culture). Do not interfere in co-wife arguments. Dont stay long and alone with a friend of the opposite sex at night (this can be wrongly interpreted).

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71 Dont hesitate to tell people to excuse you when you need to rest. Mendo not be alone in a room with women, especially married women. Womenbe careful about being alone in a room with men. It sends off certain signals. Dont talk to or pass in front of someone who is praying. Dont mock or antagonize beggars. When people offer to help you with something, allow them. Do not try to pay them for helping you. Dont raise your arms above your head if you are a woman. Dont recline on a mat if you are a woman. Dont worry about faux pasNigeriens are very forgiving and usually attach less significance to your faux pas than you do. (N.B. But some faux pas are never forgiven.)

Work Matters/Protocol Do stop to greet and talk with service agents and other fonctionnaires. It will make your work in the future much easier if you begin to lay the foundation now. Do make your first stop the chef de villages house when you visit a new village for the first time. Let him know why youre there and what you would like to do, and visit him each time you come back to the village. Do get kola nuts for villagers if you are going to have a work party. Do include villagers in project/activity decisions. Do carry out money arrangements in private. Do ask the head of the household or the village chief before starting an activity. Dont look sloppy when you are in a work situation. Nice looking, clean, no holes, not too skimpy or see through are all important if you intend to be treated like a professional. Do follow up with services or village leaders after you have done work or had meetingslet them know what happened, what decisions were made, what upcoming plans are, etc. Do inform your chef de village and chef de travail about all meetings and work activities, even if it does not directly concern him/them. Ask their opinions about what you plan to do. Its better to give too much information, than to have someone refuse to cooperate or assist because they knew nothing in advance. Dont try to work as if you are in the U.S. It is important to work within this system if you want to function effectively. Do be sociable with important people. Establish rapport. If you ignore people and only talk to them or greet them when you are doing work, they will think you are using them. Do have patience!!! Peace Corps Niger

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EPILOGUE

n creating this manual, we thought that it would be nice to concentrate less on rules of behavior (like dont voyager when youre eating with others from a communal bowl) and more on the real issues that affect us such as how to communicate effectively with host country nationals. Because that could amount to the equivalent of a masters dissertation, and would probably take just as long to research and write, we leave you with some thoughts to consider in your day-to-day living which can be hammered out as you go along. You, as a Volunteer, will learn the cultural rules without too much difficulty if youre careful and pay attention. What is more important for you as a Volunteer is how your Nigerien neighbors and colleagues communicate with you and what they hear when youre talking to them. When we Volunteers say we want to do something next week, do Nigeriens hear that we dont want to do it at all? When we propose to make a plan for a SPA grant, do our counterparts get confused when we press for details? Words dont always mean what we think they meannext week means never sometimesso how can we find ways to understand what Nigeriens are saying, and get them to understand what were saying? Thats the real problem of living here. Its easy enough to understand that you dont walk in front of a man praying or be rude to old people. Its the subtleties, and often whats NOT being said, thats more important. When you have those quiet moments while riding in the bush taxi or while rearranging your dirty clothes pile, ask yourself What are Nigerien values? And what do Nigeriens say they are? Just how differently do host country nationals see us, treat us, just because we are Americans? What exceptions do they make, expectations do they have (of us)? What is their perception of American men and women, and how does that affect how people treat us (at the market, in their homes, in government officials offices)? What effects does subsistence living have on peoples notion of the future? What are Muslim influences and animist influences on Nigerien culture? How are the two intertwined?

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73 What vestiges of French colonialism remain in Nigerien culture? What effect does a limited future have on young women?

The more you analyze where you are living, try to understand what makes this place tick, find a reason or a cause for the emotions (jealousy, anger), the actions, reactions, and the seemingly illogical reasoning, you can better understand the culture, the people and the country.

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Appendices
CROSS-CULTURAL SKILLS
1. Information Source Development: The ability to use many information sources within a social or cultural environment. The trainee should work to develop information gathering skills such as observing, questioning the people one meets, and listening carefully. 2. Cultural Understanding: Awareness and understanding of values, feelings and attitudes of people in another culture, and the ways in which these influence behavior. Or reversing itobservation of behaviors and defining the values and attitudes which undergird the behavior. 3. Interpersonal Communication: Listening well, speaking clearly, and also paying attention to the expression of non-verbal communication, such as messages delivered through physical movements, eyes, facial expressions, and the whole range of meaning developed through face-to-face encounter. Ability to communicate in host language. 4. Commitment to Persons and Relationships: The ability to become involved deeply with people, beyond superficial relationships, giving and inspiring trust and confidence, establishing a basis for mutual liking and respect, caring enough for them and acting in ways which are both truthful to you and sensitive toward the feelings of others. 5. Decision Making: The ability to come to conclusions, based on your assessment of the information available and to take action. This might also be called problem solving, which includes learning to be explicit about the problem, work out steps to a solution, and generating alternatives. In the cross cultural situation it is important to be able to identify what is at issue, the dimensions of the problem, and alternatives which are personally as well as culturally acceptable. 6. Self-Understanding: Awareness of an insight into your own learning processes, strengths, weaknesses, successes, failures, biases, values, goals, and emotions. Consciousness of self, the way you are, your own openness to looking at yourself. This is particularly important in conflict situations, or in situations where conflict might exist, in your tolerance for ambiguity and change, for example, or demands on you from outside yourself; your capacity to deal with criticism or hostility, to hear what other people are telling you, balancing that with what you tell yourself. Peace Corps Niger

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7. Self-Reliance: Independence, resiliency, autonomy, willingness to accept responsibility for ones own actions, behavior, education. From: Beyond Experience: the Experiential Approach to Cross Cultural Education. Batchelder and Warner, eds., The Experiment Press, Brattleboro, Vermont. 1977.

