NDT Book Microsoft Word Version October 2009

Non-Destructive Testing
Inspector’s
Handbook
Visual Inspection (VT)
Liquid Penetrant Inspection (PT)
Magnetic Particle Testing (MT)
Ultrasonic Testing (UT)
Eddy Current Testing (ET)

Radiographic Inspection (RT)
Inspector’s Handbook ii
Preface
This reference book was designed for use in the field and to support on-the-job training. It should not be
used as a standard or referred to as a stand-alone document. This book covers basic formulas, charts, and other
NDT related information.
Dedication
To all the people who have influenced my naval career and where I am today in the Non-Destructive field.
Thank you. I originally started this project as a self-knowledge application and began receiving comments from my
fellow colleagues requesting a copy. I soon realized that this would prove to be an invaluable tool for general
information in our field. I have received support from both military and civilian personnel and have taken a sample
of their suggestions and compiled them for you, the end user. I wanted to take personal credit for this project and
realized it would not benefit the NDT field as a whole. Instead, I encourage you, the end user, to change,
manipulate, or configure this book for yourself. In closing, “Share the Wealth with Others.”
Last Revision Date

02 April 2002
Contact Information
Keoke526@hotmail.com
ndthandbook.zapto.org
Disclaimer
This book is not intended for sale or any monetary benefit to the editor.
i Inspector’s Handbook
Table of Contents
Scope of Standards..............................................................................................................................................iv
Chapter 1 - General Information.....................................................................1
Schedule Designations of Pipe Sizes................................................................................................................1
Copper Tubing Wall Thickness ...............................................................................................................2
Decimal to Inches.............................................................................................................................................2
Temperature Conversions.................................................................................................................................2
.....................................................................................................................................................................2
Fraction to Decimal Equivalent........................................................................................................................3
Decimal to Second Conversion........................................................................................................................3
Numerical Place Value Chart...........................................................................................................................3
Elements of a Nondestructive Examination Symbol........................................................................................4
Elements of a Welding Symbol........................................................................................................................4
Examples of Grooves........................................................................................................................................5
Basic Joints (Welding)......................................................................................................................................5
Order of Performing Arithmetic Operations.....................................................................................................6
Ratio And Proportion........................................................................................................................................7
Calculation of Area...........................................................................................................................................8
Weld Area Calculation...................................................................................................................................8
Common Symbols and Terms........................................................................................................................8
Solution of Right-angled Triangles................................................................................................................10
Basic Illustration of a Weld ...........................................................................................................................11
Welding Processes..........................................................................................................................................12
Backing Ring Common Defect Locations......................................................................................................13
Consumable Insert Common Defect Locations..............................................................................................13
Primary Processing Discontinuities................................................................................................................14
Finish Processing Discontinuities...................................................................................................................15
Dial Indicating Calipers..................................................................................................................................16
Micrometer.....................................................................................................................................................16
Thread Terminology (fasteners).....................................................................................................................17
Tap and Drill Size Chart.................................................................................................................................17
Julian Date Calendar (Perpetual)....................................................................................................................19
Julian Date Calendar (Leap Year)..................................................................................................................20
Flow Chart For A Discontinuity.....................................................................................................................20
Chapter 2 - Visual Inspection.........................................................................1
Common Definitions and Examples.................................................................................................................1
Chapter 3 - Liquid Penetrant Testing..............................................................1
Common Terms and Definitions......................................................................................................................1
Prorated Maximum Number of Indications......................................................................................................6
Areas of Circles................................................................................................................................................6
Penetrant Wetting Characteristics.....................................................................................................................7
Chapter 4 - Magnetic Particle Testing............................................................1
Longitudinal Magnetization Math Formula......................................................................................................7
Prorated Maximum Number of Indications......................................................................................................8
Areas of Circles................................................................................................................................................8
Common Types of Magnetization....................................................................................................................8
...................................................................................................................................................................9
Inspector’s Handbook ii
Theory: “Right–Hand Rule”.................................................................................................................9
Hysteresis Curve.............................................................................................................................................10
Magnetic Particle Field Indicator (Pie Gage).................................................................................................11
Chapter 5 - Ultrasonic Testing........................................................................1
Common Math Formulas................................................................................................................................12
Calibration Chart – UT Shearwave.................................................................................................................13
FPADSCRλ D................................................................................................................................................14
.......................................................................................................................................................................14
Velocity Chart.................................................................................................................................................15
Chapter 6 - Eddy Current Testing...................................................................1
Two Types of Electrical Current......................................................................................................................6
Conductivity and the IACS...............................................................................................................................7
Right Hand Rule...............................................................................................................................................7
Magnetic Domains............................................................................................................................................9
Depth of Penetration.......................................................................................................................................13
Limitations of Eddy Current Testing..............................................................................................................20
Advantages of Eddy Current Testing.............................................................................................................20
Summary of Properties of Eddy Currents.......................................................................................................20
Eddy Current Relationship of Properties........................................................................................................20
Chapter 7 - Radiographic Inspection..............................................................1
Structure of the Atom and an Element.............................................................................................................8
Components of an Isotope................................................................................................................................8
Characteristics of A Radioactive Element........................................................................................................8
Two Types of Radiation...................................................................................................................................8
History of Radiography....................................................................................................................................9
60° Coverage for Pipes and Location Marker Measurements.........................................................................11
Common Math Formulas................................................................................................................................12
Magic Circles..................................................................................................................................................15
A.................................................................................................................15
Single Wall Exposure / Single Wall Viewing for Plate..................................................................................15
Single Wall Exposure / Single Wall Viewing for Pipe...................................................................................16
Double Wall Exposure / Double Wall View (superimposed)........................................................................16
Double Wall Exposure / Double Wall View (offset)......................................................................................17
Double Wall Exposure / Single Wall View....................................................................................................17
KILLER CARL..............................................................................................................................................18
Penetrameter Material and Group Numbers...................................................................................................18
Penny T-Hole Maximum Density ................................................................................................................19
2% Penetrameter Quality Conversion Chart (X-RAY ONLY)......................................................................20
Basic Components of an X-ray Tube..............................................................................................................25
Types of Scatter Radiation..............................................................................................................................25
Radiographic Film Interpretation...................................................................................................................26
Probable Causes and Corrective Action for Automatic Film Processing.......................................................50
Probable Causes and Corrective Action for Processed Radiographic Film...................................................51
iii Inspector’s Handbook

Scope of Standards
NSTP 271 REQUIREMENTS FOR NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING METHODS
This document covers the requirements for conducting nondestructive tests (NDT) used in determining the
presence of surface and internal discontinuities in metals. It also contains the minimum requirements necessary to
qualify nondestructive test and inspection personnel, procedures, and nondestructive equipment. This document
does not contain acceptance criteria for nondestructive test. This document does not cover all of the requirements
for performing nondestructive tests in an underwater environment. Nondestructive tests in an underwater
environment shall be performed as specified in NAVSEA S0600-AA-PRO-070.
NSTP 248 REQUIREMENTS FOR WELDING AND BRAZING PROCEDURE AND PERFORMANCE
QUALIFICATION
This document contains the requirements for the qualification of welding and brazing procedures, welders,
welding operators, brazers and brazing operators that must be met prior to any production fabrication. It includes
manual, semiautomatic, automatic and machine welding and brazing of ferrous, nonferrous, and dissimilar metals.
The qualification tests required by this document are devised to demonstrate the adequacy of the welding or
brazing procedures and to demonstrate the ability of welders, brazers, welding operators and brazing operators to
produce sound welds or brazes.
NSTP 278 REQUIREMENTS FOR FABRICATION WELDING AND INSPECTION, AND CASTING
INSPECTION AND REPAIR FOR MACHINERY, PIPING, AND PRESSURE VESSELS
This document contains the welding and allied processes (except brazing) and casting requirements
including inspection for the fabrication, alteration, or repair of any item or component of machinery, piping, and
pressure vessels in ships of the United States Navy.
MIL-STD 2035 NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA

The acceptance criteria contained herein are for use in determining the acceptability of nondestructive test
(NDT) discontinuities in castings, welds, forgings, extrusions, cladding, and other products when specified by the
applicable Naval Sea Systems Command (NAVSEA) drawing, specification, contract, order, or directive.
NSTP 1688 FABRICATION, WELDING AND INSPECTION SUBMARINE APPLICATIONS

This document contains minimum requirements for fabrication and inspection of submarine and non-
combatant submersible structures, including shipbuilding practices, specifications for materials, weld joint design,
workmanship, welding, inspection, and record requirements.
MIL-STD 1689 FABRICATION, WELDING, AND INSPECTION OF SHIPS STRUCTURE

This standard contains the minimum requirements for the fabrication and inspection of the hull and
associated structures of combatant surface ships. The requirements for shipbuilding, materials, welding, welding
design, mechanical fasteners, workmanship, inspection, forming, castings and records are included. It also applies
to those submarine structures which are not high-yield strength steels.
MIL-STD 22D WELDED JOINT DESIGN

This standard covers welded joint designs for manual, semi-automatic, and automatic arc and gas welding
processes for use on metals and weldments, as applicable, when invoked by a fabrication document. The welded
joint designs shown herein represent standard joint designs used in welded fabrication and are not intended to be
all inclusive.
Inspector’s Handbook iv
NSTP CHAPTER 074 – VOLUME 1 WELDING AND ALLIED PROCESSES
This chapter furnishes both the minimum mandatory requirements (indicated by the word shall) and
guidance information (indicated by the words should or may) necessary for welding, brazing, inspection, and
safety when used for ship maintenance, repair, and alteration.
NSTP CHAPTER 074 – VOLUME 2 NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING OF METALS QUALIFICATION

AND CERTIFICATION REQUIREMENTS FOR NAVAL PERSONNEL (NON-NUCLEAR)
This chapter is furnished to ensure achievement of uniform and reliable nondestructive tests on naval
materials and components, implementation of the training, qualification, and certification programs described in
this chapter should be followed precisely.
v Inspector’s Handbook
Chapter 1 - General Information
Schedule Designations of Pipe Sizes
SCHEDULE 40 SCHEDULE 80 SCHEDULE 120

DIA. O.D. I.D. WALL O.D. I.D. WALL DIA. O.D. I.D. WALL
1/8 .405 .269 .068 .405 .215 .095 4 4.500 3.624 .438
1/4 .540 .364 .088 .540 .302 .119 5 5.563 4.563 .500
3/8 .675 .493 .091 .675 .423 .126 6 6.625 5.501 .562
1/2 .840 .622 .109 .840 .546 .147 8 8.625 7.189 .718
3/4 1.050 .824 .113 1.050 .742 .154 SCHEDULE 160
1 1.315 1.049 .133 1.315 .957 .179 1/2 .840 .466 .187
1-1/4 1.660 1.380 .140 1.660 1.278 .191 3/4 1.050 .614 .218
1-1/2 1.900 1.610 .145 1.900 1.500 .200 1 1.315 .815 .250
2 2.375 2.067 .154 2.375 1.939 .218 1-1/4 1.660 1.160 .250
2-1/2 2.875 2.469 .203 2.875 2.323 .276 1-1/2 1.900 1.338 .281
3 3.500 3.068 .216 3.500 2.900 .300 2 2.375 1.689 .343
3-1/2 4.000 3.548 .226 4.000 3.364 .318 2-1/2 2.875 2.125 .375
4 4.500 4.026 .237 4.500 3.826 .337 3 3.500 2.624 .438
4-1/2 5.000 4.506 .247 5.000 4.290 .355 4 4.500 3.438 .531
5 5.563 5.047 .258 5.563 4.813 .375 5 5.563 4.313 .625
6 6.625 6.065 .280 6.625 5.761 .432 6 6.625 5.189 .718
8 8.625 7.981 .322 8.625 7.625 .500 8 8.625 6.813 ..906
Copper Tubing Wall Thickness
Decimal to Inches OD CL - 200 CL - 700 CL - 1650 CL - 3300 CL - 6000

Decimal Inches Decimal Inches 0.125 ----- ----- ----- 0.028 0.028
0.0833 1" 0.5833 7" 0.25 0.035 ----- ----- 0.035 0.058
0.375 ----- ----- ----- 0.049 0.083
0.1250 1 1/2 " 0.6250 7 1/2 "
0.405 ----- ----- ----- 0.058 0.095
0.1667 2" 0.6667 8"
0.5 0.035 0.065 0.035 0.072 0.120
0.2083 2 1/2 " 0.7083 8 1/2 " 0.54 0.065 0.065 0.042 0.072 0.120
0.2500 3" 0.7500 9" 0.675 0.065 0.072 0.049 0.095 0.148
0.2917 3 1/2 " 0.7917 9 1/2 " 0.75 ----- ----- 0.058 0.109 0.165
0.3333 4" 0.8333 10 " 0.84 0.065 0.072 0.058 0.120 0.203
0.3750 4 1/2 " 0.8750 10 1/2 " 1 ----- ----- 0.072 0.134 0.220
0.4167 5" 0.9167 11 " 1.05 0.065 0.083 0.083 0.148 0.238
0.4583 5 1/2 " 0.9583 11 1/2 " 1.25 ----- ----- 0.095 0.165 0.284
0.5000 6" 1.0000 12 " 1.315 0.065 0.095 0.095 0.180 0.300
0.5417 6 1/2 " 1.5 ----- ----- 0.109 0.203 0.340
inches / 12 = decimal 1.66 0.072 0.095 0.120 0.220 0.380
decimal * 12 = inches 1.9 0.072 0.109 0.134 0.250 0.425
2 ----- ----- 0.148 0.284 0.454
2.375 0.083 0.120 0.165 0.340 0.520
2.5 ----- ----- 0.180 0.340 0.547
Temperature Conversions 2.875 0.083 0.134 0.203 0.380 -----
3.5 0.095 0.165 0.250 0.457 -----
Fahrenheit = (9/5 * C) + 32 4 0.095 0.180 0.284 ----- -----
4.5 0.109 0.203 0.340 ----- -----
Celsius = (F - 32) * 5/9 5 0.120 0.203 0.380 ----- -----
Fraction to Decimal Equivalent Decimal to Second Conversion
1/ 64 .015625 33/ 64 .515625 DECIMAL SECOND DECIMAL SECOND
1/ 32 .03125 17/ 32 .53125 .017 1 .517 31
3/ 64 .046875 35/ 64 .546875 .033 2 .533 32
1/ 16 .0625 9/ 16 .5625 .050 3 .550 33
5/ 64 .078125 37/ 64 .578125 .067 4 .567 34
3/ 32 .09375 19/ 32 .59375 .083 5 .583 35
7/ 64 .109375 39/ 64 .609375 .100 6 .600 36
1/ 8 .125 5/ 8 .625 .117 7 .617 37
9/ 64 .140625 41/ 64 .640625 .133 8 .633 38
5/ 32 .15625 21/ 32 .65625 .150 9 .650 39
11/ 64 .171875 43/ 64 .671875 .167 10 .667 40
3/ 16 .1875 11/ 16 .6875 .183 11 .683 41
13/ 64 .203125 45/ 64 .703125 .200 12 .700 42
7/ 32 .21875 23/ 32 .71875 .217 13 .717 43
15/ 64 .234375 47/ 64 .734375 .233 14 .733 44
1/ 4 .250 3/ 4 .750 .250 15 .750 45
17/ 64 .265625 49/ 64 .765625 .267 16 .767 46
9/ 32 .28125 25/ 32 .78125 .283 17 .783 47
19/ 64 .296875 51/ 64 .796875 .300 18 .800 48
5/ 16 .3125 13/ 16 .8125 .317 19 .817 49
21/ 64 .328125 53/ 64 .828125
.333 20 .833 50
11/ 32 .34375 27/ 32 .84375
.350 21 .850 51
23/ 64 .359375 55/ 64 .859375
.367 22 .867 52
3/ 8 .375 7/ 8 .875
.383 23 .883 53
25/ 64 .390625 57/ 64 .890625
.400 24 .900 54
13/ 32 .40625 29/ 32 .90625
.417 25 .917 55
27/ 64 .421875 59/ 64 .921875
.433 26 .933 56
7/ 16 .4375 15/ 16 .9375
.450 27 .950 57
29/ 64 .453125 61/ 64 .953125
.467 28 .967 58
15/ 32 .46875 31/ 32 .96875
.483 29 .983 59
31/ 64 .484375 63/ 64 .984375
.500 30 1.00 60
1/ 2 .500 1/ 1 1 1/60 X SECONDS = DECIMAL (ROUNDED UP TO THE THIRD
Numerical Place Value Chart PLACE)
For Example 2 , 2 6 2 , 3 5 7 . 6 1 9 8 4 4
2 MILLIONS 1,000,000 D 6 TENTHS 1/10 0.1
HUNDRED
2 100,000 E 1 HUNDREDTHS 1/100 0.01
THOUSANDS
TEN
6 10,000 C 9 THOUSANDTHS 1/1,000 0.001
THOUSANDS
TEN
2 THOUSANDS 1,000 I 8 1/10,000 0.0001
THOUSANDTHS
HUNDRED TEN
3 HUNDREDS 100 M4 1/100,000 0.00001
THOUSANDTHS
5 TENS 10 A 4 MILLIONTHS 1/1,000,000 0.000001
7 UNITS 1 L
Elements of a Nondestructive Examination Symbol
NUMBER OF EXAMINATIONS LENGTH OF SECTION TO BE

EXAMINED
REFERENCE LINE (N)
ARROWOTHER
BOTH SIDES
EXAMINE IN FIELD
SIDE
SPECIFICATION OR OTHER GROOVE ANGLE: INCLUDED ANGLE OF
FINISH SYMBOL L
COUNTERSINK FOR PLUG WELDS
REFERENCE
CONTOURT SYMBOL EXAMINE-ALL-AROUND
ROOT OPENING:DEPTH OF FILLING FOR
SIDE
GROOVE WELD SIZE F PLUG AND SLOT WELDS
DEPTH OF BEVEL; SIZE OR STRENGTH FOR A LENGTH OF WELD
CERTAIN WELDS R ARROWPITCH OF WELDS
TAIL
ARROWOTHER
BOTH SIDES
FIELD WELD
SIDE
EXAMINE ALL AROUND FIELD EXAMINATION RADIATION DIRECTION
SPECIFICATION OR OTHER
REFERENCE (OMITTED WHEN S(E) L- P
T WELD-ALL-AROUND
NOT USED)
SIDE
TAIL (N) ARROW
NUMBER OF SPOT, SEAM, STUD,

PLUG, OR PROJECTION WELDS
Elements of a Welding Symbol
Examples of Grooves
Square Single J Single Bevel
Single Vee Double Bevel Single U
Basic Joints (Welding)
Butt Lap
Corner
Edge Tee
Order of Performing Arithmetic Operations
When several numbers or quantities in a formula are connected by signs indicating that additions,
subtractions, multiplications, or divisions are to be made, the multiplications and divisions should be carried out
first, in the order in which they appear, before the additions or subtractions are performed.
Examples: 10 + 26 X 7 - 2 = 10 +182 - 2 = 190

18 ÷ 6 + 15 X 3 = 3 + 45 = 48
12 + 14 ÷ 2 - 4 = 12 + 7 - 4 = 15
When it is required that certain additions and subtractions should precede multiplication's and divisions, use
is made of parentheses () and brackets [].
These indicate that the calculation inside the parentheses or brackets should be carried out complete by itself
before the remaining calculations are commenced. If one bracket is placed inside of another, the one inside is first
calculated.
Examples: (6 - 2) X 5 + 8 = 4 X 5 + 8 = 20 + 8 = 28
6 X (4 + 7) ÷ 22 = 6 X 11 ÷ 22 = 66 ÷ 22 = 3
2 + [10 X 6(8 + 2) - 4] X 2 = 2 + [10 X 6 X 10 - 4] X 2
= 2 + [600 - 4] X 2 = 2 + 596 X 2 = 2 + 1192 = 1194
The parentheses are considered as a sign of multiplication; for example, 6(8 + 2) = 6 x (8 + 2).
The line or bar between the numerator and denominator in a fractional expression is to be considered as a
division sign. For Example,
12 + 16 + 22
--------------- = (12 + 16 + 22) ÷ 10 = 50 ÷ 10 = 5
10
In formulas the multiplication sign (X) is often left out between symbols or letters, the values of which are to be
multiplied. Thus
ABC
AB = A X B, and ------ = (A X B X C) ÷ D
D
Ratio And Proportion
The ratio between two quantities is the quotient obtained by dividing the first quantity by the second. For
example, the ration between 3 and 12 is 1/4, and the ratio between 12 and 3 is 4. Ratio is generally indicated by the
sign (:); thus 12 : 3 indicates the ratio of 12 to 3.
A reciprocal or inverse ratio is the reciprocal or the original ratio. Thus, the inverse ratio 5 : 7 is 7 : 5.
In a compound ratio each term is the product of the corresponding terms in two or more simple ratios.
Thus when
8 : 2 = 4, 9 : 3 = 3, 10 : 5 = 2,
then the compound ratio is:
8 X 9 X 10: 2 X 3 X 5 = 4 X 3 X 2,
720 : 30 = 24
Prop is the equality of ratios. Thus,
6 : 3 = 10 : 5, or 6 : 3 :: 10 : 5
The first and last terms in a proportion are called the extremes; the second and thirds, the means. The
product of the extremes is equal to the product of the means. Thus,
25 : 2 = 100 : 8 and 25 X 8 = 2 X 100
If third terms in the proportion are known, the remaining term may be found by the following rules:
1) The first term is equal to the product of the second and third terms, divided by the fourth term.
2) The second term is equal to the product of the first and fourth terms, divided by the third.
3) The third term is equal to the product of the first and fourth terms, divided by the second.
4) The fourth term is equal to the product of the second and third terms, divided by the first.
Calculation of Area
Square/Rectangle = Length * Width
Circles = πr 2
Triangle = Height * Base * 1/2
Sphere = 4 πr 2
Weld Area Calculation
Structural Welds = Length * Width (measured)
Piping Welds = Circumference(OD*π ) * Width
Socket Welds = L x W
L = ((OD at A + OD at B) / 2) * π
W = Width of the weld is measured.
Common Symbols and Terms
π = 3.1415
r = Diameter / 2
ID = Inside Diameter Sq. Area
OD = Outside Diameter
< = Less Than (ie 6<9)

L W
> = Greater Than (ie 9>6)
< = Equal To or Less Than
> = Equal To or Greater Than
+ = Plus or Minus
Change percent (%) to decimal (0.0).
Move decimal point 2 spaces to the left and drop the percent sign.
Example: 2% = 2.0% = .02
Change decimal (0.0) to percent (%).

Move decimal point 2 units to the right and add the percent sign.
Example: .43 = 43%
Change a fraction to a decimal.