THE NATURE OF WITCHCRAFT

Story 1 Witchcraft exhibits itself in many ways, the commonest being in illnesses that are difficult to diagnose and cure, in sudden mysterious deaths and wealth. When I was in primary school in Nkar, my home village, a woman neighbor of ours, the mother of one of my best friends, came to our house and invited my brother and myself to her corn harvest many kilometers away near the boumban borders around Lake Ber. The lake is believed, in Nso, to be the habitat of many witches and wizards. When the day came, my friends passed through our compound to take me. The company was an exciting one and we trekked more than fifty kilometers in high spiritssinging and playing childrens games. By evening we arrived at Ber, a little tired. The woman who had invited us made a nice meal of futu and vegetables. We ate with uncontrolled greed. After our meal, the woman spent time warning us against throwing stones or swimming in the lake. I always loved attempting the forbidden. The next day while on the farm, I must have thrown not less than ten stones into the lake, cursing each time. I told no one what I had done. When we returned home, I took ill almost immediately. It was a severe attack of malaria, at least so we all thought. But all the prescribed drugs failed to cure me and I grew worse. I faintly saw my mother sitting by my bed crying and occasionally weeping. The woman who invited us was informed about my illness but she did not see me. One day when the fever became too intense and I was rushed to the hospital, we met her there, also sick. She casually asked, Are you getting well now? The fever began to subside and I felt better. A week later, the woman died. The story went round the village that she had taken me to kwa sem (the devils farm) but since I was innocent, I was rejected as an offer and she was taken as a devils farm substitute. As a priest, I have tried to reason out the whole case (much of which I cant explain) and I have tried to dismiss it before elders and traditional men that

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76 my experience was not a case of witchcraft. But each time I say this they laugh at me. They tell me to hold whatever opinion I like, but in their minds they knew the woman too well and were more acquainted with the case than I. My experience is not unique. Story 2 Sirri was a little eight-year old innocent schoolgirl of the Catholic school, Bamunka. One day she came from school and complained of a light headache. Her parents brought her to the hospital and the doctor examined her. There was nothing wrong with Sirri, but the doctor prescribed panadol. By morning the next day, Sirris condition had worsened. She could not move, talk or breathe normally. Her parents rushed her back to the doctor, who did a thorough examination. He was disappointed with himself that he found nothing medically wrong with the child. However, he suspected a brain tumor and referred the case to a specialist in Yaound. A series of tests were carried out by experts who gave up after some time. All tests proved negative, but the young girl was going from bad to worse. The doctors confessed that the illness was a difficult one for them to handle. Someone then suggested that a professional healer be approached. Sirris parents, educated and wealthy, found themselves going to where they had never wanted to goBamessing. As soon as they entered the healers house, he listened to their problem, consulted an oracle and began telling them about their family; everything factually presented. He knew all names and incidents that had happened in their extended family. Then to their surprise, he asked Sirri if a friend of hers at school had given her cocoyams to eat during break. Sirri spoke for the first time, in the affirmative. The traditional healer asked no more questions and began his treatment. Every day he gave Sirri a concoction of herbs, put her through a series of rites during which he burnt native incense and surrounded the girl with a liquid mixture of wild garden plants and raw eggs. Sirri was with the native doctor for a few weeks and got well. Today she is a mature girl. She has never seen her friend who gave her the cocoyams again. Story 3 Witchcraft is also associated with sudden and mysterious deaths. Nbsebanla was an ordinary farmer. One day he suddenly became rich, and no one could explain how he came by this wealth. However, the story went round that he had joined the Nyogo (Kupe) Secret Society, because although he had great wealth, he did not look happy or healthy, nor did he invest it in anything substantial. One morning people woke up to hear that his stomach began to swell, a sign among the Nso of a bad death. A traditional healer came in, shook his head and exclaimed, Why do people want to reap where they have not sown? Peace Corps Niger

77 Story 4 Dear Rev. Father Humphrey, I have read your book, Encountering Witches and Wizards in Africa. I used to doubt the existence of witchcraft and openly said so. In my mind it was an illusion, a figment of the mind. One day I was drinking with friends (I drink only soft drinks) and the topic of witchcraft came up. I dismissed it in my usual way. One of the men said nothing to me, but went out quietly. Later I had to go to the toilet to ease myself. When I reached the door, I found the bar empty. Instead I saw that I was in the street with people moving on their hands, heads down. I stood quietly and after about thirty minutes, I found myself a few meters from my house. Next day the man who had gone out before my woes met me and asked if I still doubted the existence of witchcraft. You can imagine how I felt. Witchcraft is something not to be dismissed with the wave of the hand as non-existing. I think it exists. Adapted from: Understanding Witchcraft Problems in the Life of an African (Case studies from Cameroon) by Tatah H. MBU Y