Divide the numerator by the denominator.
Example: 1/2 = 1 divided by 2 = .5
Tm = Material Thickness, thickness of the thinner member

excluding reinforcements.
Ts = Specimen Thickness, thickness of the thinner member

including reinforcements.
Minimum Weld Throat Thickness = .7 x Tm

Based upon 1T X 1T
Solution of Right-angled Triangles
As shown in the illustration, the sides of the right-

angled triangle are designated a and b and the
hypotenuse, c. The angles opposite each of these sides
B are designated A and B respectively.
c
a Angle C, opposite the hypotenuse c is the right
angle, and is therefore always one of the known
quantities.
C =90° A
909090°
b
Sides and Angles Known Formulas for Sides and Angles to be Found
a
Side a, side b..... c = √ a2 + b2 Tan A =b B = 90° - A
a
Side a, hypotenuse c.. b=√c -a2 2 Sin A = c B = 90° - A
b
Side b, hypotenuse c.. a=√c -b2 2 Sin B = c A = 90° - B
Hypotenuse c; angle B b = c x sin B a = c x cos B A = 90° - B
Hypotenuse c; angle A b = c x cos A a = c x sin A B = 90° - A
b
Side b; angle B c =Sin B a = b x cot B A = 90° - B
b
Side b; angle A C =Cos A a = b x tan A B = 90° - A
a
Side a; angle B C= b = a x tan B A = 90° - B
Cos B
a
Side a; angle A C = Sin A b = a x cot A B = 90° - A
Basic Illustration of a Weld
WELD REINFORCEMENT
TOE
ACTUAL THROAT
FILLET LEG F
SIZE OF WELD U
S WELD FACE
I
O
N THEORETICAL
THROAT
Z
O
N
E
TOE
ROOT
FUSION ZONE
PENETRATION
ZONE
FILLET LEG
SIZE OF WELD
Welding Processes
ELECTRODE COVERING
Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
An arc welding process, which melts and CORE WIRE
joins metals by heating them with an arc
between a covered metal electrode and the SHIELDING ATMOSPHERE
work. Shielding gas is obtained from the

WELD POOL
electrode outer coating, often called flux.
Commonly referred to as “stick” welding. METAL AND SLAG
SOLIDIFIED SLAG DROPLETS
SHIELDING GAS IN
Gas Metal PENETRATION
Arc Welding SOLID ELECTRODE WIRE DEPTH
WELD METAL BASE
WELDMETAL
METAL
(GMAW) CURRENT CONDUCTOR
BASE METAL
An arc
welding process, DIRECTION OF WELDING
which joins
metals by heating WIRE GUIDE them with an arc. The arc is between a
DIRECTION AND CONTACT
continuously-fed OF WELDING TUBE filler metal (consumable) electrode and the
work piece. GAS NOZZLE Shielding gas is supplied from an external
source of inert WELDING
ELECTRODE
gas, normally argon, helium, or a mixture of
the two. GASEOUS Commonly referred to as “MIG” welding.
SHIELD
ARC
Flu x Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)

An arc welding process which melts and
BASE WELD
METAL METAL joins metals by heating them with an arc
between a continuous, consumable electrode
wire and the work. Shielding is obtained from a flux
contained within the electrode core. Depending upon the
type of flux-cored wire, added shielding may or may not
be provided from externally supplied gas or gas mixture.
Tungsten
Electrode Gas
Argon or helium Tungsten
shielding gas
Arc
Contact
tube Welding
Wielding
(GTAW)
Power
direction source Normally
called
TIG
welding (Tungsten Inert Gas), it is a welding process that joins
Shielding gas
metals by heating them with a tungsten electrode, Filler which
rod
should not become part of the completed weld. Filler Arc metal is
normally used when welding. Usually helium or argon, or
mixture, is used for shielding gas.
Base metal
Weld pool Weld deposit
Backing Ring Common Defect Locations
CRACKING
OVERLAP SLAG/OXIDE INCLUSIONS
UNDERCUT TUNGSTEN INCLUSIONS
POROSITY INCOMPLETE (LACK OF) FUSION
CRACKING
PIPE WALL PIPE WALL
CRACKS IN
BACKING RING
TACK WELDS
BAD FITUP
SLAG BETWEEN BACKING
INCOMPLETE (LACK OF) PENETRATION RING AND PIPE ID
SLAG OR UNDERCUT AT THE ROOT TOES
CRACKING
MELT-THROUGH
BURN-THROUGH
Consumable Insert Common Defect Locations

CRACKING
OVERLAP SLAG/OXIDE INCLUSIONS
UNDERCUT TUNGSTEN INCLUSIONS INCOMPLETE (LACK OF) FUSION
POROSITY CRACKING
PIPE WALL PIPE WALL
CONCAVITY MELT-THROUGH
BURN-THROUGH INCOMPLETE (LACK OF) FUSION
UNDERBEAD CRATERS CENTERLINE CREASE
OVERLAP CRACKING
UNDERCUT AT THE ROOT TOES
BACKING GAS LOSS/OXIDATION INCOMPLETE (LACK OF) PENETRATION
Primary Processing Discontinuities
Process Discontinuity Caused By Location
Lack of fusion between two intercepting surfaces
Cold Shut Surface
of metal as it flows into the cast
Difference in cooling rates between thin sections
Hot Tear Surface
and thick sections
Lack of enough molten metal to fill the space
Shrinkage Cavity Subsurface
created by shrinkage
Casting
Improperly designed mold causing premature
Microshrinkage Subsurface
blockage at the mold gate
Inability of external gasses to escape from the
Blow Holes Surface
mold
Surface or
Porosity Entrapped internal gasses
Subsurface
Folding of metal in a thin plate on the surface of
Lap Surface
the forging
Forging
Surface or
Burst Forging at improper temperature
Subsurface
Flattening and lengthening of discontinuities in
Laminations (flat plate) Subsurface
parent material
Flattening and lengthening of discontinuities
Seams Stringers (bar stock) Subsurface
found in parent material
Lengthening of surface cracks found in parent
Seams (bar stock) Surface
material
Surface
Welded Lack of Fusion Incomplete weld
(inner and outer)
Pipe
Present in the parent material (sheet or parent
Laminations Subsurface
material)
Outer
Seams Present in the parent material (round bar stock)
Surface
Seamless
Inner
Pipes and Slugs Metal buildup on piercing material
Surface
Tubes
Inner
Gouges Sizing mandrel dragging
Surface
Seams Present in parent material Surface
Surface or
Extrusions Porosity Present in parent material
Subsurface
Galling (cracks) Improper metal flow through the die Surface

Finish Processing Discontinuities
Process Discontinuity Caused By Location
Excess localized heat created between the
Grinding Cracks Surface
grinding wheel and the material
Stress built up by improper processing – unequal
Heat Treating Stress Cracks Surface
heating and cooling
Explosive
Cracks and Tears Extreme deformation overstresses the material Surface
Forming
Crater Cracks (star,
Surface or
transverse, and Improper use of heat source
Subsurface
longitudinal)
Stresses built up by the weld contraction (if
Stress Cracks Surface
material is restrained)
Surface or
Porosity Entrapped gasses
Subsurface
Incomplete cleaning of slag from the weld Surface or
Slag Inclusions
between passes Subsurface
Welding Tungsten Inclusions Excessive current used during GTAW Subsurface
Surface or
Lack of Penetration Improper welding technique
Subsurface
Lack of Fusion Improper welding technique Subsurface
Undercut Improper welding technique Surface
Overlapping Weld overlaps parent material – not fused Surface
Bending Cracks Overstress of material Surface
Machining Tears Working with dull tools or cutting too deep Surface
Pickling or
Cracks Relief of internal stress Surface
Etching
Electroplating Cracks Relief of internal stress Surface

Dial Indicating Calipers
1. Verify the caliper’s calibration date is current, and clean all dirt from measuring faces. Perform user
calibration on dial indicator, ensure reading is zero, and tighten the bezel clamp as needed.
2. Adjust measuring faces, contact points, to fit item being measured.
3. Apply firm pressure to fine adjusting roll and ensure measuring contacts are in contact with the material
being measured.
4. Apply lock screw and read measurement in place if practical. If not, remove calipers carefully to prevent
false measurements.
Micrometer
FIXED ANVIL PART TO BE MEASURED
SPINDLE THIMBLE
LOCK NUT RATCHET
GRADUATIONS TO
GRADUATIONS BE READ
SLEEVE
READING LINE
FRAME
1. Verify that the micrometer’s calibration

date is current, and clean all dirt from
measuring contacts.
2. Attach ball if measuring curved

surfaces.
3. Adjust micrometer to fit the item being

measured, do not spin frame to adjust the
micrometer.
4. Slip the micrometer over the area to be measured by placing the anvil firmly against the material and slowly turn
the thimble clockwise until spindle is firmly against the material. Then turn the ratchet three clicks to be sure equal
pressure is applied.
5. Take reading in place, or set the locking nut and remove from the item. Determine reading on scale and note
accordingly. Do not forget to minus the ball measurement if used.
Thread Terminology (fasteners)
FLANKS HEIGHT OR
CREST DEPTH OF THREAD
ROOT
AXIS
CREST
MAJOR DIAMETER
MINOR DIAMETER
PITCH
DIAMETER ROOT
SCREW EXTERNAL THREADS

THREAD
INTERNAL THREADS
ANGLE
Tap and Drill Size Chart
Fine Thread TAP Coarse Thread

THREAD THREAD TAP DRILL
DRILL DRILL DRILL
SIZE SIZE SIZE
DIAMETER SIZE DIAMETER
0-80 .0469 3/64 1-64 .0595 No. 53
1-72 .0595 No. 53 2-56 .0700 No. 50
2-64 .0700 No. 50 3-48 .0785 No. 47
3-56 .0820 No. 45 4-40 .0890 No. 43
4-48 .0935 No. 42 5-40 .1015 No. 38
5-44 .1040 No. 37 6-32 .1065 No. 36
6-40 .1130 No. 33 8-32 .1360 No. 29
8-36 .1360 No. 29 10-24 .1495 No. 25
10-32 .1590 No. 21 12-24 .1770 No. 16
12-28 .1820 No. 14 1/4-20 .2010 No. 7
1/4-28 .2130 No. 3 5/16-18 .2570 'F'
5/16-24 .2720 'I' 3/8-16 .3125 5/16
3/8-24 .3320 'Q' 7/16-14 .3680 'U'
7/16-20 .3906 25/64 1/2-13 .4219 27/64
1/2-20 .4531 29/64 9/16-12 .4844 31/64
9/16-18 .5156 33/64 5/8-11 .5312 17/32
5/8-18 .5781 37/64 3/4-10 .6562 21/32
3/4-16 .6875 11/16 7/8-9 .7656 49/64
7/8-14 .8125 13/16 1"-8 .8750 7/8
1"-14 .9375 59/64
Julian Date Calendar (Perpetual)
Day Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Day
1 001 032 060 091 121 152 182 213 244 274 305 335 1
2 002 033 061 092 122 153 183 214 245 275 306 336 2
3 003 034 062 093 123 154 184 215 246 276 307 337 3
4 004 035 063 094 124 155 185 216 247 277 308 338 4
5 005 036 064 095 125 156 186 217 248 278 309 339 5
6 006 037 065 096 126 157 187 218 249 279 310 340 6
7 007 038 066 097 127 158 188 219 250 280 311 341 7
8 008 039 067 098 128 159 189 220 251 281 312 342 8
9 009 040 068 099 129 160 190 221 252 282 313 343 9
10 010 041 069 100 130 161 191 222 253 283 314 344 10
11 011 042 070 101 131 162 192 223 254 284 315 345 11
12 012 043 071 102 132 163 193 224 255 285 316 346 12
13 013 044 072 103 133 164 194 225 256 286 317 347 13
14 014 045 073 104 134 165 195 226 257 287 318 348 14
15 015 046 074 105 135 166 196 227 258 288 319 349 15
16 016 047 075 106 136 167 197 228 259 289 320 350 16
17 017 048 076 107 137 168 198 229 260 290 321 351 17
18 018 049 077 108 138 169 199 230 261 291 322 352 18
19 019 050 078 109 139 170 200 231 262 292 323 353 19
20 020 051 079 110 140 171 201 232 263 293 324 354 20
21 021 052 080 111 141 172 202 233 264 294 325 355 21
22 022 053 081 112 142 173 203 234 265 295 326 356 22
23 023 054 082 113 143 174 204 235 266 296 327 357 23
24 024 055 083 114 144 175 205 236 267 297 328 358 24
25 025 056 084 115 145 176 206 237 268 298 329 359 25
26 026 057 085 116 146 177 207 238 269 299 330 360 26
27 027 058 086 117 147 178 208 239 270 300 331 361 27
28 028 059 087 118 148 179 209 240 271 301 332 362 28
29 029 088 119 149 180 210 241 272 302 333 363 29
30 030 089 120 150 181 211 242 273 303 334 364 30
31 031 090 151 212 243 304 365 31
Julian Date Calendar (Leap Year)
Day Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Day
1 001 032 061 092 122 153 183 214 245 275 306 336 1
2 002 033 062 093 123 154 184 215 246 276 307 337 2
3 003 034 063 094 124 155 185 216 247 277 308 338 3
4 004 035 064 095 125 156 186 217 248 278 309 339 4
5 005 036 065 096 126 157 187 218 249 279 310 340 5
6 006 037 066 097 127 158 188 219 250 280 311 341 6
7 007 038 067 098 128 159 189 220 251 281 312 342 7
8 008 039 068 099 129 160 190 221 252 282 313 343 8
9 009 040 069 100 130 161 191 222 253 283 314 344 9
10 010 041 070 101 131 162 192 223 254 284 315 345 10
11 011 042 071 102 132 163 193 224 255 285 316 346 11
12 012 043 072 103 133 164 194 225 256 286 317 347 12
13 013 044 073 104 134 165 195 226 257 287 318 348 13
14 014 045 074 105 135 166 196 227 258 288 319 349 14
15 015 046 075 106 136 167 197 228 259 289 320 350 15
16 016 047 076 107 137 168 198 229 260 290 321 351 16
17 017 048 077 108 138 169 199 230 261 291 322 352 17
18 018 049 078 109 139 170 200 231 262 292 323 353 18
19 019 050 079 110 140 171 201 232 263 293 324 354 19
20 020 051 080 111 141 172 202 233 264 294 325 355 20
21 021 052 081 112 142 173 203 234 265 295 326 356 21
22 022 053 082 113 143 174 204 235 266 296 327 357 22
23 023 054 083 114 144 175 205 236 267 297 328 358 23
24 024 055 084 115 145 176 206 237 268 298 329 359 24
25 025 056 085 116 146 177 207 238 269 299 330 360 25
26 026 057 086 117 147 178 208 239 270 300 331 361 26
27 027 058 087 118 148 179 209 240 271 301 332 362 27
28 028 059 088 119 149 180 210 241 272 302 333 363 28
29 029 060 089 120 150 181 211 242 273 303 334 364 29
30 030 090 121 151 182 212 243 274 304 335 365 30
31 031 091 152 213 244 305 366 31
Flow Chart For A Discontinuity
Discontinuity
Chapter 2 - Visual Inspection
Common Definitions and Examples
Aligned rounded indications
Four or more indications in a line, where each is separated
from the adjacent indication by less then 1/16 inch or D, whichever
is greater, where D is the major diameter of the larger of the adjacent
indication.
Arc strike
Any localized heat-effected zone or change in the contour of
the surface of the finished weld or adjacent base metal resulting from aligned rounded indications with crack
an arc or heat generated by the passage of electrical energy between
the surface of the finished weld or base metal and a current source,
such as welding electrodes or magnetic particle inspection prods.
Burn through
A void or open hole that extends through a backing ring, strip, fused root, or adjacent base metal.
Burst
A rupture caused by forging at improper temperatures. Bursts may be either internal or external to the
surface.
Cold shut
The result of pouring metal over solidified metal.
Crack or tear crack

A linear rupture of metal under stress.
Crater pit
An approximately circular surface condition exceeding into
the weld in an irregular manner caused by insufficient filler metal at
the weld stop.
Defect
One or more flaws whose aggregate; size, shape, orientation,
location, or properties do not meet the specified acceptance criteria
and are rejectable.
crater pit
Discontinuity
Any interruption in the normal physical structure or
configuration of a part, which will cause a detectable indication or
signal when nondestructively examined.
Evaluation
A review, following interpretation of the indications noted, to determine whether they meet specified
acceptance criteria.
False indication
An indication that is interpreted to be caused by a condition other than a discontinuity or imperfection.
Heat checks
Fissures or tears in the weld heat affected zone of material containing low melting point.
Imperfection
A departure of quality characteristic from its intended condition.
Indication
Evidence of a discontinuity that requires interpretation to determine its significance.
Incomplete fusion
Lack of complete fusion of some portion of the metal in a
weld joint with adjacent metal. The adjacent metal may be either base
metal or previously deposited weld metal, or consumable insert.
Incomplete penetration
Lack of penetration of the weld through the thickness of the
joint, or penetration which is less than specified. incomplete fusion
Interpretation
The determination of whether indications are relevant,
nonrelevant, or false.
Lap (forgings)
Folding of metal on the surface of the forging, usually occurs when
some of the forging metal is squeezed out between the two dies.
incomplete penetration
Linear indication
An indication in which the length is equal to or
greater than three times the width.
Melt through
incomplete penetration
A convex or concave irregularity on the surface of a backing ring or strip, fused root, or adjacent base metal
resulting from fusion completely through a localized region but without development of a void or open hole.
Non-linear rounded indications

Indication whose length is less than three times its width.
Nonrelevant indications
An indication that is caused by a condition or type of discontinuity that is not relevant.
Oxidation
A condition resulting from partial or complete lack of inert gas shielding of a surface which is heated
during welding resulting in formation of oxide on the surface. This condition may range from slight oxidation
evidenced by a multicolored or tightly adhering black film to the extreme of a very rough surface having a
crystalline appearance.
Porosity
Gas pockets or voids in weld metal or castings.
Quench crack
A crack formed as a result of thermal stresses produced by
rapid cooling from a high temperature.
Root surface concavity

A depression on the root surface of a weld which may be due porosity
to gravity, internal purge, or shrinkage.
Root surface centerline crease or shrinkage

An intermittent or continuous peripheral centerline concavity formed on the root surface.
Root undercut
A groove in the internal surface of a base metal or backing ring or strip along the edge of the root of the
weld.
Shrinkage
Void, or voids, that may occur in molten metal due to
contraction during solidification.
Slag
Non-metallic solid material entrapped in the weld metal,
between weld metal and base metal, or in a casting.
Tungsten inclusion slag

Tungsten entrapped in the weld deposit.
Undercut
A groove melted into the base metal at the toe of the weld and left unfilled by weld metal.
Unfused chaplet
A metal support used in the casting process, which has not
fused with casting material.
Weld spatter
Metal particles which deposit on the surface of the weld or
adjacent base metal during welding and which do not form a part of
the weld.
weld
spatter
Chapter 3 - Liquid Penetrant Testing
Common Terms and Definitions
Alkaline
Any soluble mineral salt or mixtures of salt capable of neutralizing acids.
Angstrom Unit (A)

A unit of length equal to 108 cm and used to express wavelengths of light; i.e., electromagnetic radiation.
Background
The surface upon which an indication is viewed. It may be the natural surface of the test article or it may be
the developer coating on the surface. This background may contain traces of unremoved penetrant (fluorescent or
visible), which, if present, can interfere with the visibility of indications.
Background Fluorescence
Fluorescent residues observed over the general surface of the test article during fluorescent penetrant
inspection.
Bath
Term used colloquially to designate the liquid penetrant inspection materials into which test articles are
immersed during inspection process.
Black Light
Light radiation in the near ultraviolet range of wavelengths (3200 to 4000 A), just shorter than visible light.
Black Light Filter

A filter that transmits black light while suppressing visible light and hard ultraviolet radiation with
wavelengths less than 3200 angstroms.
Bleedout
The action of the entrapped Penetrant in spreading out from surface discontinuities to form an indication.
Blotting
The action of the developer in soaking up the entrapped penetrant from surface discontinuities to form an
indication.
Capillary Action or Capillarity

The tendency of liquids to penetrate or migrate into small openings such as cracks, pits, or fissures.
Carrier Fluid (Vehicle or Medium)

A fluid in which liquid penetrant inspection materials are dissolved or suspended.
Clean
Free from interfering solid or liquid contamination on the surface.
Comparative Test Block

An intentionally cracked metal block having two separate but adjacent areas for the application of different
penetrants so that a direct comparison of their relative effectiveness can be obtained. Can also be used to evaluate
penetrant test techniques and test conditions.
Contact Emulsifier
An emulsifier that begins emulsifying penetrant upon simple contact with the penetrant; usually oil-base
(Lipophilic).
Contrast
The difference in visibility (brightness or coloration) between an indication and the surrounding surface.
Dark Adaptation
The adjustment of the eyes when one passes from a bright to a darkened area.
Detergent Remover
A penetrant remover that is a solution of a detergent in water. Also Hydrophilic Emulsifier.
Developer
A material that is applied to the test article surface after excess penetrant has been removed and that is
designed to enhance the penetrant bleedout to form indications. The developer may be a fine powder, a solution
that dries to a fine powder, or a suspension (in solvent, water, alcohol, etc.) that dries leaving an absorptive film on
the test surface.
Developing Time
The elapsed time necessary for the applied developer to bring out indications from penetrant entrapments.
Also called Development Time.
Dragout
The carryout or loss of penetrant materials as a result of their adherence to the articles being processed.
Drain Time
That portion of the penetrant inspection process during which the excess penetrant, emulsifier, detergent
remover, or developer is allowed to drain from the test article.
Dry Developer
A fine, dry powder developer that does not employ a carrier fluid.
Drying Oven
An oven used for drying test articles.
Drying Time
A time allotted for a test article to dry.
Dual-response Penetrant
A penetrant that contains a combination of visible and fluorescent dyes.
Dwell Time
The total time that the penetrant or emulsifier is in contact with the test surface, including the time required
for application and the drain time. Also see Emulsification Time.
Electrostatic Spraying
A technique of spraying wherein the material being sprayed is given a high electrical charge while the test
article is grounded.
Emulsification Time
The period of time that an emulsifier is permitted to combine with the penetrant prior to removal. Also
called Emulsifier Dwell Time.
Emulsifier
A liquid that combines with an oily penetrant to make the penetrant water-washable. Also see Hydrophilic
Emulsifier and Lipophilic Emulsifier.
Flash Point
The lowest temperature at which a volatile, flammable liquid will give off enough vapor to make a
combustible explosive mixture in the air space surrounding the liquid surface.
Fluorescence
The emission of visible radiation by a substance as a result of, and only during, the absorption of black light
radiation.
Fluorescent Dye Penetrant

An inspection penetrant that is characterized by its ability to fluoresce when excited by black light.
Halogen (Halogenous)
Any of four very active nonmetallic elements; chlorine, iodine, fluorine and bromine.
Hydrophilic Emulsifier
A water-base agent that, when applied to an oily penetrant, renders the penetrant water-washable. Can be
used as a Contact Emulsifier, but more often the emulsifier is added to the water rinse and accompanied by some
form of mechanical agitation or scrubbing to remove excess penetrant. Sometimes called a Hydrophilic Scrubber.
Leak Testing
A technique of liquid penetrant testing in which the penetrant is applied to one side of the surface while the
other side is inspected for indications that would indicate a through-leak or void.
Lipophilic Emulsifier
An oil-base agent that, when applied to an oily penetrant, renders the penetrant water-washable. Usually
applied as a Contact Emulsifier.
Near Surface Discontinuity

A discontinuity not open to, but located near, the surface of a test article.
Nonaqueous Wet Developer

A developer in which the developing powder is applied as a suspension in a quick-drying solvent. Also
called Solvent Developer.
Penetrability
The property of a penetrant that causes it to find its way into very fine openings, such as cracks.
Penetrant
A liquid (sometimes gas) capable of entering discontinuities open to the surface, and which is adapted to
the inspection process by being made highly visible in small traces. Fluorescent penetrants fluoresce brightly under
black light while the visible penetrants are intensely colored to be noticeable under visible light.
Post-emulsification Penetrant
A penetrant that requires the application of a separate emulsifier to render the surface penetrant water-
washable. Also can be removed by applying a solvent remover.
Precleaning
The removal of surface contaminants or smeared metal from the test article so that they cannot interfere
with the penetrant inspection process.
Quenching of Fluorescence
The extinction of fluorescence by causes other than removal of black light (the exciting radiation).
Resolution
The property of a test system that enables the separation of indications of close proximity in a test article..
Rinse
The process of removing liquid penetrant inspection materials from the surface of an article by washing or
flooding with another liquid-usually water. Also called Wash.
See-ability
The characteristic of an indication that enables the observer to see it against the conditions of background,
outside light, etc.
Self-developing Penetrant
A penetrant not requiring the use of a developer. Useful for production work in the detection of gross
discontinuities.
Sensitivity
The ability of the penetrant process to detect minute surface discontinuities.
Solvent Removed
A penetrant-removal technique wherein the excess penetrant is washed or wiped from the test surface with
a solvent remover.
Solvent Remover
A volatile liquid used to remove excess surface penetrant from the test article. Sometimes called Penetrant
Remover.
Surface Tension
That property of liquids which, due to molecular forces, tends to bring the contained volume into a form
having the least superficial area.
Viscosity
The state or degree of being viscous. The resistance of a fluid to the motion of its particles.
Visible Dye Penetrant

An inspection penetrant that is characterized by its intense visible color-usually red. Also called Color
Contrast or Nonfluorescent Penetrant.
Water-soluble Developer
A developer in which the developer powder is dissolved in a water carrier to form a solution. Not a
suspension.
Water-suspended Particle Developer
A developer in which the developer particles are mixed with water to form a suspension.
Water-wash
A penetrant-removal technique wherein excess penetrant is washed or flushed from the test surface with
water.
Water-washable Penetrant
A type of penetrant that contains its own emulsifier, making it water-washable.
Water Tolerance
The amount of water that a penetrant, emulsifier, or wet developer can absorb before its effectiveness is
impaired.
Wet Developer
A developer in which the developer powder is applied as a suspension or solution in a liquid-usually water
or alcohol.
Wetting Ability
The ability of a liquid to spread out spontaneously and adhere to the test article's surfaces.
Prorated Maximum Number of Indications
MAXIMUM OF 6 INDICATIONS IN A 36 INCH SQUARE AREA
Actual Area 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
Prorated 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 6
Indications

Actual Area 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
Prorated 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 8
Indications

Actual Area 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
Prorated 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 10
Indications

Actual Area 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
Prorated 0 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 4 4 4 5 5 5 6 6 6 7 7 7 8 8 8 9 9 9 10 10 10 11 11 11 12
Indications

Actual Area 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
Prorated 0 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 7 8 8 8 9 9 10 10 11 11 12 12 12 13 13 14 14 15 15 16
Indications
(MAX # OF INDICATIONS/36) X ACTUAL AREA = NEW MAX # OF INDICATIONS
Areas of Circles
Diameter (inches) Area (square inches) Diameter (inches) Area (square inches)
1/32 .0008 .0195 .0003
3/64 .0017 .020 .0003
1/16 .0031 .024 .0005
5/64 .0048 .025 .0005
3/32 .0069 .0275 .0006
7/64 .0094 .031 .0008
1/8 .0123 .034 .0009
9/64 .0155 .037 .0011
5/32 .0192 .039 .0012
11/64 .0232 .048 .0018
3/16 .0276 .049 .0019
13/64 .0324 .050 .0020
7/32 .0376 .055 .0024
15/64 .0431 .075 .0044
1/4 .0491 .078 .0048
--- --- .100 .0079
Area = π r²
Penetrant Wetting Characteristics
Droplet Droplet
Droplet
θ
θ
θ
Good Wetting Poor Wetting

Chapter 4 - Magnetic Particle Testing
Air gap
When a magnetic circuit contains a small gap, which the magnetic flux must cross, the space is referred to
as an air gap. Cracks produce small air gaps on the surface of an article.
Alternating current
Electric current periodically reversing in polarity or direction of flow.
Ampere
The unit of electrical current. One ampere is the current that flows through a conductor having a resistance
of one ohm at a potential of one volt.
Ampere turns
The product of the number of turns in a coil and the number of amperes flowing through it. A measure of
the magnetizing or demagnetizing strength of the coil.
Bath
The suspension of iron oxide particles in a liquid vehicle (light oil or water).
Black light
Radiant energy in the near ultraviolet range. This light has a wavelength of 3200 to 4000 angstrom units
(A), peaking at 3650 A, on the spectrum. This between visible light and ultraviolet light.
Black light filter

A filter that transmits black light while surprising the transmission of visible light and harmful ultraviolet
radiation.
Carbon steel
Steel that does not contain significant amounts of alloying elements other than carbon and maganese.
Carrier fluid
The fluid in which fluorescent and non-fluorescent magnetic particles are suspended to facilitate their
application in the wet method.
Central conductor
An electrical conductor that is passed through the opening in a ring or tube, or any hole in an article, for the
purpose of creating a circular field in the ring or tube, or around the hole.
Circular field
See Field, Circular Magnetic.
Circular magnetization
A method of inducing a magnetic field in an article so that the magnetic lines of force take the form of
concentric rings about the axis of the current. This is accomplished by passing the current directly through the
article or through a conductor which passes into or through a hole in the article. The circular method is applicable
for the detection of discontinuities with axes approximately parallel to the axis of current through the article.
Coercive force
The reverse magnetizing force necessary to remove residual magnetism in demagnetizing an article.
Coil shot
A pulse of magnetizing current passed through a coil surrounding an article for the purpose of longitudinal
magnetization.
Contact headshot
The electrode, fixed to the magnetic particle testing unit, through which the magnetizing current is drawn.
Contact pads
Replaceable metal pads, usually of copper braid, placed on contact heads to give good electrical contact
thereby preventing damage to the article under test.
Continuous method
An inspection method in which ample amounts of magnetic particles are applied, or are present on the
piece, during the time the magnetizing current is applied.
Core
That part of the magnetic circuit that is within the electrical winding.
Curie point
The temperature at which ferromagnetic materials can no longer be magnetized by outside forces, and at
which they lose their residual magnetism: approximately 1200 to 1600º F (646 to 871º C) for many metals.
Current Flow Technique

A technique of circular magnetization in which current is passed through an article via prods or contact
heads. The current may be alternating, half-wave rectified, rectified alternating, or direct.
Current Induction Technique

A technique of magnetization in which a circulating current is induced in a ring-shaped component by a
fluctuating magnetic field.
Demagnetization
The reduction in the degree of residual magnetism to an acceptable level.
Diamagnetic
Materials whose atomic structure won't permit any real magnetization. Materials such as bismuth and
copper are diamagnetic.
Diffused Indications
Indications that are not clearly defined, such as indications of subsurface defects.
Direct Contact Magnetization

A magnetic particle testing technique in which current is passed through the test article. These include
headshots and prod shots.
Direct Current
An electrical current, which flows steadily in one direction
Distorted Field
A field that does not follow a straight path or have a uniform distribution. This occurs in irregularly shaped
objects.
Dry Medium
Magnetic particle inspection in which the particles employed are in the dry powder form.
Dry Powder
Finely divided ferromagnetic particles suitably selected and prepared for magnetic particle inspection.
Electromagnet
A magnet created by inserting a suitable metal core within or near a magnetizing field formed by passing
electric current through a coil of insulated wire.
Etching
The process of exposing subsurface conditions of metal articles by removal of the outside surface through
the use of chemical agents. Due to the action of the chemicals in eating away the surface, various surface or
subsurface conditions are exposed or exaggerated and made visible to the eye.
Ferromagnetic
A term applied to materials that can be magnetized and strongly attracted by a magnetic field.
Field, Circular Magnetic

Generally the magnetic field in and surrounding any electrical conductor or article resulting from a current
being passed through the conductor or article or from prods.
Field, Longitudinal Magnetic

A magnetic field wherein the flux lines traverse the component in a direction essentially parallel with the
axis of the magnetizing coil or to a line connecting the two poles at the magnetizing yoke.
Field, Magnetic
The space within and surrounding a magnetized article, or a conductor carrying current in which the
magnetic force is present.
Field, Magnetic Leakage

The magnetic field that leaves or enters the surface of an article at a magnetic pole.
Field, Multidirectional
A magnetic field that is the result of two magnetic forces impressed upon the same area of a magnetizable
object at the sametime-sometimes called a "vector field."
Field, Residual Magnetic

The field that remains in magnetizable material after the magnetizing force has been removed
Flash Magnetization
Magnetization by a current flow of very brief duration.
Fluorescence
The emission of visible radiation by a substance as the result of and only during the absorption of black
light radiation.
Fluorescent Magnetic Particle Inspection
The magnetic particle inspection process employing a finely divided fluorescent ferromagnetic inspection
medium that fluoresces when activated by black light.
Flux Density
The normal magnetic flux per unit area. It is designated by the letter "B" and is expressed in telsa (SI units)
or gauss (cgs units).
Flux Leakage
Magnetic lines of force which leave and enter an article at poles on the surface.
Flux Lines
Imaginary magnetic lines used as a means of explaining the behavior of magnetic fields. Their conception
is based on the pattern of lines produced when iron filings are sprinkled over a piece of paper laid over a
permanent magnet. Also called Lines of Force.
Flux Penetration, Magnetic

The depth to which a magnetic flux is present in an article.
Furring
Buildup or bristling of magnetic particles due to excessive magnetization of the article.
Gauss
The unit of flux density. Numerically, one gauss is one line of flux per square centimeter of area and is
designated by the letter "B."
Head Shot
A short pulse of magnetizing current passed through an article or a central conductor while clamped
between the head contacts of a stationary magnetizing unit for the purpose of circularly magnetizing the article.
Heads
The clamping contacts on a stationary magnetizing unit.
Horseshoe Magnet
A bar magnet bent into the shape of a horseshoe so that the two poles are adjacent. Usually the term applies
to a permanent magnet.
Hysteresis
The lagging of the magnetic effect when the magnetic force acting upon a ferromagnetic body is changed;
the phenomenon exhibited by a magnetic system wherein its state is influenced by its previous magnetic history.
Hysteresis Loop
A curve showing the flux density, "B," plotted as a function of magnetizing force, "H." As the magnetizing
force is increased to the saturation point in the positive, negative, and positive direction sequentially, the curve
forms a characteristic S-shaped loop. Intercepts of the loop with the "B" and "H" axes and the points of maximum
and minimum magnetizing force define important magnetic characteristics of the material.
Inductance
The magnetism produced in a ferromagnetic body by some outside magnetizing force. The magnetism is
not the result of passing current through the article.
Leakage Field
The magnetic field forced out into the air by the distortion of the field within an article.
Light Intensity
The light energy reaching a unit of surface area per of time.
Longitudinal Magnetization
The process of inducing a magnetic field into the article such that the magnetic lines of force extending
through the article are approximately parallel to the axis of the magnetizing coil or to a line connecting the two
poles when yokes (electromagnets) are used.
Magnet, Permanent
A highly-retentive metal that has been strongly magnetized; i.e., the alloy Alnico.
Magnetic Field Indicator

An instrument designed to detect and/or measure the flux density and polarity of magnetic fields.
Magnetic Field Strength

The measured intensity. of a magnetic field at a point always external to the magnet or conductor; usually
expressed in amperes per meter or oersted (Oe).
Magnetic Material
Those materials that are attracted by magnetism.
Magnetic Particles
Finely divided ferromagnetic material.
Magnetic Particle Inspection

A nondestructive inspection method for locating discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials.
Magnetic Poles
Concentration of flux leakage in areas of discontinuities, shape changes, permeability variations, etc.
Magnetic Writing
A form of nonrelevant indications caused when the surface of a magnetized part comes in contact with
another piece of ferromagnetic material that is magnetized to a different value.
Magnetizing Current
The flow of either alternating, rectified alternating, or direct current used to induce magnetism into the
article being inspected.
Magnetizing Force
The magnetizing field applied to a ferromagnetic material to induce magnetization.
Medium
The fluid in which fluorescent and nonfluorescent magnetic particles are suspended to facilitate their
application in the wet method.
Near Surface Discontinuity

A discontinuity not open to, but located near, the surface of a test article.
Oersted
A unit of field strength, which produces magnetic induction and is designated by the letter "H."
Paramagnetic
Materials which are slightly affected by a magnetic field. Examples are chromium, manganese, aluminum
and platinum. A small group of these materials are classified as ferromagnetic.
Permeability
The ease with which the lines of force are able to pass through an article.
Pole
The area on a magnetized article from which the magnetic field is leaving or returning to the article.
Prods
Hand-held electrodes attached to cables used to transmit the magnetizing current from the source to the
article under inspection.
Rectified Alternating Current

Alternating current, which has been converted into direct current.
Reluctance
The resistance of a magnetic material to changes in magnetic field strength.
Residual Magnetism
The amount of magnetism that a magnetic material retains after the magnetizing force is removed. Also
called "residual field" or "remanence."
Residual Technique
A procedure in which the indicating material is applied after the magnetizing force has been discontinued.
Retentivity
The ability of a material to retain a certain portion of residual magnetization. Also known as remanence.
Saturation
The point at which increasing the magnetizing force produces no further magnetism in a material.
Sensitivity
The capacity or degree of responsiveness to magnetic particle inspection.
Settling Test
A procedure used to determine the concentration of magnetic particles in a medium or vehicle.
Skin Effect
The description given to alternating current magnetization due to its containment to the surface of a test
article.
Solenoid (Coil)
An electric conductor formed into a coil often wrapped around a central core of highly permeable material.
Suspension
The correct term applied to the liquid bath in which the ferromagnetic particles used in the wet magnetic
particle inspection method are suspended.
Test Article
An article containing known artificial or natural defects used for checking the efficiency of magnetic
particle flaw detection processes.
Wet Medium
An inspection employing ferromagnetic particles suspended in a liquid (oil or water) as a vehicle.
Yoke
A U-shaped or C-shaped piece of highly permeable magnetic material, either solid or laminated, sometimes
with adjustable pole pieces (legs) around which is wound a coil carrying the magnetizing current.
Yoke Magnetization
A longitudinal magnetic field induced in an article or in an area of an article by means of an external
electromagnet shaped like a yoke.
Longitudinal Magnetization Math Formula
45,000 (+/- 10%)

AT =
(L/D)
A=
( 45,000 (+/- 10%)
(L/D) ) L=
45,000 (+/- 10%)
xD
T AT
T=
( 45,000 (+/- 10%)
(L/D) ) D=
L(AT)
A 45,000 (+/- 10%)
A = ampere
T = turns of the coil
L = length of the item
D = diameter or cross section of the item
The minimum L/D ratio is 2

The maximum L used in calculations is 20 inches
Prorated Maximum Number of Indications
Actual Area 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
Prorated 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 6
Indications

Actual Area 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
Prorated 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 8
Indications

Actual Area 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
Prorated 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 10
Indications

Actual Area 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
Prorated 0 0 1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 4 4 4 5 5 5 6 6 6 7 7 7 8 8 8 9 9 9 10 10 10 11 11 11 12
Indications

Actual Area 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
Prorated 0 0 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 7 8 8 8 9 9 10 10 11 11 12 12 12 13 13 14 14 15 15 16
Indications
(MAX # OF INDICATIONS/36) X ACTUAL AREA = NEW MAX # OF INDICATIONS
Areas of Circles
Diameter (inches) Area (square inches) Diameter (inches) Area (square inches)
1/32 .0008 .0195 .0003
3/64 .0017 .020 .0003
1/16 .0031 .024 .0005
5/64 .0048 .025 .0005
3/32 .0069 .0275 .0006
7/64 .0094 .031 .0008
1/8 .0123 .034 .0009
9/64 .0155 .037 .0011
5/32 .0192 .039 .0012
11/64 .0232 .048 .0018
3/16 .0276 .049 .0019
13/64 .0324 .050 .0020
7/32 .0376 .055 .0024
15/64 .0431 .075 .0044
1/4 .0491 .078 .0048
--- --- .100 .0079
Area = π r²
Common Types of Magnetization

Central Conductor (circular) Horse shoe (longitudinal)
Horseshoe
Magnet
Coil Shot (longitudinal)

N S
Yoke (longitudinal)
Prods (circular)
Electromagnetic
Yoke
Magnetic field
Weld
Workpiece
Discontinuities
Theory: “Right–Hand Rule”
(-) CURRENT
FLOW
(+)
Hysteresis Curve
B+ (FLUX DENSITY)
O–A= Referred to as the virgin curve A

A= Saturation point
B= Residual field
O–C= Coercive force
D= Reverse saturation point
E= Reverse residual field B
O–F= Reverse coercive force
H- (MAGNETIZING FORCE OF C O F
OPPOSITE POLARITY TO H+) H= (MAGNETIZING FORCE)
B- (FLUX DENSITY OF
OPPOSITE POLARITY TO B+)
SLENDER LOOP WIDE LOOP

HIGH PERMEABILITY LOW PERMEABILITY
LOW RENTENTIVITY HIGH RENTENTIVITY
LOW COERCIVE FORCE HIGH COERCIVE FORCE
LOW RELUCTANCE HIGH RELUCTANCE
LOW RESIDUAL MAGNETISM HIGH RESIDUAL MAGNETISM
Magnetic Particle Field Indicator (Pie Gage)
Eight low carbon steel pie
sections, furnace brazed
together
1 in. Artificial flaw (all segment

interfaces)
1/32 in
max
Nonferrous handle of any

Convenient length
Copper plate
0.010 in + 0.001 in
thick
Braze weld or mechanically

attach nonferrous trunnions
1/8
Chapter 5 - Ultrasonic Testing
A-scan Display
A display in which the received signal is displayed as a vertical displacement from the horizontal sweep
time trace, while the horizontal distance between any two signals represents the sound path distance (or time of
travel) between the two.
Absorption Coefficient, Linear

The fractional decrease in transmitted intensity per unit of absorber thickness. It is usually designated by
the symbol and expressed in units of cm-1.
Acceptance Standard
A control specimen containing natural or artificial discontinuities that are well defined and, in size or
extent, similar to the maximum acceptable in the product. Also may refer to the document defining acceptable
discontinuity size limits.
Acoustic Impedance
The factor which controls the propagation of an ultrasonic wave at a boundary interface. It is the product of
the material density and the acoustic wave velocity within that material.
Amplifier
A device to increase or amplify electrical impulses.
Amplitude, Indication
The vertical height of a received indication, measured from base-to-peak or peak-to-peak.
Angle Beam Testing

A testing method in which transmission is at an angle to the sound entry surface.
Angle of Incidence
The angle between the incident (transmitted) beam and a normal to the boundary interface.
Angle of Reflection
The angle between the reflected beam and a normal to the boundary interface. The angle of reflection is
equal to the angle of incidence.
Angle of Refraction
The angle between the refracted rays of an ultrasonic beam and the normal (or perpendicular line) to the
refracting surface.
Angle Transducer
A transducer that transmits or receives the acoustic energy at an acute angle to the surface to achieve a
specific effect such up the setting up of shear or surface waves in the part being inspected.
Anisotropic
A condition in which properties of a medium (velocity, for example) vary according to the direction in
which they are measured.
Array Transducer
A transducer made up of several piezoelectric elements individually connected so that the signals they
transmit or receive nay be treated separately or combined as desired.
Attenuation Coefficient
A factor which is determined by the degree of scatter or absorption of ultrasound energy per unit distance
traveled.
Attenuator
A device for measuring attenuation, usually calibrated in decibels (dB).
B-scan Display
A cathode-ray tube display in which the received signal is displayed as an illuminated spot. The face of the
CRT represents the area of a vertical plane through the material. The display shows the location of a discontinuity,
as it would appear in a vertical section view through the thickness direction of the material.
Back Reflection
The signal received from the back surface of a test object.
Back Scatter
Scattered signals that are directed back to the transmitter/receiver.
Background Noise
Extraneous signals caused by signal sources within the ultrasonic testing system, including the material in
test.
Barium Titanate (Polycrystalline Barium Titanate - BaTiO3)

A ceramic transducer material composed of many individual crystals fired together and polarized by the
application of a dc field.
Baseline
The horizontal line across the bottom of the CRT created by the sweep circuit.
Basic Calibration
The procedure of standardizing an instrument using calibration reflectors described in an application
document.
Bi-modal
The propagation of sound in a test article where at least a shear wave and a longitudinal wave exists. The
operation of angle beam testing at less than first critical angle.
Boundary Indication
A reflection of an ultrasonic beam from an interface.
Broad Banded
Having a relatively wide frequency bandwidth. Used to describe pulses which display a wide frequency
spectrum and receivers capable of amplifying them.
C-scan
A data presentation method yielding a plan (top) view through the scanned surface of the part. Through
gating, only indications arising from the interior of the test object are indicated.
Calibration
To determine or mark the graduations of the ultrasonic system's display relative to a known standard or
reference.
Calibration Reflector
A reflector with a known dimensioned surface established to provide an accurately reproducible reference.
Collimator
An attachment designed to reduce the ultrasonic beam spread.
Compensator
An electrical matching network to compensate for circuit impedance differences.
Compressional Wave
A wave in which the particle motion or vibration is in the same direction as the propagated wave
(longitudinal wave).
Contact Testing
A technique of testing in which the transducer contacts the test surface, either directly or through a thin
layer of couplant.
Contact Transducer
A transducer which is coupled to a test surface either directly or through a thin film of couplant.
Continuous Wave
A wave that continues without interruption.
Contracted Sweep
A contraction of the horizontal sweep on the viewing screen of the ultrasonic instrument. Contraction of
this sweep permits viewing reflections occurring over a greater sound-path distance or duration of time.
Corner Effect
The strong reflection obtained when an ultrasonic beam is directed toward the inner section of two or three
mutually perpendicular surfaces.
Couplant
A substance used between the face of the transducer and test surface to permit or improve transmission of
ultrasonic energy across this boundary or interface. Primarily used to remove the air in the interface.
Critical Angle
The incident angle of the sound beam beyond which a specific refracted mode of vibration no longer exists.
Cross Talk
An unwanted condition in which acoustic energy is coupled from the transmitting crystal to the receiving
crystal without propagating along the intended path through the material.
Damping (transducer)
Limiting the duration of vibration in the search unit by either electrical or mechanical means.
Dead Zone
The distance in a material from the sound entry surface to the nearest inspectable sound path.
Decibel (dB)
The logarithmic expression of a ratio of two amplitudes or intensities of acoustic energy
Delamination
A laminar discontinuity, generally an area of unbonded materials.
Delay Line
A material (liquid or solid) placed in front of a transducer to use a time delay between the initial pulse and
the front surface reflection.
Delayed Sweep
A means of delaying the start of horizontal sweep, hereby eliminating the presentation of early response
data.
Delta Effect
Acoustic energy re-radiated by a discontinuity.
Detectability
The ability of the ultrasonic system to locate a discontinuity.
Diffraction
The deflection, or "bending," of a wave front when passing the edge or edges of a discontinuity.
Diffuse Reflection
Scattered, incoherent reflections caused by rough surfaces or associate interface reflection of ultrasonic
waves from irregularities of the same order of magnitude or greater than the wavelength.
Discontinuity
An interruption or change in the physical structure or characteristics of a material.
Dispersion, Sound
Scattering of an ultrasonic beam as a result of diffuse reflection from a highly-irregular surface.
Distance Amplitude Correction (DAC)