SEXUAL MUTILATION
If polygamy is a phenomenon common to all of Africa, that of sexual mutilations is much more localized. Womans sexuality is a problem for the male-dominated society in many regions. The same phenomenon is seen as concerns virginity, which is highly valued in most parts of the continent. But it is only in a well-determined geographical area that it has spawned the practices of excision and infibulation. It is difficult to know the origin of these practices that affect a specific area, whose people are united neither by a common religion nor by belonging to the same racial or ethnic group. Islam, which is widely spread in these regions, does not encourage these practices, and the evidence is that they are unknown to the Maghrab, except in southernmost Morocco, Algeria and Libya. According to studies, it seems that they were commonplace in the pharaonic Egypt. Is it for this reason that infibulation is also called pharaonic circumcision? Very little is known about the rest, except that it is an extremely ancient custom. Several explanations were given for such practices by peoples who had institutionalized them. The most widespread one is that human beings possess both sexes: the female principle plays the role of the foreskin in boys, whereas the clitoris represents masculinity in girls. Both of them should be eliminated so that boys and girls are categorically sexed. The maleficent power of an improper organ is emphasized among many people: they generally affirm that a man cannot penetrate

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78 a woman with a clitoris, and the Bambara think that women who are not excised cannot conceive. These magic-related explanations are slightly different from one community to the other, but all of them are more or less of the same origin: the need to reduce womens sexual desire. In fact, if male circumcision does not cause major physical problems or subsequent disturbance in a mans sex life, the same is not true for womans sexual mutilation: through excision of the clitoris, a female pleasure organ considered to be useless, as it does not participate in the process of fertilization. As usual, the motherly function is the only one that is valued, and women have the right to sexual existence only through the act of procreation. Also, loose women are called bush bitches among the Bororo. Infibulation goes further into the negation of the female sexuality: this operation results in a very narrow orifice that makes the sexual act painful and even causes urinary problems. Thus, the man is absolutely assured of his spouses faithfulness as she will only submit to sexual relations to bear children. A large majority of the excised women and all of those who are infibulated never experience sexual pleasure, and for them sexual intercourse becomes a martyrdom, more markedly as the seriousness of the operation and the hygienic conditions under which it is practiced cause permanent risks of diseases and infections. In Somalia, 5 to 6% of the annual mortality of the female population is due to infibulation. Thirty million women are now excised or infibulated in Africa, 90% of whom live in rural areas. A dwindling of the phenomenon is observed in the urban areas but it still affects 40 to 60% of the women, depending on the country. We are now gaining more knowledge of these practices, but the denunciations are still timid because expression of womens sexuality is a taboo. There are many who defend them in the name of the tradition. The number of young women in urban areas rejecting these practices is increasing, but those of the older generation are very often entrenched in these practices: in fact, we saw how they play, sometimes to their own detriment, the role of guardian of these traditional values. Some countries, among them Egypt, the Sudan and Somalia, have officially prohibited sexual mutilations, but the gap between the law and the customs is still wide. It should be noted, however, that even in places where sexual mutilations are unknown, such as North Africa, the burden of the traditions, the absolute preeminence of men in the area of sexuality, the arranged marriages, the total ignorance of these issues by women, make womens frigidity a very widespread phenomenon, and sexual pleasure an attribute of masculinity. Things are, however, beginning to change among the youth.

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EXCISION
Youll see, she often used to say when Salimata was still a very small girl: Youll be excised one day. Its not only the feast, the dance, the songs and the celebration, its also a great thing, a great event with great significance. But what great significance? Youll see, my daughter: for a month youll live in seclusion with other excised girls and, in the midst of the songs youll be taught all the taboos of the tribe. The excision is a breaking point, it marks, it puts an end to the years of uncertainty, of young girls impurity, and after that begins the true life of a woman. When Salimatas breasts had emerged and become firm, her mother burst into a joyful laughter: Youre now a young girl, it will happen soon. And in the middle of the rainy season: The date is set, young girl, itll be the next harmattan. And the D day began just like an ordinary day, a morning like many others, except for the fire in Salimatas heart and the painful premonition that permeated her mother. At the first crowing of the rooster, the signal was given to gather the girls who were to undergo the operation. Be courageous my daughter. Courage at the grounds of the excision will be your mothers and the tribes pride. Thank God this day has come, but Im anxious and my heart pounds with fear. I implore the genies that the site be favorable to my only daughter. Yes, the genies have heard her mothers prayers, but how, and after so much pain, so much anxiety and so much crying. Salimata will never forget the gathering of the girls in the dark, the walk in single file through the forest, the small river through which they had waded, the shrill song of the matrons who were in charge of the girls and the arrival at the cleared field at the foot of a mountain whose forested top vanished in the clouds, and the savage yell of the matrons indicating the excision grounds. The excision grounds. Arrival at the excision grounds. She could still remember each girl loosening, in turn, her pagne and dropping it, sitting on the clay jar turned upside down and the practitioner, the blacksmiths wife, a great sorcerer coming forward, producing a knife with a curved blade, holding it up to the mountain and, cutting the clitoris which was considered as impurity, confusion, imperfection, and the operated girl getting up and singing a song of glory and courage, repeated in choir by the whole audience. Salimata could still hear echoes, which were amplified by the mountains and the forest: the echoes that frightened away the birds from the branches and caused the yelping of the Duiker antelopes.

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80 She remembered at that moment the horror of all the stories of young girls who had died at the site, roaring and rushing out of her innermost being. Returning to the spirit their names, the names of those who fell victims to the excising knife, the grounds only holding the most incomparable beauties (such as Salimata). The only one left was Mossogbe from her mothers day, a beauty still remembered by the whole Hourougoubou. Among those who had not returned four harmattans ago was Nouna, whose nose had the fineness of a taut string. Salimata searched in vain for their graves. The graves of those who had not returned, of those who were not mourned because they were considered as sacrifices for the well-being of the village. The forest had concealed their graves. Salimata could remember when it came her turn, when the practitioner came forward. The matrons clamor then intensified, the enraged excised girls, the vultures and the sounds re-echoed by the mountains and forests. The sun rose and glowed red behind the trees. Attracted by the fumes of blood, vultures swarmed from the mist-enshrouded tufts. They hovered around producing wild squawks and caws. The practitioner took a few steps toward Salimata and sat down, her eyes bloodshot and with disgusting blood-soiled hands and arms. In no time, Salimata gave herself up with eyes closed, and the flash of pain seared from between her legs to her back, her neck and to her head, then down again to her knees. She wanted to stand up and sing a song but could not. She was breathless; the pain stiffened her legs. The earth seemed to be quaking under her feet; and the attendants, the other excised girls, the mountain and the forest seemed to be turning upside down and vanishing in the fog and the nascent day; the torpor weighing over her eyelids and knees; she gave away and collapsed motionless. When Salimata woke up at the excision grounds, the sun was above their heads. Two matrons were assisting her. The procession was gone, long gone. That is to say the return of the newly excised girls had been celebrated with feast, dances, songs, and all this without Salimata. Ah! The return to the village, it must be experienced. It was the most beautiful phase of the excision. The tamtams, the joy when the whole village which rushed out to meet the newly excised girls, playing instruments made of round calabashes. Salimata had not taken part in the triumphal return to the village, of which she had dreamt so much. Seated astride on one of the matrons backs, she was snuck in to the village on an abandoned path and taken to the home of a medicine man called Ticoura. She was put under the protection of Ticouras fetish. For the rest of the day, sacrifices were burnt and white and red cola nuts rolled at the foot of the patient where her mother lay weeping. Salimata spent the night there, a night she would never forget.

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81 Amadou Kourouma Les Soleils des Independences Paris, Seuils, 1970, pp. 32-36 English translation by Kelly Ouyanga and Marcia McKenna

ROLE AND INFLUENCE OF ELDERLY WOMEN

As they are restrained, with more or less rigor according to country, to the role of wife and mother despite their important participation in the economic activities, what then becomes of the women who have gone beyond the age of childbearing? Contrary to what could be thought of it, this is an age when they acquire a certain power. Released from the constraints of motherhood, they may, after menopause, participate in the activities that are normally limited to men: in the Islamic communities elderly women may theoretically go out unveiled and pray in the mosques lobbies; elsewhere, they may participate in decision-making in the community. Everywhere, the matrons play an important role in the education of young girls whom they prepare for adult life. They fill essential functions such as birth attendant, and they are indispensable in remote areas where there is no midwife or doctor. Furthermore, they have a tremendous power upon their sons that they often elect to exercise: dominated by her husband during all of her useful life, the mother-in-law takes a kind of revenge over her daughters-in-law by exerting her power over the women who are lower than she in the family hierarchy and who owe her obedience. This is made easier as the extended family shares the same living quarters and as sons are attached to their mother even when they become adults. They should then respect her and care for her until the end of her days. If one of the characteristics of Africa is that sending elderly people to old peoples homes is totally unknown, the educated and westernized young women are, however, starting to reject the tyranny of mothers-in-law. All the more reason for elderly women to consider with distrust a modernization process that makes them lose one of the rare powers that they have the right to exert during their lives. Furthermore, it should be noted that men have granted it to them willingly because this power does not apply directly to thembut to other women. This very strict codification of respective roles of the two sexes in traditional communities results in the existence of two well-individualized communities: that of the men and that of the women. Each community has its own rules and taboos, its social relation codes, its initiation rites, and its celebrations as well as a definite niche in relation to the whole social group. Of course, they have close communication links, but it is difficult to talk of a mixed community through all of traditional

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82 Africa: no role is played indifferently by a man or a woman, no function is interchangeable. The existence of a female community parallel to the dominant one, that of men, often allows women to have a series of activities away from their own family. Conditioned earlier in her life to hold a second-class position in the community, the African woman, similar in this regard to every woman worldwide, sees her life decided upon by others according to a process that she does not control. Her condition is, indeed, very different from the Mediterranean coasts to the banks of Zaire River and, in some communities of Central Africa she enjoys a status that would be envied not only by African women, but by some women from other continents. However, this freedom is relative: if it gives the woman a certain latitude, it is only granted in these communities which are designed for and by men.