Compensation of gain as a function of time for difference in amplitude of reflections from equal reflectors
at different sound travel distances. Also referred to as time corrected gain (TCG), time variable gain (TVG) and
sensitivity time control (STC).
Divergence
Spreading of ultrasonic waves after leaving search unit, and is a function of diameter and frequency.
Dual-Element Technique
The technique of ultrasonic testing using two transducers with one acting as the transmitter and one as the
receiver.
Dual-Element Transducer
A single transducer housing containing two piezoelectric elements, one for transmitting and one for
receiving.
Effective Penetration
The maximum depth in a material at which the ultrasonic transmission is sufficient for proper detection of
discontinuities.
Electrical Noise
Extraneous signals caused by externally radiated electrical signals or from electrical interferences within
the ultrasonic instrumentation.
Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducer (EMAT)

A device using the magneto effect to generate and receive acoustic signals for ultrasonic nondestructive
tests.
Far Field
The region beyond the near field in which areas of high and low acoustic intensity cease to occur.
First Leg
The sound path beginning at the exit point of the probe and extending to the point of contact opposite the
examination surface when performing angle beam testing.
Focused Transducer
A transducer with a concave face which converges the acoustic beam to a focal point or line at a defined
distance from the race.
Focusing
Concentration or convergence of energy into a smaller beam.
Frequency
Number of complete cycles of a wave motion passing a given point in a unit time (1 second); number of
times a vibration is repeated at the same point in the same direction per unit time (usually per second).
Gate
An electronic means to monitor an associated segment of time, distance, or impulse.
Ghost
An indication which has no direct relation to reflected pulses from discontinuities in the materials being
tested.
Hertz (Hz)
One cycle per second.
Horizontal Linearity
A measure of the proportionality between the positions of the indications appearing on the baseline and the
positions of their sources.
Immersion Testing
A technique of testing, using a liquid as an ultrasonic couplant, in which the test part and at least the
transducer face is immersed in the couplant and the transducer is not in contact with the test part.
Impedance (acoustic)
A material characteristic defined as a product of particle velocity and material density.
Indication (ultrasonics)
The signal displayed or read on the ultrasonic systems display.
Initial Pulse
The first indication which may appear on the screen. This indication represents the emission of ultrasonic
energy from the crystal face (main bang).
Interface
The physical boundary between two adjacent acoustic mediums.
Insonification
Irradiation with sound.
Isotropy
A condition in which significant medium properties (velocity, for example) are the same in all directions.
Lamb Wave
A type of ultrasonic vibration guided by parallel surfaces of thin mediums capable of propagation in
different modes.
Linearity (area)
A system response in which a linear relationship exists between amplitude of response and the
discontinuity sizes being evaluated necessarily limited by the size of the ultrasonic beam.
Linearity (depth)
A system response where a linear relationship exists with varying depth for a constant size discontinuity.
Longitudinal Wave Velocity

The unit speed of propagation of a longitudinal (compressional) wave through a material.
Loss of Back Reflection

Absence of or a significant reduction of an indication from the back surface of the article being inspected.
Major Screen Divisions

The vertical graticule used to divide the CRT into 10 equal horizontal segments.
Manipulator
A device used to orient the transducer assembly. As applied to immersion techniques, it provides either
angular or normal incidence and fixes the transducer-to-part distance.
Material Noise
Extraneous signals caused by the structure of the material being tested.
Miniature Angle Beam Block

A specific type of reference standard used primarily for the angle beam method, but also used for straight
beam and surface wave tests.
Minor Screen Divisions
The vertical graticule used to divide the CRT into fifty equal segments. Each major screen division is
divided into five equal segments or minor divisions.
Mode Conversion
The change of ultrasonic wave propagation upon reflection or refraction at acute angles at an interface.
Mode
The manner in which acoustic energy is propagated through a material as characterized by the particle
motion of the wave.
Multiple Back Reflections

Repetitive indications from the back surface of the material being examined.
Nanosecond
One billionth of a second.
Narrow Banded
A relative term denoting a restricted range of frequency response.
Near Field
A distance immediately in front of a transducer composed of complex and changing wave front
characteristics. Also known as the Fresnel field.
Node
The point on the examination surface where the V-path begins or ends.
Noise
Any undesired indications that tend to interfere with the interpretation or processing of the ultrasonic
information; also referred to as "grass."
Normal Incidence
A condition where the angle of incidence is zero.
Orientation
The angular relationship of a surface, plane, defect axis, etc., to a reference plane or sound entry surface.
Penetration (ultrasonic)
Propagation of ultrasonic energy through an article.
Phased Array
A mosaic of probe elements in which the timing of the element's excitation can be individually controlled
to produce certain desired effects, such as steering the beam axis or focusing the beam.
Piezoelectric Effect
The characteristic of certain materials to generate electrical charges when subjected to mechanical
vibrations and, conversely to generate mechanical vibrations when subjected to electrical pulses.
Polarized Ceramics
Ceramic materials that are sintered (pressed), created (approximately 10000C), and polarized by applying a
direct voltage of a few thousand volts per centimeter of thickness. The polarization is the process that makes these
ceramics piezoelectric. Includes sodium bismuth titanate, lead metaniobate, and several materials based on lead
zirconate titanate (PZT).
Presentation
The method used to show ultrasonic information. This may include (among others) A-, B-, or C-scans
displayed on various types of recorders, CRTs, LCD’s or computerized displays.
Probe
Transducer or search unit.
Propagation
Advancement of a wave through a medium.
Pulse Echo Technique

An ultrasonic test technique using equipment which transmits a series of pulses separated by a constant
period of time; e., energy is not sent out continuously.
Pulse Length
Time duration of the pulse from the search unit.
Pulse Rate
For the pulse echo technique, the number of pulses transmitted in a unit of time (also called pulse repetition
rate).
Radio Frequency Display (RF)

The presentation of unrectified signals in a display.
Range
The maximum ultrasonic path length that is displayed.
Rarefaction
The thinning out or moving apart of the consistent particles in the propagating medium due to the
relaxation phase of an ultrasonic cycle. Opposite in its effect to compression. The sound wave is composed of
alternate compressions and refractions of the particles in a material.
Rayleigh Wave/Surface Wave

A wave that travels on or close to the surface and readily follows the curvature of the part being examined.
Reflections occur only at sharp changes of direction of the surface.
Receiver
The section of the ultrasonic instrument that amplifies the electronic signals returning from the test
specimen. Also, the probe that receives the reflected signals.
Reference Blocks
A block or series of blocks of material containing artificial or actual discontinuities of one or more
reflecting areas at one or more distances from the sound entry surface. These are used for calibrating instruments
and in defining the size and distance of discontinuous areas in materials.
Reflection
The characteristic of a surface to change the direction of propagating acoustic energy; the return of sound
waves from surfaces.
Refraction
A change in the direction and velocity of acoustic energy after it has passed at an acute angle through an
interface between two different mediums.
Refractive Index
The ratio of the velocity of a incident wave to the velocity of the refracted wave. It is a measure of the
amount a wave will be refracted when it enters the second medium after leaving the first.
Reject/Suppression
An instrument function or control used for reducing low amplitude signals. Use of this control may affect
vertical linearity.
Repetition Rate
The rate at which the individual pulses of acoustic energy are generated; also Pulse Rate.
Resolving Power
The capability measurement of an ultrasonic system to separate in time two closely spaced discontinuities
or to separate closely spaced multiple reflections.
Resonance Technique
A technique using the resonance principle for determining velocity, thickness or presence of laminar
discontinuities.
Resonance
The condition in which the frequency of a forcing vibration (ultrasonic wave) is the same as the natural
vibration frequency of the propagation body (test object), resulting in large amplitude vibrations.
Saturation (scope)
A term used to describe an indication of such a size as to exceed full screen height (100%).
Scanning (manual and automatic)

The moving of the search unit or units along a test surface to obtain complete testing of a material.
Scattering
Dispersion of ultrasonic waves in a medium due to causes other than absorption
Second Leg
The sound path beginning at the point of contact on the opposite surface and extending to the point of
contact on the examination surface when performing angle beam testing.
Sensitivity
The ability to detect small discontinuities at given distances. The level of amplification at which the
receiving circuit in an ultrasonic instrument is set.
Shear Wave
The wave in which the particles of the medium vibrate in a direction perpendicular to the direction of
propagation.
Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)
The ratio of amplitudes of indications from he smallest discontinuity considered significant and those
caused by random factors, such as heterogeneity in grain size, etc.
Skip Distance
In angle beam tests of plate, pipe, or welds, the linear or surface distance from the sound entry point to the
first reflection point on the same surface.
Snell's Law
The law that defines the relationship between the angle of incidence and the angle of refraction across an
interface, based on a range in ultrasonic velocity.
Specific Acoustic Impedance

A characteristic which acts to determine the amount of reflection which occurs at an interface and
represents the wave velocity and the product of the density of the medium in which the wave is propagating.
Straight Beam
An ultrasonic wave traveling normal to the test surface.
Sweep
The uniform and repeated movement of a spot across the screen of a CRT to form the baseline.
Through-Transmission
A test technique using two transducers in which the ultrasonic vibrations are emitted by one and received
by the other, usually on the opposite side of the part. The ratio of the magnitudes of vibrations transmitted and
received is used as the criterion of soundness.
Tip Diffraction
The process by which a signal is generated from the tip (i.e., top of a fatigue crack) of a discontinuity
through the interruption of an incident sound beam propagating through a material.
Transducer (search unit)

An assembly consisting basically of a housing, piezoelectric element, backing material, wear plate
(optional) and electrical leads for converting electrical impulses into mechanical energy and vice versa.
Transmission Angle
The incident angle of the transmitted ultrasonic beam. It is zero degrees when the ultrasonic beam is
perpendicular to the test surface.
Transmitter
The electrical circuit of an ultrasonic instrument that generates the pulses emitted to the search unit. Also
the probe that emits ultrasonic signals.
Two Probe Method

Use of two transducers for sending and receiving. May be either send-receive or through transmission.
Ultrasonic Absorption
A damping of ultrasonic vibrations that occurs when the wave transverses a medium.
Ultrasonic Spectrum
The frequency span of elastic waves greater than the highest audible frequency, generally regarded as being
higher than 20,000 hertz, to approximately 1000 megahertz.
Ultrasonic System
The totality of components utilized to perform an ultrasonic test on a test article.
V-path
The path of the ultrasonic beam in the test object from the point of entry on the examination surface to the
back surface and reflecting to the front surface again.
Velocity
The speed at which sound travels through a medium.
Video Presentation
A CRT presentation in which radio frequency signals nave been rectified and usually filtered.
Water Path
The distance from the face of the search unit to the entry surface of the material under test in immersion
testing.
Wavelength
The distance in the direction of propagation for a wave to go through one complete cycle.
Wedge/Shoe
A device used to adapt a straight beam probe for use in a specific type of testing, including angle beam or
surface wave tests and tests on curved surfaces.
Wraparound
Nonrelevant indications that appear on the CRT as a result of a short pulse repetition rate in the pulser
circuit of the test instrument.
Common Math Formulas
Wavelength
V
λ =
F
A +
M
P
L λ = Wavelength
I V = Veloocity
T F = Frequency
U
D
E -
Crystal Thickness Acoustic Impedance Reflected Acoustic Energy

CT =
λ
Z = P(V) Z1-Z2
2 ER = 100 ( )
2
Z1+Z2
Z = Acoustic impedance
CT = Crystal thickness P = Materials density ER = Energy reflected
λ = Wavelength V = Acoustic velocity Z1 = Acoustic impedance material #1
Use .23 if material is unknown Z2 = Acoustic impedance material #2
Energy Transmitted Half Angle Beam Spread Nearfield (nearzone)

V D 2 (F)
SIN θ= K ( ) N=
D*F 4 (V)
ET = EI - ER
K= 1.22 N= Length of the near field
ET = Energy transmitted V= Velocity of the material D= Diameter of the transducer
EI = Energy intiated D= Diameter of the transducer F= Transducer frequency
ER = Energy reflected F= Frequency of the transducer V= Materials velocity
Times 2 for full angle beam spread
Decibel Difference Snell’s Law & Angle of Reflection

SIN θ2 * V1
SIN θ1 =
A1 V2
Db = 20 [LOG ( )]
A2
Angle of incidence * 1st critical angle V2 is long = 90 °
Db = Decibel difference
LOG = Natural logrithm
Critical angle* 2nd critical angle V2 is shear = 90 °
Wedge angle
A1 = Amplitude number one
A2 = Amplitude number two
SIN θ1 * V2
SIN θ2 = V1
Rule of
thumb: every 6 Db doubles the size of the
indication height (pip)
Half / Full Sound Path & Skip / Setback Distance
HSP =
T HALF SKIP = T * TAN θ
COS θ
FSP =
2T FULL SKIP = 2T * TAN θ
COS θ
T =Member thickness
Surface Distance to Defect / Depth of Defect
SDD = Sound Path *SIN θ #DD = Sound Path * COS θ
##DD = (Sound Path * COS θ ) - 2T
SDD =Surface distance to defect

#DD =Depth of defect during half sound path
##DD =Depth of defect during full soundpath
T =Member thickness
Calibration Chart – UT Shearwave
PLATE
THICKNESS *HALF SKIP
1" 1/2" 3/4" 1"
1 - 1/4" 1/2" 3/4" 1" 1 - 1/4"
1 - 1/2" 3/4" 1" 1 - 1/4" 1 - 1/2"
2" 1" 1 - 1/4" 1 - 1/2" 1 - 3/4" 2"
PLATE
THICKNESS FULL SKIP
1" 1 - 1/2" 1 - 3/4" 2"
1 - 1/4" 1 - 3/4" 2" 2 - 1/4" 2 - 1/2"
1 - 1/2" 2 - 1/4" 2 - 1/2" 2 - 3/4" 3 - 1/4"
2" 2 - 3/4" 3 - 1/4" 3 - 1/2" 3 - 3/4" 4"
* Applicable holes in the M.I. block for calibration

FPADSCRλ D
F P A D S C R λ D
r e t i e r e w n i
e n t v n y s a e a
q e e e s s o v a m
u t n r i t l e r e
e r u g t a u l t
n a a e i l t e e
c t t n v i n r
y i i c i t o g
o o e t h n t of
n n y i h
p r c c t
u e k r h
l p. n y i
s e s c
e r s t k
a s a n
t l e
e s
s
Velocity Chart
LONGITUDINAL SHEAR ACOUSTIC

DENSITY VELOCITY VELOCITY IMPEDANCE
MATERIAL
2 IN 6 IN 6 gm 5
P=gm/cm X 10 X 10 X 10
SEC SEC cm 2 SEC
Air .001 .013 ---- .0004
Aluminum 2.7 .25 .12 17
Aluminum Oxide ---- .39 .23 32
Bertilium 1.82 .51 .35 23
Bororn Carbie ---- .43 ---- 26.4
Brass 8.1 .17 .080 36.7
Cadium 8.6 .11 .059 24
Copper 8.9 .18 .089 41.6
Crown Glass 2.5 .21 .12 18.9
Glycerin 1.261 .075 ---- 2.42
Gold 19.3 .13 .047 62.6
Ice 1.00 .16 .08 3.5
Inconel ---- .22 .12 47.2
Iron ---- .23 .13 45.4
Cast Iron 7.22 .18 .10 33.2
Lead 11.4 .085 .03 24.6
Magnesium 1.7 .23 .12 10
Mercury ---- .057 ---- 19.6
Molybdenum 10.09 .25 .13 64.2
Monel ---- .21 .11 47.6
Neoprene ---- .063 ---- 2.1
Nickel 8.3 .22 .12 49.5
Nylon, 6-6 ---- .10 .043 2.9
Oil (SAE 30) 0.95 .067 ---- 1.5
Platinum 21.4 .13 .067 69.8
Plexiglass 1.18 .11 .043 3.1
Polyethylene ---- .07 .02 1.7
Polystyrene 1.06 .093 .04 2.5
Polyurethane ---- .07 ---- 1.9
Quartz 2.20 .23 .087 15.2
Rubber, Butyl 0.9 .07 ---- 2
Silver 10.5 .14 .06 38
Steel, Mild 7.7 .23 .13 46
Steel, Stainless 8.03 .23 .12 45.4
Teflon ---- .06 ---- 3
Tin 7.3 .13 .07 24.2
Titanium 4.54 .24 .12 27.3
Tungsten 19.25 .20 .11 101
Uranium ---- .13 .008 63
Water 1.00 .0584 ---- 1.48
Zinc 7.1 .17 .09 29.6
Chapter 6 - Eddy Current Testing
Absolute Coil
A test arrangement which tests the specimen without any comparison to either another portion of the test
specimen or to a known reference.
Alternating
A voltage, current or magnetic field that reverses direction at regularly recurring intervals.
Bobbin Coil
A coil or coil assembly used for eddy current testing by insertion into the test piece; e.g., an inside probe
for tubing. Also referred to as Inside Coil or IP Coil.
Coil
Conductor wound in one or more loops to produce an axial magnetic field when current is passed through
it.
Coil Spacing
The axial distance between two encircling coils of a differential system.
Conductivity
The willingness of a test circuit or test specimen to conduct current.
Coupling
A measure of the degree to which the magnetic field of the coil passes through the test specimen and is
affected by the magnetic field created by the flow of eddy currents.
Defect Resolution
A property of a test system which enables the separation of signals due to defects in the test specimen that
are located in close proximity to each other.
Diamagnetic
A material having a permeability less than that of a vacuum.
Differential Coil
A test arrangement which tests the specimen by comparing the portion being tested with either another
portion of the same specimen or to a known reference specimen.
Discontinuity, Artificial
Reference discontinuities, such as holes, grooves, or notches, which are introduced into a reference
standard to provide accurately reproducible sensitivity levels for electromagnetic test equipment.
Double Coil
A test arrangement where the alternating current is supplied through one coil while the change in material
condition is measured from a second coil.
Eddy Current
A circulating electrical current induced in a conductive material by an alternating magnetic field.
Edge or End Effect
The disturbance of the magnetic field and eddy currents due to the proximity of an abrupt change in
geometry (edge, end). The effect generally results in the masking of discontinuities within the affected region.
Effective Depth of Penetration

The depth in a material beyond which a test system can no longer detect a change in material properties.
Effective Permeability
A hypothetical quantity which is used to describe the magnetic field distribution within a cylindrical
conductor in an encircling coil. The field strength of the applied magnetic field is assumed to be uniform over the
entire cross section of the test specimen with the effective permeability, which is characterized by the conductivity
and diameter of the test specimen and test frequency, assuming values between zero and one, such that its
associated amplitude is always less than one within the specimen.
Electromagnetic Induction
The process by which a varying or alternating current (eddy current) is induced into an electrically
conductive test object by a varying electromagnetic field.
Electromagnetic Testing
That nondestructive test method for engineering materials, including magnetic materials, which uses
electromagnetic energy having frequencies less than those of visible light to yield information regarding the quality
of the tested material.
Encircling Coil
A coil, coils, or coil assembly that surrounds the part to be tested. Coils of this type are also referred to as
circumferential, OD or feed-through coils.
External Reference Differential

A differential test arrangement that compares a portion of the test specimen to a known reference standard.
Ferromagnetic
A material which, in general, exhibits hysteresis phenomena, and whose permeability is dependent on the
magnetizing force.
Fill Factor
For an inside coil, it is the ratio of the outside diameter of the coil squared to the inside diameter of the
specimen squared. For an encircling coil, it is the ratio of the outside diameter of the specimen squared to the
inside diameter of the coil squared.
Flux Density
A measure of the strength of a magnetic field expressed as a number of flux lines passing through a given
area.
Henry
The unit of inductance. More precisely, a circuit in which an electromotive force of one volt is induced
when the current is changing at a rate of one ampere per second will have an inductance of one henry. (Symbol: H)
Hertz
The unit of frequency (one cycle per second). (Symbol: Hz)
High Pass Filter
An electronic circuit designed to block signals of low frequency while passing high frequency signals.
IACS
The International Annealed Copper Standard. A value of conductivity established as a standard against
which other conductivity values are referred to in percent IACS.
Impedance
The opposition to current flow in a test circuit or a coil due to the resistance of that circuit or coil, plus the
electrical properties of the coil as affected by the coil's magnetic field.
Impedance Analysis
An analytical method which consists of correlating changes in the amplitude, phase, or quadrature
components (or all of these) of a complex test signal voltage to the electromagnetic conditions within the
specimen.
Impedance-plane Diagram
A graphical representation of the locus of points indicating the variations in the impedance of a test coil as
a function of basic test parameters.
Inductance
The inertial element of the electric circuit. An inductor resists any sudden change in the current flowing
through it.
Inductive Reactance
The opposition to current flow in a test circuit or coil when an alternating voltage source is applied and due
solely to the electrical properties of the coil as affected by the magnetic field.
Inertia
The property of matter which manifests itself as a resistance to any change in the momentum of a body.
Lift-off
The distance between a surface probe coil and the specimen.
Lift-off Effect
The effect observed due to a change in magnetic coupling between a test specimen and a probe coil
whenever the distance between them is varied.
Low Pass Filter

An electronic circuit designed to block signals of high frequency while passing low frequency signals.
Magnetic Field
A condition of space near a magnet or current-carrying wire in which forces can be detected.
Magnetic Flux Lines

A closed curve in a magnetic field through points having equal magnetic force and direction.
Noise
Any undesired signal that tends to interfere with the normal reception or processing of a desired signal.. In
flaw detection, undesired response to dimensional and physical variables (other than flaws) in the test part is called
"part noise.
Nonferromagnetic
A material that is not magnetizable and hence, essentially not affected by magnetic fields. This would
include paramagnetic materials having a magnetic permeability slightly greater than that of a vacuum and
approximately independent bf the magnetizing force and diamagnetic materials having a permeability less than that
of a vacuum.
Paramagnetic
A material having a permeability which is slightly greater than that of a vacuum, and which is
approximately independent of the magnetizing force.
Permeability
A measure of the ease with which the magnetic domains of a material align themselves with an externally
applied magnetic field.
Permeability Variations
Magnetic inhomogeneities of a material.
Phase Analysis
An instrumentation technique which discriminates between variables in the test part by the different phase
angle changes which these conditions produce in the test signal.
Phase Angle
The angle measured in degrees that the current in the test circuit leads or lags the voltage. One complete
cycle is equal to 360°.
Phase Shift
A change in the phase relationship between two alternating quantities of the same frequency.
Probe Coil
A small coil or coil assembly normally used for surface inspections.
Reference Standard
A test specimen used as a basis for calibrating test equipment or as a comparison when evaluating test
results.
Rejection Level
The setting of the signal level above or below which all parts are rejectable or in an automatic system at
which objectional parts will actuate the reject mechanism of the system.
Resistance
The opposition to current flow in a test circuit or coil based on specific material properties and cross-
sectional area and length of a conductor.
Response Amplitude
The property of the test system whereby the amplitude of the detected signal is measured without regard to
phase.
Saturation
The degree of magnetization produced in a ferromagnetic material for which the incremental permeability
has decreased substantially to unity.
Self-comparison Differential
A differential test arrangement that compares two portions of the same test specimen.
Signal-to-noise Ratio
The ratio of response or amplitude of signals of interest to the response or amplitude of signals containing
no useful information.
Single Coil
A test arrangement where the alternating current is supplied through the same coil from which the
indication is taken.
Skin Effect
A phenomenon where, at high frequencies, the eddy current flow is restricted to a thin layer of the test
specimen close to the coil.
Standard
A reference used as a basis for comparison or calibration; a concept that has been established by authority,
custom, or agreement to serve as a model or rule in the measurement of quantity or the establishment of a practice
or a procedure.
Standard Depth of Penetration

The depth in a test specimen where the magnitude of eddy current flow is equal to 37 percent of the eddy
current flow at the surface.
Two Types of Electrical Current
Direct Current (DC)
- Current flow is constant over time

- Current is distributed uniformly over the cross-section of the conductor
- Example: battery
Current strength and direction remain constant over time
Time
Alternating Current (AC)
- Current flow varies over time

- Current flows at or near the surface of the conductor - this phenomenon is called the skin
effect
- Example: 60 cycle ac in wall sockets
Current strength varies over time; current
direction reverses every 1/2 cycle
Time
Conductivity and the IACS
Conductivity of a metal is usually expressed as a percentage (%) and is based on the international annealed copper
standard (IACS).
A specific grade of high purity copper was designated as 100 % conductivity. All other metals (except silver) are
designated some % less then 100 %. These percentages indicate the relative efficiencies of the various metals for
carrying electric current.
Right Hand Rule
An easy method for finding the direction of an electrically induced magnetic field is to imagine grasping the
conductor in the right hand with the thumb pointing in the direction of the current flow. The fingers will then point
in the direction of the lines of force. This is the right hand rule and is shown below. From this figure it can be seen
that the current flow in the conductor creates circular lines of force.
(-) CURRENT
FLOW
(+)
The coil's magnetic field intensity (strength) decreases with increasing distance away from the outside of the coil.
The field intensity at point C is less than

at point B, and point B's intensity is less
C than point A's
AC B
A
The coil's field intensity (strength) is assumed to be constant across the inside
diameter of the coil. This assumption is based on the use of AC and small
diameter coils, and for all practical purposes the assumption is valid.
AC
Lines of
Force
The coil's magnetic field can be viewed as a distribution of lines of
force around the coil. These lines of force are call magnetic flux, and
represent the coil's magnetic force (symbol 'H').
AC Current Current
in out
When a metal rod is placed inside the coil, the coil flux passes through the
rod. The number of lines of force in the rod divided by the cross-sectional
area of the rod equals the flux density (symbol 'B') in the rod. The flux
density in the rod depends on the metal's willingness to carry the magnetic
flux. The metal's willingness to carry these magnetic flux lines is called
permeability. The symbol for permeability is 'µ ' (mu).
Mathematically, permeability is expressed as the flux density in the material (B) divided by the magnetizing force
(H) that caused it.
B or µ µ Flux density
Permeability = H = = Magnetizing force
Like conductivity, permeability is a material property that is the same for all samples of a particular material
(assume same chemistry, etc.).
example: µ for air = 1

µ for copper alloys = 1
µ for steels = several thousand
The permeability value of 1 for air and copper alloys (and all other non-magnetic materials) means that the
magnetic flux in the material is exactly equal to the flux coming from the
coil.
stated another way: b/h = 1 only when b = h
The high permeability value of steels (and all other ferromagnetic metals)
means that the magnetic flux in the metal is thousands of times greater
than the applied flux from the coil. Randomly Oriented Domains
stated another way: b/h = 2000 means bflux = 2000 x hflux
Magnetic Domains
Obviously, something is happening in the ferromagnetic metals to create

all this additional flux that is not happening in the non-magnetic
materials. Magnetic domains are groups of atoms within a ferromagnetic Partially Oriented Domains
metal which behave like tiny permanent magnets.
Completely Oriented
Domains (saturation)
In unmagnetized magnetic materials, the domains are randomly oriented and neutralize each other, producing no
observable magnetic flux in the metal.
When the magnetizing force from the coil, is applied, the domains begin to align in the direction of the applied
flux. Their combined individual magnetism starts to produce an observable increase in the flux in the metal, over
and above the applied flux (H).
When the domains are completely aligned, the metal is said to be saturated, and the flux 'B' is many thousands of
times greater than the applied flux 'H'. This domain behavior is responsible for the non-linear relationship between
(B) and (H) in ferromagnetic metals and for the hysteresis effect.
When a coil of wire carrying alternating current is brought into proximity to a conducting article. The alternating
magnetic field that surrounds the coil will penetrate the article, generating small circulating electrical currents,
called eddy currents, in an article.
Note: When a generator’s electrical Generator

current reverses it direction, the
direction of the eddy currents will Electrical current
also reverse.
Test coil
Eddy currents
Article being tested
Eddy currents are circulating electrical currents induced in an isolated conductor by an alternating magnetic field.
Note that there is no direct electrical contact between the coil and the test article - eddy currents are generated by
electromagnetic induction.
Direction of coil’s field
The "primary" magnetic field
surrounding the ac coil will penetrate
the test articles and induce eddy
currents in the article. The circulating
AC Indicator
eddy currents possess their own
"secondary" magnetic field. This
secondary field will oppose the coils
and reduce the size and strength of the
coil’s field.
Eddy current field
opposes coil’s field
Changes in the strength or shape of the secondary field will affect the primary field, which will affect the AC
flowing in the coil, where it will be sensed.
In this way, variations of the test article that disturb or alter the flow of the eddy currents will disturb the
electromagnetic coupling between the two fields and cause indications on the test instrument
Change in coil’s Change in

Test circuit meter reading
impedance
Changes in Change in coil’s

magnetic field Material
conductivity
Characteristics of Eddy Current
1) Can only be induced in conductors
Coated (i.e. painted)

articles may be tested, since the
coils field will pass through the Nonconductive material
nonconducting coating and
generate eddy currents in the metal
beneath.
Conductive material
Plated articles should not be

tested, since the coil's field will
generate eddy currents in both the Conductive material
metallic plating and the base
material. Consequently, ET
indications could originate from
either the base metal or the Conductive material
plating, confusing the inspection.
2) Can be generated only by an alternating magnetic field - there must be relative motion between the field and
the test article. A DC field will not generate eddy currents. The moving AC field which builds up, then breaks
down and reverses direction every 1/2 cycle, is essential to the production of eddy currents.
3) Eddy currents flow in

circular paths, parallel to
the coil windings.
Depth of Penetration
Eddy currents are strongest at the surface nearest the coil (due to skin effect) and weaken with depth. The depth of
eddy current penetration below the surface is directly affected by the nearness of the coil to the test article, the
operating frequency, and the test article conductivity and permeability.
(A) Coil position - since the coil's field is limited in size and decreases in strength with increasing distance away
from the coil, maximum field penetration into the article and, therefore, maximum depth of eddy current
penetration is achieved by moving the coil as close as practical to the test article surface.
Coil far away Coil as close as

from article possible to the
being tested article being
tested
(B) Operating frequency - a relationship also exists between the frequency of the ac applies to the test coil and the
eddy current depth of penetration. As the frequency is increased, eddy current distribution concentrates near
the surface and decreases deep with the test article. The reverse is also true. As the frequency is lowered, the
eddy current distribution extends deeper into the article.
Frequency Frequency
Coil Coil
Depth of Depth of
Eddy Current Eddy Current
Penetration Penetration
View A View B
In both view A and B above, the material and the test coil are the same. Since view a shows deeper eddy current
penetration into the material, this means that a lower frequency was used. View B shows shallower penetration, so
a high frequency was used. Keep in mind that a high frequency causes the eddy currents to accumulate near the
surface closest to the test coil.
c) Conductivity - the figure below illustrates that the depth of eddy current penetration also varies with metal's
electrical conductivity. As conductivity increases, the depth of eddy currents decreases.
Indicator Indicator Indicator

Coil Coil Coil
Depth of Depth of Depth of

Eddy Eddy Eddy
Current Current Current
Penetration Penetration Penetration
Lead Tin Copper
In the figure, the coil and test frequency are the same in each view. Only the material type is different. You can
verify that tin is more conductive the lead, and that copper is much more conductive than either, by referring to the
% IACS conductivity chart shown earlier. As the figure shows, the less conductive metals achieve deeper eddy
current penetration than the more conductive metals.
d) Magnetic permeability - finally, a metal's magnetic permeability (µ ) affects the depth of eddy current
penetration. The depth of penetration decrease as the permeability increases. There are 3 basic types of eddy
current test: surface , encircling , and inside.
A surface coil is designed to be used on localized areas on a surface, and is usually contained in a hand-held probe.
An encircling coil, on the other hand, is large enough to surround an object about one of its axes and is designed to
test an entire segment of the object at one time.
An inside coil is designed to be placed inside a hole or cavity in the object, and is especially suited for testing thin
wall tubing.
Note that with each of the coil types:

- The eddy currents circulate parallel to the coil windings
- The eddy currents hug the surface that is nearest the coil
Each of these 3 coil types may be used in either the differential or absolute test mode.
In the differential coil arrangement, two side-by-side coils are wound and connected so that the output of on
cancels the output of the other as long as the test object properties are the same under both coils. This mode is most
sensitive to small defects and is relatively insensitive to material variations such as hardness, gross surface
irregularities, etc.
In the absolute mode, a single coil tests the area of the test object beneath it without comparison to a reference
area. This mode is most sensitive to large defects longer than the coil, and to material variations such as hardness,
gross surface irregularities, etc.
The 3 general material variables (properties) that affect the flow of eddy currents in the material are:
1) Changes in conductivity - conductivity changes may be caused by variations in alloy chemistry or heat
treatment, or may be due to the presence of defects. Since cracks or other discontinuities force the eddy
currents to take a longer path by flowing around them, the overall effect of the discontinuity is to reduce the
conductivity of the metal.
As the figure illustrates, the eddy currents must flow around the crack, effectively reducing the conductivity of the
metal.
2) The second material variable affecting eddy current flow is magnetic permeability. Eddy currents are induced
by flux changes in the metal and are directly related to the density or amount of flux. Since changes in
permeability cause changes in the amount of flux in the metal, they also cause a pronounced (and detectable)
change in the eddy current flow.
3) Changes in the physical dimensions, or size and shape of the test object also affect the eddy current flow.
Although the figure below is a gross example, it clearly illustrates how a change in physical dimension can
alter the electromagnetic coupling between the coil and the object.
Two more dimensional of eddy current testing is edge effect and lift-off.
Edge effect is the false indication caused by disruption of by disruption of the eddy current path when the coil
approaches an end or edge of the material.
The effect is strong enough to "mask' any changes due to other factors. In effect, the edge of the material looks like
a very large crack to the eddy current instrument.
On the other hand, the false indication caused by changing the spacing between the test coil and the material
surface is called lift-off.
Lift-off has a very large effect on the ET output display due to the decrease in primary field flux in the material as
the coil distance from the materials surface is increased.
The lift-off effect can be used to measure the thickness of non-conducting coatings, such as paint, on a conducting
object.
Since eddy currents cannot be generated in the non-conductor, a coil placed in contact with the painted surface
"sees" the paint thickness simply as lift-off distance.
Another important relationship between eddy current flow and the presence of discontinuities is that the
discontinuity must lie perpendicular to the direction of eddy current flow to be detected.
In the situation above, a surface coil passes over a surface crack and a subsurface lamination in the metal. It is easy
to see that the crack will force the eddy currents to take a longer path around it, causing a detectable disruption in
their flow. The lamination on the other hand, will not cause much disruption of the eddy current path since the
metal separation lies parallel to the direction of current flow.
Limitations of Eddy Current Testing
1. Inspect only conducting articles (i.e. metals).
2. Can locate only surface and shallow subsurface discontinuities; inspection depth is limited to less then 1 inch.
3. Separation of the effects of conductivity, permeability, and dimension variables is difficult and often not
possible.
4. ET is an indirect inspection requiring the use of calibration standards; you must know what you are looking for
in order to find it.
Advantages of Eddy Current Testing
1. Able to inspect through non-conductive coatings (i.e. paint).
2. Fast, real-time inspection.
3. Totally nondestructive; no interference with the test item.
Summary of Properties of Eddy Currents
1. Generated by an alternating magnetic field.
2. Flow only in conductors.
3. Circulates parallel to coil windings.
4. Eddy current flow is affected by changes in the material's conductivity, dimension, magnetic permeability.
5. Limited to surface/shallow subsurface testing.
6. Depth of penetration is affected by conductivity and permeability of test object, by test frequency, and by
nearness of the coil to the test object.
7. Able to test through surface coatings (nonconducting) but not through plating (metal).
Eddy Current Relationship of Properties
Penetration Frequency Conductivity Permeability

Decrease Increase Increase Increase
Increase Decrease Decrease Decrease
Chapter 7 - Radiographic Inspection
Absorbed dose
The amount of energy imparted to matter by an ionizing particle per unit mass of irradiated material at the
place of interest. It is expressed in “rads.”
Accelerator
A device that accelerates charged atomic particles to high energies. An x-ray machine is an accelerator.
Activity
A measure of how radioactive a particular radioisotope is. The number of atoms decaying per unit of time
calculates activation. Its unit of measurement is the “curie.”
Alpha particle
A positively charged particle emitted by certain radioactive materials. It is made up of two neutrons and
two protons; hence it is identical with the nucleus of a helium atom.
Alpha ray
A stream of fast-moving helium nuclei (alpha particles). This radiation is strongly ionizing with very weak
penetration.
Angstrom
A unit of length used to express wavelength. One angstrom equals 10-8 centimeters.
Anode (target side)

The positive terminal of an x-ray tube. It is a high melting point element that receives the electron
bombardment from the cathode (filament).
Atom
The smallest part of an element. The atom consists of a nucleus composed, with the exception of hydrogen,
of a number of protons and neutrons. Included in the atom is an extranuclear portion composed of electrons equal
in number to the protons in the nucleus. The hydrogen atom includes a nucleus of one proton and extranuclear
portion of one electron.
Autotransformer
A special type of transformer in which the output voltage can be easily varied. The autotransformer is
employed to adjust the primary voltage applied to the step-up transformer that produces the high voltage applied to
the x-ray tube.
Background radiation
The radiation of man’s radiation natural environment, consisting of radiation that comes from cosmic rays
and from the naturally radioactive elements of the earth, including radiation from within man’s body. The term
may also mean radiation extraneous to an experiment.
Backscatter
Radiation scattered from the floor, walls, equipment, and other items in the area of a radiation source.
Backscatter includes secondary radiation resulting from the interaction between the primary radiation from the
source and the material being radiated.
Beta particle
An electron or position emitted from a nucleus during radioactive decay.
Bremsstrahlung
Electromagnetic radiation (photon) emitted by charged particles when they are slowed down by electric
fields in their passage through matter. Literally means, “braking radiation” in German.
200 Kev Electron Leaving
400 Kev Electron
200 Kev X-Ray
Cassette
A lightproof container, which may or may not contain intensifying and/or filter screens, that is used for
holding the radiographic films in position during the radiographic exposure.
Cathode (filament side)

The negatively-biased electrode of the x-ray tube.
Collimator
A device used to surround a radiation source and so constructed as to both minimize the scattered radiation
and to direct the primary or useful radiation into a more or less parallel beam onto a localized area.
Compton Effect
The glancing collision of an x-ray or gamma ray with an electron to an orbital electron in matter with a
lower energy in matter with a lower energy photon scattered at an angle to the original photon path. The electron
does not absorb all of the energy.
Ejected electron
High energy
Photon
Photon
continues with
less energy
Contrast (film)
The change in density recorded on the film that results from a given change in radiation input. Contrast is
determined from the slope of the characteristic curve.
Contrast (radiographic)
The measure of difference in the film blackening resulting from various x-ray intensities transmitted
through the object and recorded as density differences in the image. Thus, difference in film blackening from one
area to another is contrast.
Contrast (subject)
The ratio of radiation intensities passing through selected portions of a specimen.
Definition
The measure of sharpness in the outline of the image of an object recorded on film; the sharpness is the
function of the types of screens, exposure geometry, radiation energy and film characteristic.
Densitometer
An instrument utilizing the photoelectric principle to determine the degree of darkening of developed
photographic film.
Developer
A chemical solution that reduces exposed silver halide crystals to metallic silver.
Dose
The amount of ionizing radiation energy absorbed per unit mass of irradiated material at a specific location,
such as a part of the human body.
Dose rate
The radiation dose delivered per unit time and measured, for instance, in rems per hour.
Dosimeter
A device that measures radiation dose, such as a film badge or ionization chamber.
Duty cycle
Usually expressed in a percentage to represent the time used versus the time not used.
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Represents the electromagnetic waves of different wave lengths. The lines are not definite boundaries but
rather phase into one another.
X-RAYS
SHORT LONG
AND ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT INFRARED RADAR
WAVE WAVE
GAMMA RAYS RAYS RAYS WAVES
RADIO RADIO
RAYS
DECREASING WAVELENGTH INCREASING
INCREASING FREQUENCY DECREASING
INCREASING ENERGY DECREASING

Electron volt
Is an amount of energy equal to the energy gained by one electron when it is accelerated by one volt.
Emulsion
A gelatin and silver bromide crystal mixture coated onto a transparent film base.
Encapsulation
The process of sealing radioactive materials to prevent contamination.
Filament
A piece of wire in the cathode side, negative side, of the x-ray tube used to produce electrons when heated.
Film
Specialized film used for radiographic purposes. The components of the film are two protective layers, two
emulsion layers, and one acetate base layer.
emulsion acetate protective

(image layer) base layers
Film badge
A package of photographic film worn as a badge by workers in the nuclear industry to measure exposure to
ionization radiation. The absorbed dose can be calculated by the degree of film darkening caused by the irradiation.
Filter
A layer of absorptive material that is placed in the beam of radiation for the purpose of absorbing rays of
certain wavelengths and thus controlling the quality of the radiograph.
Fixer
A chemical solution that dissolves unexposed silver halide crystals from developed film emulsions.
Fog
A darkening of the film resulting from chemical action of the developer, aging, scattered or secondary
radiation, pre-exposure to radiation, or exposure to visible light.
Geiger counter
A radiation detection and measuring instrument. It contains a gas-filled tube that discharges electrically
when ionizing radiation passes through it. Discharges are counted to measure the radiation’s intensity.
Graininess
A film characteristic that consists of the grouping or clumping together of the countless small silver grains
into relatively large masses visible to the naked eye or with slight magnification.
Half-life
The time in which half the atoms in a radioactive substance decay. Time is dependant upon the element.
Half-life (biological)
The time required for a biological system, such as a man or an animal, to eliminate, by natural processes,
half the amount of a substance that has entered it.
Half-value layer
The thickness of a material required to absorb one half of the impinging radiation.
Intensifying screen
A layer of material placed in contact with the film to increase the effect of the radiation, thereby shortening
the exposure.
Interlock
A device for precluding access to an area of radiation hazard either by preventing entry or by automatically
removing the hazard.
Ion
A charged atom or molecularly-bound group of atoms; sometimes also a free electron or other charged
subatomic particles.
Ion pairs
A positive ion and a negative ion, or electron, having charges of the same magnitude and formed from a
neutral atom or molecule by the action of radiation or by any other agency that supplies energy.
Ionization
The process of adding electrons to, or knocking electrons from, atoms or molecules thereby creating ions.
High temperatures, electrical discharges, and nuclear radiation can cause ionization.
Ionization chamber
An instrument that detects and measures ionizing radiation by observing the electrical current created when
radiation ionizes gas in the chamber making the gas a conductor of electricity.
Ionizing radiation
Any radiation that directly or indirectly displaces electrons from the orbital shells of atoms.
Kev
The energy of X-rays or gamma rays measured in thousand electron volts.
Latent image
The potential image that is stored in the form of chemical changes in the film emulsion and is brought out
by development of the film.
Latitude
Latitude most closely aligned with contrast is commonly called the scale of the film. Latitude is the range
of thickness of material that can be transferred or recorded on the radiograph within the useful reading range of
film density. A high contrast film has little latitude and conversely a low contrast film has great latitude.
Leak test
A test on sealed sources to assure that radioactive material is not being released.
Licensed material
Source material, special nuclear material, or by-product material received, possessed, used, or transferred
under a general or special license issued by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission.
Mev
The energy of X-rays or gamma rays measured in million electron volts.
Microshrinkage
Cracks that appear as dark feathery streaks, or irregular patches, that indicate cavities in the grain
boundaries.
Monochromatic radiation
A rare condition, hypothetical, in which all gamma rays or x-rays produced are of the same wavelength.
Pair production
The transformation of a high-energy ray into pair of particles (an electron and a positron) during its passage
through matter.
Particle
A minute constituent of matter with a measurable mass, such as a neutron, proton, or meson.
Penetrameter T = thickness
A small strip of material of the same 4T DIA T DIA 2T DIA
composition as the specimen being tested. Its thickness
T
represents a percentage of the specimen thickness.
When placed in the path of the rays, its image on the
radiograph provides a check on the radiographic technique
employed.
Penumbra
The shadow cast when the incident radiation is partly, but not wholly, cut off by an intervening body; the
space of partial illumination between the umbra, or perfect shadow, on all sides and the full light.
Photoelectric effect
This process involves the complete absorption of the photon during the process of knocking an electron out
of orbit. It occurs primarily with lower energy X-rays photons of 10 Kev to 500 Kev.
Ejected electron
Approaching Photon (negative ion)
Photon absorbed
Charged atom
(positive atom)
Photon
A discrete quantity of electromagnetic energy. Photons have no momentum but no mass or electrical
charge.
Positron
A fundamental atomic particle having a mass equal to that of the electron and possessing a positive charge
equal to the negative charge of the electron.
Roentgen
A unit of exposure dose of ionizing radiation. It is that amount of gamma or x-rays required to produce ions
carrying 1 electrostatic unit of electrical charge in one cubic centimeter of dry air under standard conditions.
Safelight
A special lamp used in the darkroom to provide working visibility without affecting the photosensitive
emulsion of the radiographic film.
Scatter
Secondary radiation that is emitted in all directions.
Screens
Metallic or fluorescent sheets used to intensify the radiation effects on films.
Sensitivity
A term usually referring to the ability of the radiographic procedure to detect discontinuities.
Specific activity
Total radioactivity of a given isotope per gram of element.
Source-film-distance
The distance between the focal spot of an x-ray tube or radiation source and the film; generally expressed
in inches.
Target
The piece of material, usually tungsten, embedded in the anode side, positive side, of the x-ray tube. A
effective and efficient target has the following four properties high atomic number, high melting point, high
thermal conductivity, and low vapor pressure.
Two-film technique
A procedure wherein two films of different relative speeds are used simultaneously to radiograph both the
thick and the thin sections of an item.
Structure of the Atom and an Element
Proton – A heavy atomic particle with a positive charge.

Neutron – Close to the same weight and size of the proton with a neutral charge.
Electron – A negative charged particle weighing about 1/1840th of a proton or a neutron.
Nucleus – The proton(s) and neutron(s) are group here in the center of the atom.
Atomic number “Z” – This number represents the number of protons in the atom.
Mass number “A” – This number represent the number of protons and neutrons in the atom.
Helium Atom Z
EA
E = element symbol
Z = atomic number
A = mass number
Components of an Isotope
Isotope – One or more of the same element having the same number of protons but not the same number of
neutrons.
Natural isotopes – Those that occur naturally.
Artificial isotope – Those elements that are created by bombarding with swarms of neutrons.
Activation – This is the process of creating artificial isotopes.
Stable isotopes – Atoms that are not radioactive.
Unstable isotopes – Atoms that are radioactive.
Characteristics of A Radioactive Element
During the decay or disintegration process tiny particles of energy are emitted in the form of particles and
waves from the nucleus.
Alpha particles (α) – The biggest and heaviest of the radiation particles and is composed of two protons and two
neutrons.
Beta particles (β) – A very light particle, actually a high-speed electron.
Gamma rays (γ) – A form of energy that is a wave not a particle.
Two Types of Radiation
Gamma radiation – A product of nuclear disintegration or decay of radioactive elements.
X-rays – An artificial produced wave from a high voltage electron tube.