DAILY CHORES OF A HAUSA WOMAN

Morning Work The women get up between 5:30 and 8:30 (the latter in the cold season). After caring for her face a little and dressing, she either prepares fried cakes or buys them. If she prepares them, an older girl in the family will sell the surplus in the market or on the street. The rest of breakfast consists of leftover tuwo, fura or koko (which is heated in the cold season). She then goes to the well and fills the canaries (water pots). If it is the hot season, the children might be washed at this time, or it might be done at noon. In the cold season, this is always an afternoon chore. The small children are kept at the house and watched by their mother or older sister (except in the case of illness, when they are cared for by an older woman or, if there is no one they are cared for by their mother). The girls help their mothers and the boys go to the fields. In the off-season, the boys are freeexcept those who take the animals to graze or those who are in school. All chores rotate on a one- or two-day basis. The wife with whom the husband will sleep that night is responsible for the preparation of the food. She starts pounding almost as soon as her husband has taken the grain out or down from the granary. Another wife or a girl will clean the house and sweep the compound early in the morning. The girls also help with much of the pounding and sifting of flour. Every two or three days, the washing is done. It is done less often in some cases. This is usually a morning job, though you also see women doing laundry in the afternoon. The women do not often go to the market; usually a child goes, or they will buy from vendors who pass with meat (men), milk and tomatoes (women Fulani and Bouzou). Most of the women also buy their wood in the market every Peace Corps Niger

83 two or three days. In the planting season though, they will gather it on their way back from the fields. Artisan Work and Earning Money After the noon meal, the women spend the hot hours, before preparing the evening meal, doing artisan workweaving mats, making thread, or doing embroidery. Other ways of making money are to prepare food to sell in the market, which is usually done by poorer women. Most selling is done by girls or old women, but this involves getting up earlier to prepare food for sale by mid-morning. A third popular money-maker is the preparation of peanut oil (November to January), which means that the women must finish pounding early in order to have the mortar free to put peanut butter in. The wives of civil servants who have hired women to pound for them pass a good part of their morning hours weaving mats or making thread. Many of them have hired men who weave blankets for them, which they sell. Afternoon When the afternoon work starts, the women all go to the well. Then one starts pounding while another washes the dishes from noon. The children are washed now if it is the cold season. A lot of time is spent in the preparation of miya (sauce) for the tuwo. Often beans and rice are prepared also. Fura is drunk at noon. The compound may be re-swept in the afternoon. Eating Order The food is served by the senior wife, and the wife who prepared the food brings the husbands portion first. Then the rest is divided among the children and women. The women and older girls eat together. The older boys eat together or with their father. The children under five or six are left to themselves to eat. Unweaned babies learning to eat are fed when hungry five or six times a day, with leftover fura or koko. The family never eats together. Variations During the Planting Season The greatest changes in this routine take place when the fieldwork begins in June, until October or November. Now the women have to prepare fura early and in greater quantity. They carry it out to the fields to their men and to the hired field help. They also have to work on their own farms. The husbands prepare the ground for them. They plant okra, piment, tomatoes, rice, squash, and beans, and are responsible for their own harvest. The mens crops are millet, sorghum, manioc, peanuts and cotton. Cotton and peanuts are sold. The women also plant peanuts for oil. Often during planting, we find that only one wife or a grandmother remains at home after 10:30 or 11:00 a.m.the rest have gone to the fields.

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84 During Ramadan, work must start early in the morning so that the heavy work will be done by the afternoon, because the women get too tired and thirsty while they are fasting. Early morning Prepare breakfast Go to well (once or twice) Wash children Pound grain Wash dishes Do laundry Personal toilet Weave mats Go to well Wash children Wash dishes Start pounding Sweep Buy food Prepare fura Make thread Pound Prepare sauce and tuwo

Mid-morning

Sieste hours Afternoon

JOKES IN NIGERIEN CULTURE FROM AN AMERICAN MALE PERSPECTIVE

As in all cultures, Nigeriens have specific topics they find humorous. I have divided the topics into four categories: marriage and relationships, children, miscellaneous, and insults. At first, when people joke about these topics, due to culture shock, preconceived notions, or other factors, you may be uncomfortable joking about them. However, after a while you will develop comebacks, and your own way of handling the jokes. Below is a brief description of different kinds of jokes, and some responses that I have found or heard that work. Some of the responses may seem kind of harsh, but Ive had good results with them. Use those responses youre comfortable with, although its impossible to predict and have a good response for every situation. I hope these help. Marriage and Relationships Many Americans think that an Islamic culture will be extremely closed about all facets of sexuality. While indeed people cover up with loose fitting clothes and may not want to shake hands with members of the opposite sex or touch them during the daytime, their mouths and discussions are not nearly as conservative as these behaviors. People will often joke with you and ask you who the prettiest girl or woman is, if youd like to marry them, and even if youd like to fool around and sleep with them. There are two basic ways to handle this: 1) get uptight and nervous and start sweating even more than you already are, 2) make a joke, or flippant comment and get the crowd to laugh. Some classic responses to the aforementioned questions are: Okay, Ill come back later or another time, inshallah, or I prefer fatter/skinnier women, or Okay, Ill marry you, but you have to pay me a million dalas and a thousand camels, or Ill marry you, but Ill only give your family one dala. Peace Corps Niger

85 Giving Children Away Parents, especially mothers, will often, in jest, offer you their kids to take back to America. Sometimes adults will also tell unruly children that theyre going to be sent away with you. Answering yes to this will often provoke one of several responses: the person who proposed the idea will laugh; the kid will start to wail (this is especially true when you assure the parents that theres plenty of room in your trunk to store a kid); occasionally with babies, the mother will get nervous that youre serious and tell you she was only joking. Once she understands that you were playing along with the joke, shell laugh as well. Miscellaneous People will also joke/question you about everyday facts of Nigerien life. Common things asked about are whether or not you can make tea, if you eat certain kinds of foods like goats head or brousse bread, which you like betterNiger or the United States. For these kinds of questions, dont be embarrassed to say that you dont know how to do something or give an honest answer. If you dont feel like getting into the finer points of a discussion about America and Niger, you can always say that, Everything has its advantages and disadvantages. Insults Some things to watch out for when using insults and joking aroundin front of old people, it is not a good idea to joke around about relationships or exchange insults with friends. This is considered very impolite. Some insults are fighting words in certain regions. Before using insults, be sure and listen to how the people are talking to each other. This will help prevent problems. While in the U.S. it is not polite to ask how much you paid for something, people do it here all the time. Any price is acceptable, except if you claim a ridiculously low price.