1) Soft x-rays – low energy.
2) Hard x-rays – high energy.
History of Radiography
X-rays were discovered in 1895 by Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen (1845-1923)
who was a Professor at Wuerzburg University in Germany. Working with a cathode-
ray tube in his laboratory, Roentgen observed a fluorescent glow of crystals on a
table near his tube. The tube that Roentgen was working with consisted of a glass
envelope (bulb) with electrically positive and negative electrodes encapsulated in it.
The tube was evacuated of air, and when a high voltage was applied to it, the tube
would produce a fluorescent glow. Roentgen shielded the tube with heavy black
paper, and found that a green colored fluorescent light could be seen from a screen
setting a few feet away from the tube. He concluded that a new type of ray emitted
from the tube. This ray was capable of passing through the heavy paper covering. He
also found that the new ray would pass through most substances casting shadows of
solid objects. In his discovery, Roentgen found that the ray would pass through the
tissue of humans leaving the bones and metals visible. One of Roentgen's first
experiments late in 1895 was a film of his wife, Bertha's hand with a ring on.
However, it can be argued that the first use of X-rays was for an industrial (not
medical) application as Roentgen produced a radiograph of a set of weights in a box
to show his colleagues.
Roentgen's discovery was a scientific bombshell, and was received with
extraordinary interest by both scientist and laymen. Scientists everywhere could
duplicate his experiment because the cathode tube was very well known during this
period. Many scientist dropped other lines of research to pursue the mysterious rays,
and the newspapers and magazines of the day provided the public with numerous
stories, some true, others fanciful, about the properties of the newly discovered rays.
The public fancy was caught by the invisible ray with the ability to pass through solid
matter, and, in conjunction with a photographic plate, provide a picture, albeit a
shadowy diffuse one, of the bones and interior of the body. Scientific fancy was
captured by an extraordinary new radiation, of shorter wavelength than light, that
presaged new and great vistas in physics, and the structure of matter. Both the
scientist and the public were enthusiastic about potential applications of the newly
discovered rays as an aid in medicine and surgery. Thus, within a month after the
announcement of the discovery, several medical radiographs had been made in Europe and the United States that
were used by surgeons to guide them in their work. In June 1896, only 6 months after Roentgen announced his
discovery, X-rays were being used by battlefield physicians to locate bullets in wounded soldiers.
Prior to 1912, X-rays were used little outside the realms
of medicine, and dentistry, though some X-ray pictures of metals
were produced. The main reason that were not used in industrial
application before this date was because the X-ray tubes (the
source of the X-rays) of that period broke down under the
voltages required to produce rays of satisfactory penetrating
power for industrial purpose. However, that changed in 1913
when the high vacuum X-ray tubes designed by Coolidge
became available. The high vacuum tubes were an intense and
reliable X-ray sources, operating at energies up to 100,000 volts.
In 1922, industrial radiography took another step forward with the advent of the 200,000-volt X-ray tube that
allowed radiographs of three inches thick steel parts to be produced in a reasonable amount of time. In 1931,
General Electric Company developed 1000, 000 volt X-ray generators. That same year, the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers (ASME) permitted X-ray approval of fusion welded pressure vessels.
Shortly after the discovery of X-rays, another form of penetrating rays was discovered. In 1896, French
scientist Henri Becquerel discovered radioactivity somewhat by accident, like many other great scientific
discoveries. Many of the scientists of the period were working with cathode rays, and other scientists were
gathering evidence on the theory that the atom could be subdivided. Some of this new evidence showed that certain
types of atoms disintegrate by themselves. It was Henri Becquerel who discovered this phenomenon while
investigating the properties of fluorescent minerals. Becquerel was working on the principles of fluorescence,
certain minerals glow (fluoresce) when exposed to sunlight. He utilized photographic plates to record this
fluorescence.
One of the minerals Becquerel worked with was a uranium compound. On a day when it was too cloudy to
expose his samples to direct sunlight, Becquerel stored some of the compound in a drawer with photographic
plates. When he developed these plates a couple of days later, he discovered that they were fogged. Becquerel
questioned what would have caused this fogging. He knew he had wrapped the plates tightly before using them, so
the fogging was not due to stray light. In addition, he noticed that only the plates that were in the drawer with the
uranium compound were fogged. Becquerel concluded that the uranium compound gave off a type of radiation that
could penetrate heavy paper and affect photographic film. Becquerel continued to test many samples of uranium
compounds and determined that the source of radiation was the element uranium. At this time, enough information
was gathered to determine that an element, which gives off radiation, is said to be radioactive, and possesses the
property of radioactivity. Becquerel's discovery was, unlike that of the X-rays, virtually unnoted by the layman and
scientist alike. Only a relatively few scientist were interested in Becquerel's findings, and it was not until the
discovery of radium by the Curies two years later that interest in radioactivity became wide spread.
While working in France at the time of Becquerel's discovery, Polish scientist Marie Curie became very
interested in his work. She too, suspected that a uranium ore known as pitchblende contained other radioactive
elements. Marie and her husband, a French scientist, Pierre Curie started looking for these other elements. In 1898,
the Curies discovered another radioactive element in pitchblende; they named it `polonium' in honor of Marie
Curie's native homeland. Later that same year, the Curie's discovered another radioactive element for which they
named `radium', or shining element. Both polonium and radium are more radioactive than uranium. Since these
discoveries, many other radioactive elements have been discovered or produced.
The initial gamma ray source was radium, which allows radiography of castings up to 10 to 12 inches thick.
During World War II, industrial radiography grew tremendously as part of the Navy's shipbuilding program.
Shortly after the war, manmade gamma ray sources such as cobalt and iridium became available in 1946. These
new sources were far stronger than radium sources and were less expensive. Thus the manmade sources rapidly
replaced radium, and the use of gamma rays grew quickly in industrial radiography.
60° Coverage for Pipes and Location Marker Measurements
General Information Distance Between Location Markers (centerline)

Outside Circumference 60°
NPS 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Diameter (OD times pi) Coverage
1/2" 0.840 2.638 0.440 0.528 0.440 0.377 0.330 0.293 0.264 0.240 0.220
3/4" 1.050 3.299 0.550 0.660 0.550 0.471 0.412 0.367 0.330 0.300 0.275
1" 1.315 4.131 0.689 0.826 0.689 0.590 0.516 0.459 0.413 0.376 0.344
1-1/4" 1.660 5.215 0.869 1.043 0.869 0.745 0.652 0.579 0.522 0.474 0.435
1-1/2" 1.900 5.969 0.995 1.194 0.995 0.853 0.746 0.663 0.597 0.543 0.497
2" 2.375 7.461 1.244 1.492 1.244 1.066 0.933 0.829 0.746 0.678 0.622
2-1/2" 2.875 9.032 1.505 1.806 1.505 1.290 1.129 1.004 0.903 0.821 0.753
3" 3.500 10.996 1.833 2.199 1.833 1.571 1.374 1.222 1.100 1.000 0.916
3-1/2" 4.000 12.566 2.094 2.513 2.094 1.795 1.571 1.396 1.257 1.142 1.047
4" 4.500 14.137 2.356 2.827 2.356 2.020 1.767 1.571 1.414 1.285 1.178
5" 5.563 17.477 2.913 3.495 2.913 2.497 2.185 1.942 1.748 1.589 1.456
6" 6.625 20.813 3.469 4.163 3.469 2.973 2.602 2.313 2.081 1.892 1.734
8" 8.625 27.096 4.516 5.419 4.516 3.871 3.387 3.011 2.710 2.463 2.258
Outside Circumference 60°
NPS 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Diameter (OD times pi) Coverage
1/2" 0.840 2.638 0.440 0.203 0.188 0.176 0.165 0.155 0.147 0.139 0.132
3/4" 1.050 3.299 0.550 0.254 0.236 0.220 0.206 0.194 0.183 0.174 0.165
1" 1.315 4.131 0.689 0.318 0.295 0.275 0.258 0.243 0.230 0.217 0.207
1-1/4" 1.660 5.215 0.869 0.401 0.373 0.348 0.326 0.307 0.290 0.274 0.261
1-1/2" 1.900 5.969 0.995 0.459 0.426 0.398 0.373 0.351 0.332 0.314 0.298
2" 2.375 7.461 1.244 0.574 0.533 0.497 0.466 0.439 0.415 0.393 0.373
2-1/2" 2.875 9.032 1.505 0.695 0.645 0.602 0.565 0.531 0.502 0.475 0.452
3" 3.500 10.996 1.833 0.846 0.785 0.733 0.687 0.647 0.611 0.579 0.550
3-1/2" 4.000 12.566 2.094 0.967 0.898 0.838 0.785 0.739 0.698 0.661 0.628
4" 4.500 14.137 2.356 1.087 1.010 0.942 0.884 0.832 0.785 0.744 0.707
5" 5.563 17.477 2.913 1.344 1.248 1.165 1.092 1.028 0.971 0.920 0.874
6" 6.625 20.813 3.469 1.601 1.487 1.388 1.301 1.224 1.156 1.095 1.041
8" 8.625 27.096 4.516 2.084 1.935 1.806 1.694 1.594 1.505 1.426 1.355
Common Math Formulas
I1(D1) 2
= I2(D2) 2
2 2
I (D ) I (D )
2 2 2 2
D = I =
1 1
I 2
1 (D )
1
2
I (D )
2 1 1
I (D ) I =
1 1 2
D = 2
2 (D )
I 2
2
I=Intensity D=Distance
Ma 1(SFD 2) 2
= Ma 2(SFD 1) 2
2 2
Ma (SFD ) Ma (SFD )
2 1 2 1
SFD = Ma =
2 1
Ma 2
1 (SFD )
2
2
Ma (SFD )
2 1 2
Ma (SFD ) Ma =
1 2 2
SFD = 2
1 (SFD )
Ma 1
2
Ma=Milliamperage SFD=Source to film distance
Ci 1(SFD 2) 2
= Ci 2(SFD 1) 2
2 2
Ci (SFD ) Ci (SFD )
2 1 2 1
SFD = Ci =
2 1
Ci 2
1 (SFD )
2
2
Ci (SFD )
2 1 2
Ci (SFD ) Ci =
1 2 2
SFD = 2
1 (SFD )
Ci 1
2
Ci=Curie SFD=Source to film distance

2 2
Ef 1(SFD 2) = Ef 2(SFD 1)
2 2
Ef (SFD ) Ef (SFD )
2 1 2 1
SFD = Ef =
2 1
Ef 2
1 (SFD )
2
2
Ef (SFD )
2 1 2
Ef (SFD ) Ef =
1 2 2
SFD = 2
1 (SFD )
Ef 1
2
Ef=Exposure factor SFD=Source to film distance
T1(SFD 2) 2
= T2(SFD 1) 2
2 2
T (SFD ) T (SFD )
2 1 2 1
SFD = T =
2 1
T 2
1 (SFD )
2
2
T (SFD )
2 1 2
T (SFD ) T =
1 2 2
SFD = 2
1 (SFD )
T 1
2
T=Time SFD=Source to film distance
OF 1(SFD 2) 2
= OF 2(SFD 1) 2
2 2
OF (SFD ) OF (SFD )
2 1 2 1
SFD = OF =
2 1
OF 2
1 (SFD )
2
2
OF (SFD )
2 1 2
OF (SFD ) OF =
1 2 2
SFD = 2
1 (SFD )
OF 1
2
OF=Offset SFD=Source to film distance

(TS + GAP) (TM or TS) X DS
X old SFD = new SFD
TS MS
TS=Depends on technique used TS(TM)=Thickness (TM if location marker is on TM)
SFD=Source to film distance DS=Defect shift
GAP=Film to specimen distance MS=Marker shift
Ma1( T1) = Ma2 ( T2) Dn1( Ma2) = Dn2 ( Ma1)

Ma=Milliamperage T=Time Dn=Density Ma=Milliamperage
Ci1( T1) = Ci2 ( T2) Dn1( Ci2) = Dn2 ( Ci1)

Ci=Curie T=Time Dn=Density Ci=Curie
Dn1( Ef2) = Dn2 ( Ef1) Dn1( T2) = Dn2 ( T1)

Dn=Density Ef=Exposure factor Dn=Density T=Time
FSS = IS - (2 X PHS)
FSS=Focal spot size IS=Image size
PHS=Pin hole size
Adding / Removing
Shielding
I o I = Io(2 HVL )
I =
2 HVL
I = Intensity after adding shielding I = Intensity after removing shielding

Io = Original intensity Io = Original intensity
HVL = # of Half-value layers added HVL = # of Half-value layers added
Determining Shielding Required Common Half-Value Layers for IR192
Io Concrete 1.75”
ln ( )
HVL =
I Steel .500”
.693 Lead .190”
Tungsten .130”
HVL = # of HVL's required to reduce intensity
ln = Natural logrithm
Io = Original intensity Kodak Radiographic Films
I = Desired intensity
Type Speed
Grain
R 8 Ultra fine
Decay Formula M 4 Extra fine
T 2 Extra fine
Ao
A = AA 1 Fine
2 n
A = New activity Gamma Radiation Exposure Calculator

Ao = Original known activity Experienced Based Roentgen Factors (Steel)
n = T/HL D E N S I T Y
T = Time passed since known activity passed
F 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 4.0
HL = Half-life of the isotope
I AA .652 .730 1.0 1.25 1.55 2.4
L T 1.3 1.46 2.0 2.5 3.1 4.8
M M 2.6 2.92 4.0 5.5 6.2 9.6
Magic Circles
A
D Ef
B C
DR T Ma T
A=BXC
B= A / C
C= A / B
D=Dose Ef=Exposure factor
DR=Dose rate Ma=Milliamperage
T=Time T=Time
Ef
Ci T
Ef=Exposure factor
Ci=Curie
T=Time
Single Wall Exposure / Single Wall Viewing for Plate

SWE / SWV (PLATE)
Source
Penny
Backing Strap Shim
Ts Tm
Weld
Film
Pb "B"
TM = DESIGN MATERIAL THICKNESS
PENNY = BASED ON Tm
SHIM = BASED ON (1) WELD AND (1) ROOT
REINFORCEMENT
SFD = BASED ON Ts
ENERGY = BASED ON Ts
Single Wall Exposure / Single Wall Viewing for Pipe
SWE / SWV (PIPE)
Source
Penny
Weld Shim
Ts Tm
Backing Ring/Consumable Insert
Film
Pb "B"
Weld

PENNY = BASED ON Tm
REINFORCEMENT
SFD = BASED ON Ts
ENERGY = BASED ON Ts
Double Wall Exposure / Double Wall View (superimposed)

DWE / DWV
Source
Penny
Weld Shim
Tm
T s

Ts1
Weld
Film
Pb "B"

PENNY = BASED ON (2) Tm
REINFORCEMENT
SFD = BASED ON OUTSIDE OD
ENERGY = BASED ON (2) Tm, (2) WELD AND
(2) ROOT REINFORCEMENTS
Double Wall Exposure / Double Wall View (offset)
DWE / DWV
Source
1/2 Location Penny

Weld markers Shim
Tm
Consumable Insert
T s
Consumable Insert
Ts1
1/2 Location Weld
markers
Film
Pb "B"

PENNY = BASED ON (2) Tm
REINFORCEMENT
SFD = BASED ON OUTSIDE OD
(1) ROOT REINFORCEMENT
Double Wall Exposure / Single Wall View

DWE / SWV
Source
1/2 Location
markers Weld
Consumable Insert
Consumable Insert
Tm T s
Weld 1/2 Location Shim

markers Penny
Film
Pb "B"

PENNY = BASED ON (1) Tm FILM SIDE PENNY CHART
REINFORCEMENT
SFD = BASED ON (1) Ts
(1) ROOT REINFORCEMENT
KILLER CARL
K C L Q G S P W
i o a u r e e a
l n t a a n n v
o t i l i s e e
v r t i n i t l
o a u t i t r e
l s d y n i a n
t t e e v t g
a s i i t
g s t o h
e y n
Penetrameter Material and Group Numbers
X GROUP 03
Magnesium X
X GROUP 02
S-21, S-22, S-25, S-26
Aluminum X
X GROUP 01 S-51, S-52, S-53
Titianium X
Carbon steel X GROUP 1

Alloy steel X S-1, S-2, S-3, S-4, S-5, S-6,
Stainless steel S-7, S-8, S-10H, S-11A, S-11B,
Manganesse-nickel-aluminum bronze S-11C, S-11D, S-36B, S-37A,
S-37B
X GROUP 2
Aluminum bronze X S-35, S-36
Nickel-aluminum-bronze
Nickel-chromium- X GROUP 3 S-42, S-43, S-44

iron alloy X
X GROUP 4 S-34
Nickel-copper alloys X
Copper-nickel alloys
Tin bronze X GROUP 5 S-38

Gun metals X
Valve bronze
Penny T-Hole Maximum Density
MAX MAX MAX MAX MAX
LAI T-HOLE LAI T-HOLE LAI T-HOLE LAI T-HOLE LAI T-HOLE
DENSITY DENSITY DENSITY DENSITY DENSITY
1.50 1.72 2.00 2.30 2.50 2.87 3.00 3.45 3.50 4.00
1.51 1.73 2.01 2.31 2.51 2.88 3.01 3.46 3.51 4.00
1.52 1.74 2.02 2.32 2.52 2.89 3.02 3.47 3.52 4.00
1.53 1.75 2.03 2.33 2.53 2.90 3.03 3.48 3.53 4.00
1.54 1.77 2.04 2.34 2.54 2.92 3.04 3.49 3.54 4.00
1.55 1.78 2.05 2.35 2.55 2.93 3.05 3.50 3.55 4.00
1.56 1.79 2.06 2.36 2.56 2.94 3.06 3.51 3.56 4.00
1.57 1.80 2.07 2.38 2.57 2.95 3.07 3.53 3.57 4.00
1.58 1.81 2.08 2.39 2.58 2.96 3.08 3.54 3.58 4.00
1.59 1.82 2.09 2.40 2.59 2.97 3.09 3.55 3.59 4.00
1.60 1.84 2.10 2.41 2.60 2.99 3.10 3.56 3.60 4.00
1.61 1.85 2.11 2.42 2.61 3.00 3.11 3.57 3.61 4.00
1.62 1.86 2.12 2.43 2.62 3.01 3.12 3.58 3.62 4.00
1.63 1.87 2.13 2.44 2.63 3.02 3.13 3.59 3.63 4.00
1.64 1.88 2.14 2.46 2.64 3.03 3.14 3.61 3.64 4.00
1.65 1.89 2.15 2.47 2.65 3.04 3.15 3.62 3.65 4.00
1.66 1.90 2.16 2.48 2.66 3.05 3.16 3.63 3.66 4.00
1.67 1.92 2.17 2.49 2.67 3.07 3.17 3.64 3.67 4.00
1.68 1.93 2.18 2.50 2.68 3.08 3.18 3.65 3.68 4.00
1.69 1.94 2.19 2.51 2.69 3.09 3.19 3.66 3.69 4.00
1.70 1.95 2.20 2.53 2.70 3.10 3.20 3.68 3.70 4.00
1.71 1.96 2.21 2.54 2.71 3.11 3.21 3.69 3.71 4.00
1.72 1.97 2.22 2.55 2.72 3.12 3.22 3.70 3.72 4.00
1.73 1.98 2.23 2.56 2.73 3.13 3.23 3.71 3.73 4.00
1.74 2.00 2.24 2.57 2.74 3.15 3.24 3.72 3.74 4.00
1.75 2.01 2.25 2.58 2.75 3.16 3.25 3.73 3.75 4.00
1.76 2.02 2.26 2.59 2.76 3.17 3.26 3.74 3.76 4.00
1.77 2.03 2.27 2.61 2.77 3.18 3.27 3.76 3.77 4.00
1.78 2.04 2.28 2.62 2.78 3.19 3.28 3.77 3.78 4.00
1.79 2.05 2.29 2.63 2.79 3.20 3.29 3.78 3.79 4.00
1.80 2.07 2.30 2.64 2.80 3.22 3.30 3.79 3.80 4.00
1.81 2.08 2.31 2.65 2.81 3.23 3.31 3.80 3.81 4.00
1.82 2.09 2.32 2.66 2.82 3.24 3.32 3.81 3.82 4.00
1.83 2.10 2.33 2.67 2.83 3.25 3.33 3.82 3.83 4.00
1.84 2.11 2.34 2.69 2.84 3.26 3.34 3.84 3.84 4.00
1.85 2.12 2.35 2.7 2.85 3.27 3.35 3.85 3.85 4.00
1.86 2.13 2.36 2.71 2.86 3.28 3.36 3.86 3.86 4.00
1.87 2.15 2.37 2.72 2.87 3.30 3.37 3.87 3.87 4.00
1.88 2.16 2.38 2.73 2.88 3.31 3.38 3.88 3.88 4.00
1.89 2.17 2.39 2.74 2.89 3.32 3.39 3.89 3.89 4.00
1.90 2.18 2.40 2.76 2.90 3.33 3.40 3.91 3.90 4.00
1.91 2.19 2.41 2.77 2.91 3.34 3.41 3.92 3.91 4.00
1.92 2.20 2.42 2.78 2.92 3.35 3.42 3.93 3.92 4.00
1.93 2.21 2.43 2.79 2.93 3.36 3.43 3.94 3.93 4.00
1.94 2.23 2.44 2.80 2.94 3.38 3.44 3.95 3.94 4.00
1.95 2.24 2.45 2.81 2.95 3.39 3.45 3.96 3.95 4.00
1.96 2.25 2.46 2.82 2.96 3.40 3.46 3.97 3.96 4.00
1.97 2.26 2.47 2.84 2.97 3.41 3.47 3.99 3.97 4.00
1.98 2.27 2.48 2.85 2.98 3.42 3.48 4.00 3.98 4.00
1.99 2.28 2.49 2.86 2.99 3.43 3.49 4.00 3.99 4.00
2.00 2.30 2.50 2.87 3.00 3.45 3.50 4.00 4.00 4.00
LAI x 1.15 = MAX PENNY DENSITY
2% Penetrameter Quality Conversion Chart (X-RAY ONLY)
2-
THICKNESS THICKNESS 2- THICKNESS 2-PENNY
THICKNESS PENNY
@ 1% @ 2% PENNY @ 4% EQV
EQV
1/ 64 .015625 .00015625 .25 .0003125 .25 .000625 .25
1/ 32 .03125 .0003125 .25 .000625 .25 .00125 .25
3/ 64 .046875 .00046875 .25 .0009375 .25 .001875 .25
1/ 16 .0625 .000625 .25 .00125 .25 .0025 .25
5/ 64 .078125 .00078125 .25 .0015625 .25 .003125 .25
3/ 32 .09375 .0009375 .25 .001875 .25 .00375 .25
7/ 64 .109375 .00109375 .25 .0021875 .25 .004375 .25
1/ 8 .125 .00125 .25 .0025 .25 .005 .25
9/ 64 .140625 .00140625 .25 .0028125 .25 .005625 .28
5/ 32 .15625 .0015625 .25 .003125 .25 .00625 .31
11/ 64 .171875 .00171875 .25 .0034375 .25 .006875 .34
3/ 16 .1875 .001875 .25 .00375 .25 .0075 .37
13/ 64 .203125 .00203125 .25 .0040625 .25 .008125 .40
7/ 32 .21875 .0021875 .25 .004375 .25 .00875 .43
15/ 64 .234375 .00234375 .25 .0046875 .25 .009375 .46
1/ 4 .250 .0025 .25 .005 .25 .01 .50
17/ 64 .265625 .00265625 .25 .0053125 .26 .010625 .53
9/ 32 .28125 .0028125 .25 .005625 .28 .01125 .56
19/ 64 .296875 .00296875 .25 .0059375 .29 .011875 .59
5/ 16 .3125 .003125 .25 .00625 .31 .0125 .62
21/ 64 .328125 .00328125 .25 .0065625 .32 .013125 .65
11/ 32 .34375 .0034375 .25 .006875 .34 .01375 .68
23/ 64 .359375 .00359375 .25 .0071875 .35 .014375 .71
3/ 8 .375 .00375 .25 .0075 .37 .015 .75
25/ 64 .390625 .00390625 .25 .0078125 .39 .015625 .78
13/ 32 .40625 .0040625 .25 .008125 .40 .01625 .81
27/ 64 .421875 .00421875 .25 .0084375 .42 .016875 .84
7/ 16 .4375 .004375 .25 .00875 .43 .0175 .87
29/ 64 .453125 .00453125 .25 .0090625 .45 .018125 .90
15/ 32 .46875 .0046875 .25 .009375 .46 .01875 .93
31/ 64 .484375 .00484375 .25 .0096875 .48 .019375 .96
1/ 2 .500 .005 .25 .01 .50 .02 1.0
33/ 64 .515625 .00515625 .25 .0103125 .51 .020625 1.0
17/ 32 .53125 .0053125 .26 .010625 .53 .02125 1.0
35/ 64 .546875 .00546875 .27 .0109375 .54 .021875 1.0
9/ 16 .5625 .005625 .28 .01125 .56 .0225 1.1
37/ 64 .578125 .00578125 .28 .0115625 .57 .023125 1.1
19/ 32 .59375 .0059375 .29 .011875 .59 .02375 1.1
39/ 64 .609375 .00609375 .30 .0121875 .60 .024375 1.2
5/ 8 .625 .00625 .31 .0125 .62 .025 1.2
2- 2-
THICKNESS THICKNESS 2- THICKNESS
THICKNESS PENNY PENNY
@ 1% @ 2% PENNY @ 4%
EQV EQV
41/ 64 .640625 .00640625 .32 .0128125 .64 .025625 1.2
21/ 32 .65625 .0065625 .32 .013125 .65 .02625 1.3
43/ 64 .671875 .00671875 .33 .0134375 .67 .026875 1.3
11/ 16 .6875 .006875 .34 .01375 .68 .0275 1.3
45/ 64 .703125 .00703125 .35 .0140625 .70 .028125 1.4
23/ 32 .71875 .0071875 .35 .014375 .71 .02875 1.4
47/ 64 .734375 .00734375 .36 .0146875 .73 .029375 1.4
3/ 4 .750 .0075 .37 .015 .75 .03 1.5
49/ 64 .765625 .00765625 .38 .0153125 .76 .030625 1.5
25/ 32 .78125 .0078125 .39 .015625 .78 .03125 1.5
51/ 64 .796875 .00796875 .39 .0159375 .79 .031875 1.5
13/ 16 .8125 .008125 .40 .01625 .81 .0325 1.6
53/ 64 .828125 .00828125 .41 .0165625 .82 .033125 1.6
27/ 32 .84375 .0084375 .42 .016875 .84 .03375 1.6
55/ 64 .859375 .00859375 .42 .0171875 .85 .034375 1.7
7/ 8 .875 .00875 .43 .0175 .87 .035 1.7
57/ 64 .890625 .00890625 .44 .0178125 .89 .035625 1.7
29/ 32 .90625 .0090625 .45 .018125 .90 .03625 1.8
59/ 64 .921875 .00921875 .46 .0184375 .92 .036875 1.8
15/ 16 .9375 .009375 .46 .01875 .93 .0375 1.8
61/ 64 .953125 .00953125 .47 .0190625 .95 .038125 1.9
31/ 32 .96875 .0096875 .48 .019375 .96 .03875 1.9
63/ 64 .984375 .00984375 .49 .0196875 .98 .039375 1.9
1 1 .01 .50 .02 1.0 .04 2.0
1- 1/ 64 1.015625 .01015625 .50 .0203125 1.0 .040625 2.0
1- 1/ 32 1.03125 .0103125 .50 .020625 1.0 .04125 2.0
1- 3/ 64 1.046875 .01046875 .50 .0209375 1.0 .041875 2.0
1- 1/ 16 1.0625 .010625 .50 .02125 1.0 .0425 2.1
1- 5/ 64 1.078125 .01078125 .50 .0215625 1.0 .043125 2.1
1- 3/ 32 1.09375 .0109375 .50 .021875 1.0 .04375 2.1
1- 7/ 64 1.109375 .01109375 .55 .0221875 1.1 .044375 2.2
1- 1/ 8 1.125 .01125 .55 .0225 1.1 .045 2.2
1- 9/ 64 1.140625 .01140625 .55 .0228125 1.1 .045625 2.2
1- 5/ 32 1.15625 .0115625 .55 .023125 1.1 .04625 2.3
1- 11/ 64 1.171875 .01171875 .55 .0234375 1.1 .046875 2.3
1- 3/ 16 1.1875 .011875 .55 .02375 1.1 .0475 2.3
1- 13/ 64 1.203125 .01203125 .60 .0240625 1.2 .048125 2.4
1- 7/ 32 1.21875 .0121875 .60 .024375 1.2 .04875 2.4
1- 15/ 64 1.234375 .01234375 .60 .0246875 1.2 .049375 2.4
1- 1/ 4 1.25 .0125 .60 .025 1.2 .05 2.5