NAMING CEREMONY AND NAMES

A male or female child is given a name on the seventh day of his/her birth. The day before the ceremony, the father buys kola nuts and dates (candies nowadays) and at least a ram. He sends the kola nuts to relatives, friends, in-laws and neighbors as an invitation card. On the day of the ceremony, early in the morning, all attendants gather in the concession waiting for the "marabout" in French, "malam" in Hausa, "alpha" in Zarma or "modibo" in Fulfulde. The men generally gather outside the concession, and the women inside. Before the actual naming of the child, the marabout slaughters the animal brought for the occasion. The animal can be a ram or a bull depending on what the father can afford. When slaughtering the animal, the marabout recites a prayer uttering the child's name. After this ritual, the audience is informed of the name and the whole assembly does a prayer for the child, his parents and all the community. Men women and children dress up for the occasion. Men may play Peace Corps Niger

86 cards, drink tea or chat outside the concession. Women are inside cooking and/or chatting. People come and go for the whole day. Oftentimes there will be a tam tam in the evening to celebrate. How names are given? In Muslim communities (in Niger or elsewhere) the name is usually chosen among the twenty-five prophets' names mentioned in the Koran. Example: Mohammed, Issa (Jesus), Moussa (Moses), Yacouba (Jacob), Youssouf or Issoufou (Joseph), Daouda (David). It can be also the name of the prophet Mohammed's companions such as Aboubacar, Oumarou, Ousmane, Zoubeirou, Hamza etc. The name can also be among the ninety-nine names of God "Allah" mentioned in the Koran, prefixed by the word "Abdoul," which means the servant of... (Allah of course). Example: Abdoullaye, Abdoulaziz, Abdoulrazak, Abdoulkarim, Abdourrashid, Abdoulmoumouni, Abdoulwahabou, Abdoulfattah, Abdoulhabibou .... For females, the name is chosen among the names of women who played an important role in Islam such as Acha, Amina, Kadijatou, Rukayyatou etc. However, beyond the Islamic names, children can be named according to the time of birth, the season or the events or circumstances of the birth. 1. Children named after the day of the birth. Hausa
Day of the week
Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday

Zarma
Female
Ladi Inna/Liti/Tani Talatu/Talata/Lantana Laraba/Balaraba Lami Juma/Jimmai Asabe/Asibi/Gude

Male
Danladi Dan Liti/Tanimu Tatu Balaraba Danlami Danjuma Dan'asabe

Male
Dimasi Tinni Talata Larabu Alzumma Samdi

Female
Dimasi Tinni Talatu Alarba Lamisi Zumma Sibti

2. Children named according to circumstances. Hausa

Time/circumstance of birth
The height of the rainy season During the month of fast On sallah (fte)day During the harmattan During the bean harvest period When a white man is present On the Eid El Kebir day

Zarma
Female
Malka Azumi Tasalla Dari Ciwake Baturiya Hadjia

Male
Anaruwa/Aruwa Dan'azumi/Ramalana Bissalla/Sallau Dari Ciwake Bature/Anasara Alhadji/Yawale

Male
Kaidiya Mehau Jingarey

Female
Kaidiya Mehau Jingarey

Anasara Alhadji

Anasara Hadjia

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87 3. Some Islamic names have local or traditional nicknames

Islamic/Male
Adamou Aboubacar Muhammadou Ibrahim Moussa Oumar(ou) Idrissa Ousman(u) Youssouf Aliyou

Hausa/Male
Ado Garba/Abou/Boukari/Sidikou Inuwa Iro Kallmou Sanda Idi Shehou/Mani Nadabo Ali/Sadauki/Garga

Zarma/Male
Kimba/Damure Garba/Sidikou/Boube Hamadou/Hama Boureima Kallamou/Nyauri Moru Ide/Jolombi Manu/Soumana/Boula/Nyandu Isifi Badara/Samba

Islamic/Female
Achatou Hadiza Fatima Mariama Salamatou Mamouna Amina Zenabou Habiba Sa'adatou

Hausa/Female
Shatou Dije/Dido Tchima/Tchimalle Maro Salma Munau Dago Zenou/Abu Biba Dediya/Sa'adiya/Sa'a

Zarma/Female
Shatou/Assa Dize/Kadi Fati Meri/Gambi Salay/Oumou/Dado Muma/Muna/Mundaye Ginday Abou Bibata/Kulli/Biba Sa'adiya/Sa'a

4. In addition most "Mohammeds" have a second name (nickname), which tends to replace the actual name. A man with any of these is: Mohammed (Mahamane):
1. Laoual(i) 2. Hamissou 3. Kabir(ou) 4. Dini 5. Bara'ou 6. Mamane 7. Sani 8. Aminou 9. Sabiou 10. Nourou 11. Inouwa 12. Salissou 13. Bachir(ou) 14. Bello 15. Nassirou 16. Rabiou 17. Moustapha 18. Jalalou 19. Shamsiddin 20. Manir 21. Sadissou

5. Also, children born under the following circumstances are listed below: A first child (male or female) is called Dikko. A child whose mother dies just after she's delivered is called Talle (male) or Tallifi (female). A child whose father dies before his birth is called Audi. When a female child is born after two or more male issues, she is called Kande or Dellou or Dudu. When a male child is born after two or more female issues, he is called Tanko. A child born after a set of twins is called Gambo. The next issue is called Gado. A child born within the first two/three days of appearance of the moon is called Harande.

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88 A child born with his placenta intact is called Mariga. A child born after seven months is called Kwani. A child born after a long term bearing is called Shekarau.

FOOD TABOOS
In Niger, several taboos have evolved surrounding particular groups of people eating particular foods. Following are some examples of forbidden food and the believed consequences: Pregnant women Eggsthe child will become a thief Bitter foodsthe woman risks having a miscarriage Camel meatthe womans pregnancy will last the same as the gestation of a camel (one year) Sweet foodsthe woman will have a difficult birth Milk or meat of a goatthe child will itch Very salty or spicy foodthe child will have a nervous disposition Children Eggsthe child will become a thief Bone marrow of a sheepchild will be stupid and forgetful Salty foods to a child who does not yet have teethchild will teethe late Kola nutschild will become addicted and suffer from headaches Newborn Colostrum (the first milk)a baby who drinks colostrum will get kai kai, a disease where they get sick and die Young women Sweet foodsshe will have painful periods Foods brought as giftsshe will be greedy Certain families Silou (type of fish)someone will become a leper Chicken liversa woman will have cramps

SOME SUPERSTITIOUS BELIEFS

1. If a person sleeps in the same room as a leper, then he must never be the first to leave the room in the morning. If he does he will become a leper too. (The leprosy germs are believed to leave the body of the leper when he sleeps and congregate around the doorway).

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89 2. If there is a bastard in a house, a person should never set eyes on him before breakfast. If he does, all kinds of misfortunes may befall him. If he is a trader, for example, he will not be able to sell his wares that day. If a person should look at a one-eyed man early in the morning, before he has washed his face, not a penny will he make or receive from any source that day. If a person dreams that he has seen cows, elephants or other terrifying animals, then he is being haunted by a witch (or a witch is attempting to harm him). If a person should cover part of a dust whirlwind with a calabash, when he removes the calabash, he will find a child or a jinn and the person will die. If a person sweeps (his room, compound, etc.) during the night, he sweeps away his luck. He who fishes on Saturday will be turned to a monkey. If a woman climbs into a cornbin, she will bear a thief. If a man passes his hand over the squirrels tail and touches his sexual organ, he will become sterile. If you step across a dog, you will suffer from a severe stomachache. If you rub the mucous discharge from the eye of a horse, you will be able to see the jinns, but then you will die. If you are struck to death by lightning, you will go straight to paradise. If you eat food as you walk, you are in fact eating with the devil. If a man laughs in his dreams, something to make him cry will occur. If a driver knocks down a cat, a dog or a duck, he will have an accident during that journey. When you are going on a journey and you trip with your right foot, the journey will be a fruitful one, but if it is the left one, it will be an ill-fated journey.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7. 8. 9.

10. 11.

12. 13. 14. 15.

16.

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90 17. 18. If a man eats the head of a rat, he will become a chief. An unmarried woman who looks into a looking glass at night will not find a husband. If a snake is hit with the stalk of a guinea-hemp plant, it will certainly die that day. If you are going out to get or to look for something, and you meet a leper, your mission will be a successful one; but if you meet a blind man, your mission will be a failure. Sitting on the doorstep is unwise because jinns will some day throw the sitter hard on the floor. Sweeping at night is taboo, because the sweeper may sweep over the home of some jinns. The "salaam (peace be on you) must be loudly said and answered before you can enter another person's room. This is to warm the jinns standing by the doorway to move out of the way, otherwise you may step over them and bring about your death. If a person's left eyelid quivers, he will have a visit from a distant relative or friend; but if it is the right eye-lid he should expect some bad news, like the death of a close relation. The person who stands in the way of a sweeper, and is touched with the sweepers broom, will not find a husband or wife. If a woman dreams that she has been bitten by a snake, she has become pregnant. If a small child, boy or girl, picks up a broom and begins to sweep for no reason at all, there will be a visitor or visitors to that house soon. If the palm of your hand itches, you will come into good fortune soon. Groundnut shells must not be left lying around the house; if they are, they will attract scorpions in the house. If salt is spilt anywhere in the house, unless water is sprinkled on it, there will be a row between the householder and his wife. After the door has been shut at night, if a broom is laid across the door, then however strong a thief may be, he cannot open that door.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28. 29.

30.

31.