2- 2-
MATERIAL THICKNESS THICKNESS 2- THICKNESS
PENNY PENNY
THICKNESS @ 1% @ 2% PENNY @ 4%
EQV EQV
1- 17/ 64 1.265625 .01265625 .60 .0253125 1.2 .050625 2.5
1- 9/ 32 1.28125 .0128125 .60 .025625 1.2 .05125 2.5
1- 19/ 64 1.296875 .01296875 .60 .0259375 1.2 .051875 2.5
1- 5/ 16 1.3125 .013125 .65 .02625 1.3 .0525 2.6
1- 21/ 64 1.328125 .01328125 .65 .0265625 1.3 .053125 2.6
1- 11/ 32 1.34375 .0134375 .65 .026875 1.3 .05375 2.6
1- 23/ 64 1.359375 .01359375 .65 .0271875 1.3 .054375 2.7
1- 3/ 8 1.375 .01375 .65 .0275 1.3 .055 2.7
1- 25/ 64 1.390625 .01390625 .65 .0278125 1.3 .055625 2.7
1- 13/ 32 1.40625 .0140625 .70 .028125 1.4 .05625 2.8
1- 27/ 64 1.421875 .01421875 .70 .0284375 1.4 .056875 2.8
1- 7/ 16 1.4375 .014375 .70 .02875 1.4 .0575 2.8
1- 29/ 64 1.453125 .01453125 .70 .0290625 1.4 .058125 2.9
1- 15/ 32 1.46875 .0146875 .70 .029375 1.4 .05875 2.9
1- 31/ 64 1.484375 .01484375 .70 .0296875 1.4 .059375 2.9
1- 1/ 2 1.5 .015 .75 .03 1.5 .06 3.0
1- 33/ 64 1.515625 .01515625 .75 .0303125 1.5 .060625 3.0
1- 17/ 32 1.53125 .0153125 .75 .030625 1.5 .06125 3.0
1- 35/ 64 1.546875 .01546875 .75 .0309375 1.5 .061875 3.0
1- 9/ 16 1.5625 .015625 .75 .03125 1.5 .0625 3.1
1- 37/ 64 1.578125 .01578125 .75 .0315625 1.5 .063125 3.1
1- 19/ 32 1.59375 .0159375 .75 .031875 1.5 .06375 3.1
1- 39/ 64 1.609375 .01609375 .80 .0321875 1.6 .064375 3.2
1- 5/ 8 1.625 .01625 .80 .0325 1.6 .065 3.2
1- 41/ 64 1.640625 .01640625 .80 .0328125 1.6 .065625 3.2
1- 21/ 32 1.65625 .0165625 .80 .033125 1.6 .06625 3.3
1- 43/ 64 1.671875 .01671875 .80 .0334375 1.6 .066875 3.3
1- 11/ 16 1.6875 .016875 .80 .03375 1.6 .0675 3.3
1- 45/ 64 1.703125 .01703125 .85 .0340625 1.7 .068125 3.4
1- 23/ 32 1.71875 .0171875 .85 .034375 1.7 .06875 3.4
1- 47/ 64 1.734375 .01734375 .85 .0346875 1.7 .069375 3.4
1- 3/ 4 1.75 .0175 .85 .035 1.7 .07 3.5
1- 49/ 64 1.765625 .01765625 .85 .0353125 1.7 .070625 3.5
1- 25/ 32 1.78125 .0178125 .85 .035625 1.7 .07125 3.5
1- 51/ 64 1.796875 .01796875 .85 .0359375 1.7 .071875 3.5
1- 13/ 16 1.8125 .018125 .90 .03625 1.8 .0725 3.6
1- 53/ 64 1.828125 .01828125 .90 .0365625 1.8 .073125 3.6
1- 27/ 32 1.84375 .0184375 .90 .036875 1.8 .07375 3.6
1- 55/ 64 1.859375 .01859375 .90 .0371875 1.8 .074375 3.7
2- 2-
PENNY PENNY
EQV EQV
1- 7/ 8 1.875 .01875 .90 .0375 1.8 .075 3.7
1- 57/ 64 1.890625 .01890625 .90 .0378125 1.8 .075625 3.7
1- 29/ 32 1.90625 .0190625 .95 .038125 1.9 .07625 3.8
1- 59/ 64 1.921875 .01921875 .95 .0384375 1.9 .076875 3.8
1- 15/ 16 1.9375 .019375 .95 .03875 1.9 .0775 3.8
1- 61/ 64 1.953125 .01953125 .95 .0390625 1.9 .078125 3.9
1- 31/ 32 1.96875 .0196875 .95 .039375 1.9 .07875 3.9
1- 63/ 64 1.984375 .01984375 .95 .0396875 1.9 .079375 3.9
2 2 .02 1.0 .04 2.0 .08 4.0
2- 1/ 64 2.015625 .02015625 1.0 .0403125 2.0 .080625 4.0
2- 1/ 32 2.03125 .0203125 1.0 .040625 2.0 .08125 4.0
2- 3/ 64 2.046875 .02046875 1.0 .0409375 2.0 .081875 4.0
2- 1/ 16 2.0625 .020625 1.0 .04125 2.0 .0825 4.1
2- 5/ 64 2.078125 .02078125 1.0 .0415625 2.0 .083125 4.1
2- 3/ 32 2.09375 .0209375 1.0 .041875 2.0 .08375 4.1
2- 7/ 64 2.109375 .02109375 1.0 .0421875 2.1 .084375 4.2
2- 1/ 8 2.125 .02125 1.0 .0425 2.1 .085 4.2
2- 9/ 64 2.140625 .02140625 1.0 .0428125 2.1 .085625 4.2
2- 5/ 32 2.15625 .0215625 1.0 .043125 2.1 .08625 4.3
2- 11/ 64 2.171875 .02171875 1.0 .0434375 2.1 .086875 4.3
2- 3/ 16 2.1875 .021875 1.0 .04375 2.1 .0875 4.3
2- 13/ 64 2.203125 .02203125 1.1 .0440625 2.2 .088125 4.4
2- 7/ 32 2.21875 .0221875 1.1 .044375 2.2 .08875 4.4
2- 15/ 64 2.234375 .02234375 1.1 .0446875 2.2 .089375 4.4
2- 1/ 4 2.25 .0225 1.1 .045 2.2 .09 4.5
2- 17/ 64 2.265625 .02265625 1.1 .0453125 2.2 .090625 4.5
2- 9/ 32 2.28125 .0228125 1.1 .045625 2.2 .09125 4.5
2- 19/ 64 2.296875 .02296875 1.1 .0459375 2.2 .091875 4.5
2- 5/ 16 2.3125 .023125 1.1 .04625 2.3 .0925 4.6
2- 21/ 64 2.328125 .02328125 1.1 .0465625 2.3 .093125 4.6
2- 11/ 32 2.34375 .0234375 1.1 .046875 2.3 .09375 4.6
2- 23/ 64 2.359375 .02359375 1.1 .0471875 2.3 .094375 4.7
2- 3/ 8 2.375 .02375 1.1 .0475 2.3 .095 4.7
2- 25/ 64 2.390625 .02390625 1.1 .0478125 2.3 .095625 4.7
2- 13/ 32 2.40625 .0240625 1.2 .048125 2.4 .09625 4.8
2- 27/ 64 2.421875 .02421875 1.2 .0484375 2.4 .096875 4.8
2- 7/ 16 2.4375 .024375 1.2 .04875 2.4 .0975 4.8
2- 29/ 64 2.453125 .02453125 1.2 .0490625 2.4 .098125 4.9
2- 15/ 32 2.46875 .0246875 1.2 .049375 2.4 .09875 4.9
2- 31/ 64 2.484375 .02484375 1.2 .0496875 2.4 .099375 4.9
2- 2-
PENNY PENNY
EQV EQV
2- 1/ 2 2.5 .025 1.2 .05 2.5 .1 5.0
2- 33/ 64 2.515625 .02515625 1.2 .0503125 2.5 .100625 5.0
2- 17/ 32 2.53125 .0253125 1.2 .050625 2.5 .10125 5.0
2- 35/ 64 2.546875 .02546875 1.2 .0509375 2.5 .101875 5.0
2- 9/ 16 2.5625 .025625 1.2 .05125 2.5 .1025 5.1
2- 37/ 64 2.578125 .02578125 1.2 .0515625 2.5 .103125 5.1
2- 19/ 32 2.59375 .0259375 1.2 .051875 2.5 .10375 5.1
2- 39/ 64 2.609375 .02609375 1.3 .0521875 2.6 .104375 5.2
2- 5/ 8 2.625 .02625 1.3 .0525 2.6 .105 5.2
2- 41/ 64 2.640625 .02640625 1.3 .0528125 2.6 .105625 5.2
2- 21/ 32 2.65625 .0265625 1.3 .053125 2.6 .10625 5.3
2- 43/ 64 2.671875 .02671875 1.3 .0534375 2.6 .106875 5.3
2- 11/ 16 2.6875 .026875 1.3 .05375 2.6 .1075 5.3
2- 45/ 64 2.703125 .02703125 1.3 .0540625 2.7 .108125 5.4
2- 23/ 32 2.71875 .0271875 1.3 .054375 2.7 .10875 5.4
2- 47/ 64 2.734375 .02734375 1.3 .0546875 2.7 .109375 5.4
2- 3/ 4 2.75 .0275 1.3 .055 2.7 .11 5.5
2- 49/ 64 2.765625 .02765625 1.3 .0553125 2.7 .110625 5.5
2- 25/ 32 2.78125 .0278125 1.3 .055625 2.7 .11125 5.5
2- 51/ 64 2.796875 .02796875 1.3 .0559375 2.7 .111875 5.5
2- 13/ 16 2.8125 .028125 1.4 .05625 2.8 .1125 5.6
2- 53/ 64 2.828125 .02828125 1.4 .0565625 2.8 .113125 5.6
2- 27/ 32 2.84375 .0284375 1.4 .056875 2.8 .11375 5.6
2- 55/ 64 2.859375 .02859375 1.4 .0571875 2.8 .114375 5.7
2- 7/ 8 2.875 .02875 1.4 .0575 2.8 .115 5.7
2- 57/ 64 2.890625 .02890625 1.4 .0578125 2.8 .115625 5.7
2- 29/ 32 2.90625 .0290625 1.4 .058125 2.9 .11625 5.8
2- 59/ 64 2.921875 .02921875 1.4 .0584375 2.9 .116875 5.8
2- 15/ 16 2.9375 .029375 1.4 .05875 2.9 .1175 5.80
2- 61/ 64 2.953125 .02953125 1.4 .0590625 2.9 .118125 5.9
2- 31/ 32 2.96875 .0296875 1.4 .059375 2.9 .11875 5.9
2- 63/ 64 2.984375 .02984375 1.4 .0596875 2.9 .119375 5.9
3 3 .03 1.5 .06 3.0 .12 6.0
Basic Components of an X-ray Tube
High-voltage
Cathode Structure Power supply
Electron
Low-voltage Filament
beam
power
supply Target
Anode
Focusing cup Focal structure ⊕
spot
Tube
envelope
X-ray beam
Types of Scatter Radiation
Test piece
(a) Internal (b) Side (c) Back

scatter scatter scatter
Radiographic Film Interpretation
Arc strikes
DEFINITION:
Any localized heat-affected zone or change in the contour of the surface of the finished weld or adjacent
base metal resulting from an arc or heat generated by the passage of electrical energy between the surface of the
finished weld, base material and a current source, such as welding electrodes or magnetic particle inspection
electrodes.
RADIOGRAPHIC APPEARANCE:
A localized area, rounded or irregular, and generally found adjacent to the edge of the weld image on the
base metal. The density of the indication appears lighter when the discontinuity is convex from the addition of
filler metal with arc strikes resulting from SMAW process. The density of the indication appears darker when the
discontinuity is concave resulting from a gouging of the material with arc strikes resulting from the GTAW or
SMAW processes.
CAUSES:
• Not initiating the arc as required by the welding procedure.
• Accidentally striking an arc on the completed weld or base material.
• Engaging the magnetizing current prior to establishing firm contact with the test surface when using prods.
Moving or removing the prods from the test surface without disengaging the magnetizing current.
REMARKS/SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS:
• Arc strikes from welding and MT are generally revealed and dispositioned upon acceptance Visual inspection.
However, welding arc strikes may occur from another welding operation in the area after the VT/PT inspections
and prior to the RT. Arc strikes occurring in this sequence have a random location and can be found on the weld as
well as on the base metal.
• Arc strikes from MT will be difficult to detect by RT.
Visual inspection should always be performed to confirm arc strikes.
Burn through
DEFINITION:
A void or open hole extending into a backing ring or strip, fused
root or adjacent base metal.
An irregular localized area of darker density, often rounded,
generally found at the center of the weld image. If excessive globules of
the weld puddle resulting from the burn through, are present on the
inside of the weld joint, their appearance will have a lighter density due
to the additional weld metal. The nature of burn through is such that the
outline or edges of the indication may or may not be sharply defined.
CAUSES:
• Using a weld current higher than allowed by the welding procedure.
• Improperly preparing the tungsten electrode tip.
• Using too slow a welding speed of travel will cause overheating of the
weld puddle.
• Improper fit up of the weld joint (unacceptable root gap).
• The distinguishing feature between a burn through and a melt through
is that a burn through results in an open hole on the ID of the pipe.
• Burn through most often occur during the welding of the root pass, although it is possible for this discontinuity to
be introduced during the welding of the second layer.
• Burn through frequently occur during weld repairs, especially when the repair cavity is at the root depth.
• Visual inspection should always be performed, if possible, to confirm bum through.
Concavity
DEFINITION:
CAUSES:
Crack, crater
DEFINITION:
Generally a star shaped indication with irregular, feathery, twisting lines of darker density oriented within a
weld crater. The discontinuity is usually shallow, therefore, the indication may not be as pronounced as indications
produced from other types of cracking.
CAUSES:
• Improper termination of the welding arc by abruptly removing the arc.
• Not adhering to the parameters of the welding procedure.
• Incomplete filling of the weld crater.
• It is to be emphasized that although the discontinuity and resulting radiographic indication is generally star
shaped, crater cracking does not always take this shape.
• Random radiographic indications from crater cracking may be oriented in any direction to the weld axis.
Crack, longitudinal
(shown in the root)
DEFINITION:
Irregularly shaped, feathery, twisting lines of darker density
oriented along the axis of the weld.
CAUSES:
• Improper fit-up of joint.
• Contamination of base material.
• Violation of the welding procedures.
• Longitudinal cracks can occur throughout the weld; in the centerline,
fusion lines and in the root.
Cracking can, at times, be difficult to detect due to the geometric
principles of the radiographic technique.
Crack, transverse
DEFINITION:
Irregularly shaped, feathery, twisting lines of darker density
oriented perpendicular to the axis of the weld. Transverse cracks are
generally tight discontinuities, therefore producing subtle indications on
the radiograph.
CAUSES:
• Transverse cracks are generally the result of longitudinal shrinkage
strains acting on weld metal of low ductility. Most commonly found in
weld joints having a high degree of restraint.
• Cracks may be limited in size and completely within the weld metal,
but may also propagate from the weld metal into the adjacent heat
affected zone.
• Orientation and subtleness of the discontinuity can, at times, be
difficult to detect due to the geometric principles of the radiographic
technique.
• Cracking indications can be masked in the as-welded condition.
Crater pits
DEFINITION:
An approximately circular surface condition extending into the weld in an irregular manner.
The indication will appear as a circular dot with darker density, similar to porosity, in the root area of
consumable insert welds. However, due to the irregular nature of discontinuity, the edge of the indication is usually
not as defined as porosity. The irregularity of the discontintinuity can produce a "halo" effect on the edge of the
indication, distinguishing a crater pit from porosity. The radiographic indication from crater pits can range from
subtle to pronounced, depending on the severity of the pit.
CAUSES:
• Improper termination of the welding arc.
Not adhering to the parameters of the welding procedure.
• The indications from crater pits can be misinterpreted as porosity.
• Porosity can occur anywhere in the weld, while crater pits occur in the weld root area.
• Visual inspection should always performed, if possible to confirm crater pits.
• Additional radiography, e.g. putting the indication in the sidewall or profile view, may be employed to assist in
confirmation of the discontinuity.
Incomplete fusion of a consumable insert
DEFINITION:
Incomplete melting of the consumable insert without fusion and bonding to the base metal along one or
both sides of the consumable insert.
A uniform elongated band or localized bad of lighter density in the center of the weld image, oriented along
the axis of the weld. The width of the band appears approximately equal to the diameter of the consumable insert.
The indication may appear in the following ways