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91 32. If a chief is struck with the leaves or branches of the wild custard tree, his "protective" medicine is made ineffective. If a bride is being conveyed to her husband's home and if a procession of driver ants is observed on the way, the girl is lucky and will become rich. If a person should stick out his tongue with his teeth as he eats or speaks, someone is maligning him. If a man falls into a latrine, when he is pulled out, he must be taken round the marketplace amidst drumming, otherwise he will become mad. If you are bitten by somebody and you rub the dung of a lizard over the wound, the teeth of the biter will fall out. If you put on your trousers standing up, your wife will suffer from acute labor pains. If a girl or a woman is struck by a pair of pants or trousers, she will not find a husband. If a boy or a man is stuck with a woman's headdress, he will not find a wife. If you mistakenly wear your gown back to front you will come into a lot of money. If a small child is allowed to eat eggs, he will become a chief. If you spit on the ground and fail to cover the spit, should someone walk over it, you will suffer from a sore throat. If a person is going on a journey, he must leave his home before sunrise and arrive at his destination after sunset, for the journey to be a successful one. Washing clothes on Wednesday or Saturdays brings destitution, just as does (for a woman) braiding hair on Sundays or Wednesdays, or attending Koranic schools on Thursdays and Fridays, or spinning on Friday or Sunday nights by those whose mothers are still living. If you eat from the same pan as a woman, she saps your strength from you. If you yawn and do not cover your mouth with your hand, the devil will urinate into your mouth. If you should have sexual intercourse with a mad woman, undetected, you will become a rich man. Peace Corps Niger

33.

34.

35.

36.

37.

38.

39. 40.

41. 42.

43.

44.

45. 46.

47.

92 48. Sitting on a mortar, circular mat tray " faifai" or headpad "gammo" neutralizes the effectiveness of all "protective" medicine. The papaya which falls to the ground from the tree on its own (because it is overripe) should not be eaten by women; if they do, they will suffer from acute labor pains. If you shave your head on Saturday, you will be perpetually in debt. If a woman destroys the dauber wasp's nest, she will have a miscarriage. If a pregnant woman takes a fancy to some food, she must be given it or else she will miscarry. If a man should have sexual intercourse with his wife in the daytime and she becomes pregnant, the issue will become a shameless, disrespectful person. He who stitches his torn trousers during the night will become blind. If you should see the moon during the daytime, you will marry an old man. If a pregnant woman should step across a place where someone has urinated, she will miscarry, and the person will suffer from swollen testicles. The rainbow appears to herald the birth of a baby elephant. Sleeping in the open at the time of the full moon is the cause of syphilis. The woman who grinds corn and does not sing at the same time will go mad. If you bite your fingernails with your teeth, you will become a poor man. Overeating ages a person fast. Friday is a lucky day to begin a journey. Leaving too much hair on the head brings about headaches. If a frog urinates on your person, you will become a leper. Leaving a lamp burning throughout the night in a room is an invitation for jinns to visit the room. A person who touches the eggs of a vulture will be bitten by a snake. Standing under a baobab tree at midday will bring about madness.

49.

50. 51. 52.

53.

54. 55. 56.

57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65.

66. 67.

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93 68. 69. If a woman should climb up a ladder she will become mad. The woman who delivers several sets of twins is bound to be rich in this world or the next. The wife who utters the name of her mother-in-law will bring about an earthquake. The child born on Saturday will be accident-prone. The person who dies on Friday or an "eid" (feast) day will go straight to paradise. Eggshells should not be thrown about the house during the rainy season, or else lightning will strike the house. The pregnant woman should not fetch water from streams or wells at night, because if she does, the jinns will take out of her womb her own child and substitute a jinn child. The person who finds money by the wayside must give half of it as alms to the poor, or else he will lose a lot more money than he originally found.

70.

71. 72.

73.

74.

75.

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The History of Niger

1806 Hausa Mungo Park is kingdoms/ the first Songhai European to empire, empire Explore the of KanemNiger. Bornu, the sultanats of the Damargaram and Agadez Early history 1891-1911 France begins to subdue Niger 1916-1917 Tuaregs besiege Agadez 1920 1921 Niger becomes Zinder a French becomes the territory capital 1922 1926 Niger becomes The capital is a French moved to colonly Niamey 1945 Political parties begin to emerge; particularly the PPN-RDA and the SAWABA

1960 Proclamation Niger gains its of the independence Republic of from France. Niger First president is Hamani Diori

1958

Unrest caused by Sawaba, a left wing party

1974 Lt. General Seyni Kountche leads a coup that overthrows Hamani Diori. Kountch sets up the CMS (Counseil Militaire Suprme) as the government.

1987 Kountch dies and is succeeded by Ali Seybou, the Military Chief of Staff. The Tuareg rebellion finally becomes public knowledge.

1990 Students protesting at the Kennedy Bridge are attacked, and three students die. The public is outraged and demands a National Conference to discuss forming a democratic government.

1993 Mahamane Ousmane is elected as president. He disolves the Assembly and holds new elections in the hope of gaining more power. Instead the opposition wins more seats in the Assembly. Conflict between him and the new prime minister paralizes the government. Peace agreement is signed with Tuaregs.

1996 Ibrahim Bare leads a coup and deposes Mahamane Ousmane. America pulls out its foreign aid. Bare eventually holds elections. During the vote it looks like he is losing so he replaces election commision and announces that he is the winner.

1999 Daouda Wanke, the commander of the Presendial guards, becomes president of Niger when President Bare is assasinated by his guards on Wankes orders at the airport. The National Assembly is dismissed and the government is replaced by the Council for National Reconciliation. France withdraws its foreign aid.

2000 Tandja Mamadou won the elections held in November 1999 and took power in January 2000. Coalition with CDS and other political parties helped him win these elections.

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