• The indication may appear with both edges straight with abrupt density transitions from the insert area to the base
material area. This indicates lack of filling or blending to the base metal, with both sides of the insert not fused.
• The indication may appear with one edge having a smooth, gradual density transition from the insert area to the
base material area and the other edge straight with an abrupt density transition from the insert area to the base
material area. This indicates the former edge is blended with fusion into the adjacent base metal and the latter edge
is not fused.
CAUSES:
• Improper fit up of the weld joint.
• Using too low a welding current.
• Using too fast of a travel speed.
• An incorrect torch angle.
An improper motion or weaving technique of the torch.
• Visual inspection should always be performed, where possible, to confirm incomplete fusion of the insert, when
viewed on radiographs.
Lack of fusion
DEFINITION:
Lack of complete fusion of some portion of the metal in a weld
joint with the adjacent metal. The adjacent metal may be either base
metal or previously deposited weld metal. When the discontinuity occurs
between a weld bead and the adjacent base metal, the term "lack of
sidewall fusion" is often used, does not occur in the root.
Irregularly edged, or straight and irregularly edged lines of
darker density oriented along the axis of the weld. If lack 6f fusion
occurs between weld beads, both edges of the indication may be
irregular as they indicate the weld puddle not fusing to the contour of the
previously deposited weld beads. If the lack of fusion occurs between a
weld bead and base metal, one edge of the indication will be straight, as
it indicates the weld puddle not fusing to the prepared base meal.
Sometimes the lines are interspersed with darker density spots, of
varying shapes, indicating voids resulting from the lack of fusion.
CAUSES:
• Insufficient welding current to melt the adjacent metal.
• Too fast a welding speed of travel will not allow for fusion to the
adjacent metal.
• Too fast a welding current to melt the adjacent metal.
• Improper torch or electrode angle may prohibit melting of the adjacent metal.
• Improper placement of weld passes may cause a sharp valley to form.
• Lack of proper access to the face of weld joint.
• Tightly adhering oxides resulting from improper cleaning of items to be welded.
• Lack of fusion on the under bead side of the weld, lying in a horizontal plane, tends to be undetectable but often
the sides of lack of fusion lines tend to curl out of the horizontal plane and are recorded on the radiograph.
• A distinguishing characteristic between lack of fusion and incomplete penetration is that lack of fusion can occur
anywhere in the weld and incomplete penetration occurs at the weld root.
Lack of penetration
(left – normal fit-up, right – mismatch)
DEFINITION:
Lack of penetration of the weld through the thickness of the joint or penetration which is less than
specified.
Straight, fine edged lines of darker density oriented along the axis of the weld in the area of the root. The
straightness of both edges of the indication's image and location in the center of the weld image help to distinguish
incomplete penetration from lack of fusion.
CAUSES:
• Insufficient welding current or to fast travel speed.
• Improper torch or electrode angle to melt the root land.
• In both backing ring joints and joints to be welded from both sides, improper placement of initial weld pass may
cause a sharp valley to form at the root weld.
• Joints welded from both sides, insufficient removal of the backside prior to welding.
• Occurs at the weld root and is always straight, as it is a RT indication of the actual weld joint preparation. The
indication can be prominent or subtle depending on the severity of the discontinuity.
Melt through
DEFINITION:
A convex or concave irregularity on the surface of a backing ring
or strip, fused root or adjacent base metal resulting from fusing completely
through a localized region but without development of a void or open
hole.
A localized area, usually rounded, and generally found at the
center of the weld image. The density of the indication appears lighter
when the discontinuity is convex and darker when the discontinuity is
concave.
CAUSES:
• Using a weld current higher than allowed by the welding procedure.
• Improperly preparing the tungsten electrode tip.
Using too slow a welding speed of travel will cause overheating.
Improper fit up of the weld joint (unacceptable root gap).
• The entire thickness of metal is melted or re-melted and deforms, no
hole or void develops as with a burn through.
• Melt through most often occurs during the welding of the root pass,
although it is possible for this discontinuity to be introduced during the welding of the second layer. Visual
inspection should always be performed, if possible, to confirm melt through.
Offset
(misalignment/mismatch, shown with LOP)
DEFINITION:
Lateral misalignment of two butt joint members of equal
thickness.
Offset on piping weld joints can appear on the film in different
ways. The radiographic image is dependent upon the orientation of the
offset to the beam of radiation. When the offset condition is parallel to
the beam of radiation, the offset image may appear as an abrupt
density change, generally half way across the width of the weld image.
When the offset condition is perpendicular to the beam of radiation,
and the entire image of the item is on the film, the offset image will
appear in the sidewall or profile view, as lateral misalignment of the
members with a high-low effect of the pipes' ID and OD.
CAUSES:
• Improper fit-up or fixturing may cause the members to be offset.
Improper welding block sequencing on the root pass.
• Visual inspection should always be performed to confirm questionable offset conditions when viewed on
radiographs.
Oxidation
DEFINITION:
A condition resulting from partial or complete lack of purge of a surface which is heated during welding
resulting in formation of oxide on the surface. This condition may range from slight oxidation through the
formation of heavy black scale to the extreme of a very rough surface having a rough crystalline appearance.
Highly irregular, low density area, with a wrinkled or sugared appearance in the center of the weld image.
The condition may extend for the entire circumference of the weld when there is a complete loss of purge. The
condition may only be localized, in one or more areas of the weld, occurring whenever the purge is partially
interrupted.
CAUSES:
• Loss of internal purge gas resulting in an unshielded molten weld puddle on the ID.
• High oxygen content in purge gas or path.
• Moisture in the area of the weld, due to inadequate drying of the purge path, leakage, etc...
• A visual inspection should always be performed, if possible, to confirm oxidation.
• Oxidation generally occurs during the flowing of the weld root. However, this condition may occur during
welding if there is a degree of root reflow, loss of purge, or moisture present. Oxidation frequently occurs during
weld repairs.
Overlap (re-entrant angle)
DEFINITION:
The protrusion of weld metal beyond the weld toes or weld root.
Overlap conditions on the OD of piping butt weld joints should be an extremely rare occurrence in as much
as a satisfactory VT and other surface inspections, such as PT or MT are required prior to RT. However, overlap
on the internal weld surface consumable insert piping weld butt joints can appear on the film in different ways. The
radiographic image is dependent upon the orientation of the overlap to the beam of radiation. When the overlap
condition is not located in the sidewall or profile view, the overlap image will appear consistent with that of
convexity with an abrupt density change at the fusion line of the weld root image. When the offset image is in the
sidewall or profile view, it will appear as roll over of the weld root reinforcement with an unsatisfactory blending
at the fusion line of the weld root image.
CAUSES:
• Too slow of a welding speed.
• Too low or too high of a welding current.
• Incorrect torch or electrode angle.
• Visual inspection should always be performed, where possible, to confirm questionable root surface conditions
when viewed on radiographs.
Porosity
(right – clustered porosity, bottom left – distributed porosity, bottom
right - aligned porosity in the root)
DEFINITION:
Gas pockets or voids in weld metal.
Usually spherically shaped areas of darker density and may be
scattered throughout single pass welds or throughout several passes of
multiple pass welds. Although usually spherical in shape, porosity may
also occur as nonspherical pockets and appear on the radiograph as
elongated voids, sometimes referred to as "piping or wormhole
porosity". The density of the indication varies directly with the diameter
or magnitude of the pore.
CAUSES:
• Faulty welding techniques such as using too long an arc with the
SMAW process.
• Improper cleaning of the weld joint.
None.
Root razorback condition
DEFINITION:
An oxide membrane, gray in color, with a sharp ridge or peak and ribs from the peak to the edge giving it a
herringbone effect. Also known as "reverse center line crease."
The image of root razorback is consistent with that of convexity with an associated herringbone appearance
and sharp peak at the center. The lightest density of the image is in the center and is dependent upon the height of
peaked condition. The density of the image gradually increases as the condition blends into the base metal.
CAUSES:
• Moisture in the area of the weld. Moisture in the purge gas.
• This is one of the most common root surface defects encountered when welding Ni-Cu and Ni-C-r-Fe.
• Visual inspection should always be performed, where possible, to confirm root razorback condition when viewed
on radiographs.
Root surface centerline crease
DEFINITION:
An intermittent or continuous peripheral centerline concavity formed on the root surface.
The image of centerline crease is consistent with that of concavity with an associated herringbone
appearance. If the crease has a notch or a questionable blending condition at the center, the image will crease
oriented along the axis of the weld.
CAUSES:
• Thick cover pass over a consumable insert that had minor concavity. Excessive welding current.
• Visual inspection should always be preformed, where possible to confirm questionable centerline crease when
viewed on radiograph.
• Approved workmanship sample radiographs may be employed to evaluate centerline crease when a visual
inspection is not possible.
Root surface concavity
DEFINITION:
A depression on the root surface of the weld, which may be due to
gravity, internal purge or shrinkage.
The image of concavity may appear as intermittent elliptical areas
or elongated bands of darker film density oriented along the axis of the
weld in the center of the weld image. The width of the image is consistent
with the weld root width. The darkest density of the concavity's image is
generally in the center and is dependent up6n the depth of the concavity.
The density of the image gradually decreases as the concavity blends into
the base metal.
CAUSES:
• Using too high of a welding current, too slow of a travel speed, or
extremely high purge gas flow rate.
• Visual inspection should always be preformed, where possible to
confirm questionable concavity when viewed on radiograph.
Root surface convexity
DEFINITION:
Reinforcement of the root surface of a butt-fused type weld.
The image of convexity may appear as intermittent elliptical areas or elongated bands of lighter film
density oriented along the axis of the weld in the center of the weld image. The width of the image is consistent
with the weld root width. The lightest density of the convexity's image is generally in the center and is dependent
upon the height of the convexity blends into the base metal.
CAUSES:
• Using to low or high of a welding current. Using too slow travel speed when welding.
• Visual inspection should always be performed, when possible, to confirm questionable convexity when viewed
on radiographs.
Slag
DEFINITION:
Non-metallic solid material entrapped in weld metal or
between weld metal and base metal.
Well defined, irregularly shaped, uniformly darker density
areas usually elongated along the axis of the weld.
CAUSES:
• Improper fit-up, such as inadequate bevel of the joint sides.
• Using too low a welding current for the size of electrode.
• Faulty welding techniques such as wrong electrode position or
orientation.
• Improper bead placement causing sharp valleys or undercutting
between the beads.
• Improper interpass cleaning of slag from the surface.
• Slag is a by-product of the burning of the flux covering on welding
roods. Thus, slag inclusions are associated with the SMAW process.
• Slag inclusions can occur throughout the weld, in the center of the
weld, in fusion lines and in the root.
Tungsten inclusion
DEFINITION:
Metallic tungsten inclusions in the weld deposit.
Irregularly shaped spots of low film density areas, usually
random in size and location. They are solid or liquid bits of tungsten
electrode from the TIG welding process that drop or are melted from the
electrode and become entrapped in the weld puddle. Tungsten inclusions
appear as low or light density areas on the radiograph because of the
differences of radiographic absorption between the inclusion and
surrounding metal. Tungsten is denser radiographically then the
surrounding metal and therefore absorbs more radiation. This, in turn,
allows fewer rays to reach the film.
CAUSES:
• Overheating the tungsten electrode due to excessive current for the
particular electrode size.
• Defective tungsten electrode (flaking of particles).
• Dipping the tungsten into the molten puddle.
None.
Undercut
DEFINITION:
An intermittent or continuous groove on the external surface of
the base metal along the edge of the weld.
An irregular, elongated area of darker density oriented along the
external fusion line of the weld image to the base metal.
CAUSES:
• Excessive welding current.
• Using too long an arc length will result in a gouging effect.
• Using excessive welding speed of travel.
• When using the GTAW process, adding an insufficient amount of filler
metal.
• An incorrect electrode angle can cause a gouging effect.
• External undercut is readily revealed and dispositioned upon
acceptance Visual inspection.
• Visual inspection should always be performed to confirm questionable
external undercut when viewed on radiographs.
Undercut, root
DEFINITION:
An intermittent or continuous groove in the internal
surface of the base metal, backing ring/strip along the edge of the
root of the weld.
An irregular, elongated area of darker density oriented
along the internal fusion line of the weld image to the base metal.
CAUSES:
• Excessive current during welding
• When using the GTAW process, adding an insufficient amount
of filler metal. An incorrect electrode angle can cause a gouging
effect.
• Radiographic evaluation of root undercut in backing ring joints
can be based on workmanship sample radiographs as well as the
use of slotted shims.
Weld splatter
DEFINITION:
In arc welding, the metal particles expelled during welding which do not form a part of the weld.
Small, rounded areas of lighter density generally found adjacent to the edge of the weld image on the base
metal.
CAUSES:
• There will be some weld spatter when using the SMAW process. However, long arcing is a factor.
• Lack of concentricity or damage to the electrode flux.
• Weld splatter is most commonly found when the SMAW welding process is employed.
• Weld spatter is generally revealed and dispositioned upon acceptance Visual inspection. However, weld spatter
may occur from another welding operation in the area after the acceptance VT/PT inspections and prior to the RT.
Probable Causes and Corrective Action for Automatic Film Processing
Q u ality o r A rtifia c P
t ro b a b le C au s e C o rrec tive A c tio n Q u a lity o r A rtifia ctP ro b ab le C a us e C o rre ctive A c tio n
D en sity to h ig h O ve rd e ve lo pm e n t D evelop e r te m pe ra ture to hGigh
u ide
. m a rks Im pro pe rly ad juste d gu idCehseck clea ra nc e b e tw e en
F o llow te m pe rature in pro ce sso r gu id e d evice s an d a dja cen t
re co m m en d a tio n s for ro llers or o th e r co m po n e nts
d e ve lo pe r a nd p roces so r used . a b ra sion s S top o r h es ita ting ro lle rsB e sure a ll rolle rs a re in th eir
R o ller
Im pro pe rly m ixe d ch em ica ls. pro pe r p os ition s, a nd tha t en d
F o llow in stru ction s fo r play is su fficien t fo r ro lle rs to
p rep e ra tion o f ch em ica ls tu rn fre e ly
D en sity to lo w U n d erd ev elop m e n t Im pro pe r rep len ishm e n t o f R a n do m scratche s Dorirt o n fe e d tray C le a n pro ce sso r fe e d tray
d e ve lo pe r. C he ck fo r clog gsp
edo ts freq u en tly w ith so ft clo th
stra ine rs o r p in ch ed tub b in g in
Irreg u la r de p osit C au se d b y d irt or If con d itio n is te m po rary, clea n
d e ve lo pe r rep len ish m e n t
p recip ita te in w ater w a sh ra ck an d rep la ce w a sh
system . D e ve lo p er tem p e ra tu re
sup p lie d to w a sh in g se ctio
w a nte r in p roces so r; d ra in w a sh
to lo w.F ollo w te m p e ra tu re
ta nk w he n sh u tting p roces so r
re co m m en d a tio n s for
do w n. If co n ditio n s p e rist, u se
d e ve lo pe r a nd p roces so r used .
filte rs in incom in g wa te r lin es
C o n ta m in atio n F ixer in de ve lo p m e nt ta nk s.D a rk lin es o r sp ots P re ssu re m arks ca u se d Cble y a n ro llers th ro u gh ly a n d

U se e xtre m e ca re w he n b u ild -u p o f fo re ign m a tter
m aintain pro p er cle ara nces
insta llin g or re m ovin g fixe r rack o n rolle rs o r by im pro pe r
in pro ce sso r. A lwa ys u se ro lle r cle ara nces , u su ally in
splas h gu a rd w h e n fixe r ra ck is d e ve lo pe r se ctio n
b e in g re m o ve d or re p la ce d. D o
n o t e xch an g e ra cks b e tw e en "B lack co m e ts" w ith ta ilsC le a n all e n tran ce a ssem b ly
fixe r an d d e velop e r e xte n ding in dire ctio n ofco m po n en ts . A p ply a lig h t c oa t
com p a rtm e n ts film tra vel cau se d by rust of ogrre a se to m icros witch
o th e r iron p a rticle s sp ring s an d te rm in als. If air
d rop p in g on film , u su a llycoantains
t iro n-b ea rin g d ust,
e n tran ce a ssem b ly filte r air su pp ly to p roc essin g
ro o m
C on tra st to lo w U n d erd ev elop m e n t S e e u nd e rd e ve lo pm e n t a b ov e "P i lin es" S o ca lled M o st co m m on ly in ne w ly-
b e ca us e th ey o ccu r 3.14in sta lled o r fre sh ly cle a ne d
tim e s the d ia m e te r o f a pro ce sso rs. T e n ds to
ro lle r a w ay fro m th e le a ddisa
in g pp e ar w ith u se
e d ge o f a film
C o n ta m in atio n S e e co n ta m in atio n ab o ve S trea ks A sso cia te d w ith tem p o oLo f n g in te rv al b etw ee n fe e ding
w o rk of film s. "d ela y stre a ks" ca used
Fog O ve rd e ve lo pm e n t D evelop e r te m pe ra ture to h igh . by in te rva l o f 15 m inu te s or
F o llow te m pe rature m ore in fee d in g of su cc esive
re co m m en d a tio n s for film s, w hich results in d ry in g of
d e ve lo pe r a nd p roces so r used . so lu tio n s o n p ro ce ss or ro lle rs
exp osed to air. W ip e do w n
exp osed w ith d am p c lo th a nd
pro ce ss a c le a ring she e t
be fo re ra d io gra ph s
P o o r drying P roc essin g U nd e re p le nish m e nt o f A sso cia te d w ith C lo g g e d d eve lop e r

solutio ns . C he ck fo r p in ch e d d e ve lo pm e n t re circulatio n sys te m . C ha n ge
tub in g in re ple nish m en t filte r ca rtridg e reg u la rly. C h e ck
system .In ad e qu a te w ashing . re circulatio n pu m p
C he ck flow o f wa sh w a te r
D rying D ry er tem p e ra tu re to A sso cia te d w ith d rye r D irty tu b es in d rye r. C lea n
low .F ollo w te m p era tu re drye r tu b es
re co m m en d a tio n s for
d e ve lo pe r a nd p roces so r used
Probable Causes and Corrective Action for Processed Radiographic Film
Qua lity or Artifia ctProba ble Ca use Corre ctive Action Qua lity or Artifia ctProba ble Ca use Corre ctive Action
Density to high Overexposure View with higher-intensity Contrast to high High subject contrast Increase tube voltage
light, check exposure (time
and radiation intensity); if as High film contrast Use a film with lower contrast
specified, reduce exposure by characteristics
30% or m ore
Contrast to low Low subject contrast Reduce tube voltage
Overdevelopm ent Reduce development tim e or Low film contrast Use a film with higher
developer tem perature contrast charteristics
Density to low Underexposure Check exposure (tim e and Underdevelopm ent Increase developm ent tim e or
radiation intensity); if a developer temperature.
sspecified, increase exposure Replace weak (depleted
by 40% or m ore developer)
Underdevelopm ent Increase developm ent tim e or
Finely m ottled fog Stale film Use fresh film
developer tem perature. Fog on edge or Defective cassette Discard cassette
Replace weak developer corner
Material between screen Remove m aterial Yellow stain Depleted developer Replace developer solution
and film
Poor definition Testpiece-to-film distanceIf possible, decrease Failure to use stop bath or
Use stop bath, or rinse
too long testpiece-to-film distance; if rinse throughly between developing
not, increase source-to-film and fixing
distance
Source-to-film distance toIncrease sourc-to-film Depleted fixer Replace fixer solution
short distance
Focal spot to large Use sm all focal spot or Dark circular m arks Film splashed with Im merse film in developer with
increase source-to-film developer prior to care
distance im mersion
Screens and film not in Ensure intim ate contact Dark spots or Insufficient fixing Use fresh fixer solution and
close contact between screens and film m arblelike areas proper fixing tim e
Film graininess too coarse
Use finer-grain film Dark branched lines Static discharge Unwrap film carefully. Do not
and spots rub film togther. Avoid clothing
productive of static electricity
Fog Light leaks in darkroom W ith darkroom unlighted, turn Dark fingerprints Touching undeveloped film W ash hands throughly and
on all lights in adjoining with chem ically dry, or use clean, dry rubber
Exposure to safelight room s; seal
Reduce any light
safelight leaksand
wattage Light fingerprints contam inated
Touching fingers film
undeveloped gloves
W ash hands throughly and
check filters with oily or greasy fingersdry, or use clean, dry rubber
gloves
Stored film inadequately Attach strip of lead to loadedDark spots or Developer contaminated Replace developer solution
protected from radiation film holder and place in film -streaks with metallic salts
storage area. Develop test Cresent shaped lightFaulty film handling Keep film flat during handling.
film after two to three weeks;areas Use only clean, dry film
if im age of strip is evident, hangers
improve radiation shielding inLight circular Air bubbles on film duringAgitate im m ediately upon
storage area patches developm ent im mersion of film in developer
Film exposed to heat, Store film in cool, dry place Circular or W ater or fixer splashed on
Avoid splashing film with
hum idity, or gases not subject to gases or vaporsdropshaped light film before development water or fixer solution
patches
Overdevelopm ent Reduce development tim e orLight spots or sreasDust or lint between Keep screens clean
developer tem perature screens and film
Developer contam inated Replace developer Sharply outlined lightNonuniform development Agitate film during
or dark areas development
Exposure during Do not inspect film during Reticulation (leatherTemperature gradients in M aintain all solutions at
processing processing until fixing is grain appearance) processing solutions uniform, constant temperature
com pleted
Frilling (loosening ofFixer solution to warm M aintain correct tem peratureFrilling (loosening ofFixer solution depleted Replace fixer solution
emulsions from film of the fixing solution em ulsions from film
base) base)

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Non-Destructive Testing

Visual Inspection (VT)

Liquid Penetrant Inspection (PT)

Magnetic Particle Testing (MT)

Ultrasonic Testing (UT)

Eddy Current Testing (ET)

Last Revision Date

iii Inspector’s Handbook

MIL-STD 2035 NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA

NSTP 1688 FABRICATION, WELDING AND INSPECTION SUBMARINE APPLICATIONS

MIL-STD 1689 FABRICATION, WELDING, AND INSPECTION OF SHIPS STRUCTURE

MIL-STD 22D WELDED JOINT DESIGN

NSTP CHAPTER 074 – VOLUME 2 NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING OF METALS QUALIFICATION

SCHEDULE 40 SCHEDULE 80 SCHEDULE 120

Decimal to Inches OD CL - 200 CL - 700 CL - 1650 CL - 3300 CL - 6000

NUMBER OF EXAMINATIONS LENGTH OF SECTION TO BE

NUMBER OF SPOT, SEAM, STUD,

Square Single J Single Bevel

Single Vee Double Bevel Single U

Basic Joints (Welding)

Examples: 10 + 26 X 7 - 2 = 10 +182 - 2 = 190

then the compound ratio is:

Prop is the equality of ratios. Thus,

25 : 2 = 100 : 8 and 25 X 8 = 2 X 100

Square/Rectangle = Length * Width

Triangle = Height * Base * 1/2

Weld Area Calculation

Structural Welds = Length * Width (measured)

Piping Welds = Circumference(OD*π ) * Width

Common Symbols and Terms

ID = Inside Diameter Sq. Area

< = Less Than (ie 6<9)

< = Equal To or Less Than

> = Equal To or Greater Than

Change decimal (0.0) to percent (%).

Change a fraction to a decimal.

Tm = Material Thickness, thickness of the thinner member

Ts = Specimen Thickness, thickness of the thinner member

Minimum Weld Throat Thickness = .7 x Tm

As shown in the illustration, the sides of the right-

Hypotenuse c; angle B b = c x sin B a = c x cos B A = 90° - B

Hypotenuse c; angle A b = c x cos A a = c x sin A B = 90° - A

work. Shielding gas is obtained from the

Flu x Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)

PIPE WALL PIPE WALL

Consumable Insert Common Defect Locations

PIPE WALL PIPE WALL

Seams Present in parent material Surface

Galling (cracks) Improper metal flow through the die Surface

Lack of Fusion Improper welding technique Subsurface

Undercut Improper welding technique Surface

Overlapping Weld overlaps parent material – not fused Surface

Bending Cracks Overstress of material Surface

Electroplating Cracks Relief of internal stress Surface

2. Adjust measuring faces, contact points, to fit item being measured.

1. Verify that the micrometer’s calibration

2. Attach ball if measuring curved

3. Adjust micrometer to fit the item being

SCREW EXTERNAL THREADS

Tap and Drill Size Chart

Fine Thread TAP Coarse Thread

Flow Chart For A Discontinuity

Crack or tear crack

Piping Welds = Circumference(ODπ ) Width